o Cells are highly organized units containing organelles, which perform specific

functions.
o The nucleus contains genetic material, and cytoplasm is the living material between
the nucleus and the cell membrane.

FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL

1. Cell metabolism and energy use- The
chemical reactions that occur within
cells are collectively called cell
metabolism.
2. Synthesis of molecules- Cells synthesize
various types of molecules, including
proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids.
3. Communication- Cells produce and
receive chemical and electrical signals
that allow them to communicate with
one another.
4. Reproduction and inheritance- Each cell
contains a copy of the genetic
information of the individual.

CELL MEMBRANE

o The cell membrane forms the outer boundary of the cell. It determines what enters
and leaves the cell.
o The cell membrane is composed of a double layer of phospholipid molecules in
which proteins float. The proteins function as membrane channels, carrier molecules,
receptor molecules, enzymes, and structural components of the membrane.
MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL MEMBRANE
o Cell membranes are selectively permeable, meaning that they allow some
substances, but not others, to pass into or out of the cells. Intracellular material has a
different composition than extracellular material, and the cell’s survival depends on
maintaining the difference.
o Movement through the cell membrane may be passive or active. Passive membrane
transport does not require the cell to expend energy.

DIFFUSION

o Diffusion is the movement of a solute

from an area of higher concentration
to an area of lower concentration
within a solvent. At equilibrium, the
distribution of molecules is uniform.
o A concentration gradient is the
concentration of a solute at one
point in a solvent minus the
concentration of that solute at
another point in the solvent divided
by the distance between the points.
o Lipid-soluble molecules pass through
the cell membrane readily by
dissolving in the lipid portion of the membrane. Small molecules and ions can pass
through membrane channels.

OSMOSIS

o Osmosis is the diffusion of water across

a selectively permeable membrane.
o Osmotic pressure is the force required
to prevent movement of water across
a selectively permeable membrane.
o In a hypotonic solution, cells swell (and
can undergo lysis); in an isotonic
solution, cells neither swell nor shrink; in
a hypertonic solution,cells shrink and
undergo cremation.
 Carrier-Mediated Transport Mechanisms
o Carrier-mediated transport is the movement of a substance across a membrane by
means of a carrier molecule. The substances transported tend to be large, water-
soluble molecules or ions.
o Facilitated diffusion moves substances from a higher to a lower concentration and
does not require energy in the form of ATP.
o Active transport can move substances from a lower to a higher concentration and
requires ATP.
o Secondary active transport uses the energy of one substance moving down its
concentration gradient to move another substance across the cell membrane. In
cotransport, both substances move in the same direction; in countertransport, they
move in opposite directions.

Endocytosis and Exocytosis

o Endocytosis is the movement of materials into cells by the formation of a vesicle.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis involves cell receptors attaching to molecules, which
are then transported into the cell. Phagocytosis is the movement of solid material into
cells. Pinocytosis is similar to phagocytosis, except that the material ingested is much
smaller and is in solution.
o Exocytosis is the secretion of materials from cells by vesicle formation.

ORGANELLES

NUCLEUS- The nucleus is a large organelle usually located near the center of the cell.

o The nuclear envelope consists of two separate membranes that form nuclear pores at
many points on the surface of the nucleus.
o DNA and associated proteins are found inside the nucleus as chromatin. DNA is the
hereditary material of the cell and controls cell activities.
o Nucleoli consist of RNA and proteins and are the sites of ribosomal subunit assembly.

Ribosomes- are the sites of protein synthesis.

o A ribosome is composed of one large and one small subunit.

Rough and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum-is a series of membranes forming sacs and tubules
that extends from the outer nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm

o Rough ER is ER with ribosomes attached. It is a major site of protein synthesis.

o Smooth ER does not have ribosomes attached and is a major site of lipid synthesis.

Golgi Apparatus- also called the Golgi complex, consists of closely packed stacks of
curved, membrane-bound sacs.

o The Golgi apparatus is a series of closely packed membrane sacs that collect, modify,
package, and distribute proteins and lipids produced by the ER.
Secretory Vesicles-are membrane-bound sacs that carry substances from the Golgi
apparatus to the cell membrane, where the vesicle contents are released.

Lysosomes and Peroxisomes- are membrane-bound sacs containing enzymes. Within the cell,
lysosomes break down phagocytized material. Peroxisomes break down fatty acids, amino
acids, and hydrogen peroxide.

Mitochondria- are the major sites for the production of ATP, which cells use as an energy
source. Mitochondria carry out aerobic respiration (requires O2).

