Accepted Manuscript

Fractional Calculus via Laplace Transform and its Application in

Relaxation Processes

E. Capelas de Oliveira, S. Jarosz, J. VazJr.

PII: S1007-5704(18)30293-4
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cnsns.2018.09.013
Reference: CNSNS 4640

To appear in: Communications in Nonlinear Science and Numerical Simulation

Received date: 5 February 2018

Revised date: 17 June 2018
Accepted date: 11 September 2018

Please cite this article as: E. Capelas de Oliveira, S. Jarosz, J. VazJr., Fractional Calculus via Laplace
Transform and its Application in Relaxation Processes, Communications in Nonlinear Science and
Numerical Simulation (2018), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cnsns.2018.09.013

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Highlights
• A unifying approach to fractional derivatives based on the theories of distribu-
tions and of Laplace transform is provided, elucidating the relation between the
Riemann-Liouville and the Caputo definitions, and showing how these and other
definitions can be generalized.

• The application of fractional derivatives in relaxation processes based on different

definitions of fractional derivative is discussed. It is showed that models based on
two recently proposed definitions have to be discarded due to problems in matching
the initial conditions of the fractional differential equations.

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Fractional Calculus via Laplace Transform

and its Application in Relaxation Processes

E. Capelas de Oliveira1 , S. Jarosz2 and J. Vaz Jr.3

Departamento de Matemática Aplicada - IMECC
Universidade Estadual de Campinas
13083-859 Campinas, SP, Brazil

T
IP
Abstract
The fractional calculus has been receiving considerable in-

CR
terest in recent decades, mainly due to its several interesting
applications. In this paper we provide a very intuitive ap-
proach to the fractional calculus based on the Laplace trans-
form and ideas from the theory of distributions. Our ap-

US
proach reveals the deep relationship between the Riemann-
Liouville and the Caputo definitions of fractional derivative,
and opens the way for the formulation of other definitions,
AN
which we explore accordingly. As an example of its different
many applications, we use it to formulate some generaliza-
tions of a relaxation function model, and discuss some lim-
itations that these models impose on possible definitions of
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fractional derivatives, with focus on two recently proposed

definitions of fractional derivatives.
ED

1. Introduction
PT

Science studies nature mostly through the construction of models. The models can be of
phenomenological nature or can be based on theories, and specially in the case of physics,
they are written in mathematical language. Ever since the huge success of the application
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of the differential and integral calculus in the modelling of the motion of celestial bodies,
the calculus became the most important tool in physics for the modelling of physical
phenomena. However, the success of differential and integral calculus should not be seen
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as a reason to discourage the search for its possible generalizations; as a matter of fact,
the generalization of the concepts of derivative and of integral could be useful in the
modelling of processes that are not suitably described through the ordinary concepts of

1
capelas@ime.unicamp.br
2
stjarosz@gmail.com
3
vaz@ime.unicamp.br

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derivative and integral. The calculus of non-integer order, or fractional calculus as it is

usually called, is an effort in this direction.
The origin of fractional calculus can be traced back to 1695, when l’Hôpital wrote
a letter to Leibniz questioning the meaning of the symbol d1/2 y(t)/dt1/2 , which is in-
terpreted as a semiderivative of y(t) in relation to t [1]. For a long time the study
and development of a fractional calculus has been a subject of sporadic interest – an
assertion supported by the fact that the first international congress on the subject was
held almost three centuries later (New Haven, 1974) [2] –, but nowadays the interest
in fractional calculus has grown [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. There are many interesting ap-
plications of fractional calculus, like for example in the modelling of processes such as
anomalous diffusion [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16] (with applications in many different areas

T
[17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22]), dissipation [23, 24, 25, 26], relaxation [27, 28, 29], control theory

IP
[30, 31, 32], etc, as well as in formulation of fractional versions of physical theories [33],
like for example fractional quantum mechanics [34, 35, 36, 37].
It is important to notice however that one can find several different definitions in-

CR
volving the fractional