Cytoskeleton-like the skeleton of the body, acts as the internal framework of the cell.

o The cytoskeleton supports the cytoplasm and organelles and is involved with cell
movements.
o The cytoskeleton is composed of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate
filaments.
o Microtubules- are hollow structures formed from protein subunits. The microtubules
perform a variety of roles, including helping to support the cytoplasm of cells, assisting
in cell division, and forming essential components of certain organelles, such as cilia
and flagella.
o Microfilaments- are small fibrils formed from protein sub units that structurally support
the cytoplasm, determining cell shape.
o Intermediate filaments- are fibrils formed from protein sub units that are smaller in
diameter than microtubules but larger in diameter than microfilaments. They provide
mechanical support to the cell.

Centrioles- is a specialized area of cytoplasm close to the nucleus where microtubule

formation occurs.

o Centrioles, located in the centrosome, are made of microtubules. They facilitate

chromosome movement during cell division.

Cilia, Flagella, and Microvilli

o Cilia move substances over the surface of cells.

o Flagella are much longer than cilia and propel sperm cells.
o Microvilli increase the surface area of cells and thus aid in absorption.

Whole-Cell Activity
o A cell’s characteristics are ultimately determined by the types of proteins it produces,
which are determined by the genetic information in the nucleus. Understanding how
genetic information is used in the cell and distributed to daughter cells is important for
understanding basic cellular activity.
 GENE EXPRESSION

o Cell activity is regulated by enzymes

(proteins), and DNA controls enzyme
production.
o During transcription, the sequence of
nucleotides in DNA (a gene) determines
the sequence of nucleotides in mRNA;
the mRNA moves through the nuclear
pores to ribosomes.
o During translation, the sequence of
codons in mRNA is used at ribosomes to
produce proteins. Anticodons of tRNA
bind to the codons of mRNA, and the
amino acids carried by tRNA are joined
to form a protein.

CELL CYCLE

o The cell cycle consists of a series of events that produce new cells for growth and for
tissue repair
o The cell cycle includes two major phases: a nondividing phase, called interphase,
and cell division.
o Interphase- During inter phase, the DNA is replicated. The two strands of DNA
separate from each other, and each strand serves as a template for the production
of a new strand of DNA. At the end of interphase, a cell has two complete sets of
genetic material. The DNA is dispersed throughout the nucleus as thin threads called
chromatin
o Cell Division -is the formation of daughter cells from a single parent cell. The new cells
necessary for growth and tissue repair are formed through mitosis, and the sex cells
necessary for reproduction are formed through meiosis. The 46 chromosomes are the
diploid number of chromosomes and are organized to form 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Of the 23 pairs, 1 pair is the sex chromosomes, which consist of 2 X chromosomes if the
person is a female or an X chromosome and a Y chromosome if the person is a male.

MITOSIS

o Most cells of the body, except those that give rise to sex cells, divide by mitosis .
o During mitosis, a parent cell divides to form two daughter cells with the same amount
and type of DNA as the parent cell.
o For convenience, mitosis is divided into four stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
and telophase.
 Prophase- each chromosome consists of two chromatids joined at the centromere.

Metaphase- chromosomes align at the center of the cell.

Anaphase- chromatids separate at the centromere and migrate to opposite poles.

Telophase- the two new nuclei assume their normal structure, and cell division is
completed, producing two new daughter cells.

Differentiation - A sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form a single cell, and a new individual
begins. The single cell formed during fertilization divides by mitosis to form two cells, which
divide to form four cells, and so on.

o The process by which cells develop specialized structures and functions, results from
the selective activation and inactivation of DNA sections. Apoptosis

Apoptosis - is the programmed death of cells. Apoptosis regulates the number of cells within
various tissues of the body.

o Apoptosis is regulated by specific genes. The proteins coded for by those genes
initiate events within the cell that ultimately lead to the cell’s death. As apoptosis
begins, the chromatin within the nucleus condenses and fragments. This is followed by
fragmentation of the nucleus and finally by death and fragmentation of the cell.
Specialized cells called macrophages phagocytize the cell fragments.

CELLULAR ASPECTS OF AGING

1. Cellular clock- One hypothesis of aging suggests the existence of a cellular clock
that, after a certain passage of time or a certain number of cell divisions, results in
the death of a given cell line. Death genes. Another hypothesis suggests that there
are “death genes,” which turn on late in life, or sometimes prematurely, causing
cells to deteriorate and die.
2. DNA damage- Other hypotheses suggest that, through time, DNA is damaged,
resulting in cell degeneration and death.
3. Free radicals- DNA is also susceptible to direct damage, resulting in mutations that
may result in cellular dysfunction and, ultimately, cell death. One of the major
sources of DNA damage is apparently free radicals, which are atoms or molecules
with an unpaired electron.
4. Mitochondrial damage- Mitochondrial DNA may be more sensitive to free-radical
damage than is nuclear DNA. Mitochondrial DNA damage may result in loss of
proteins critical to mitochondrial function.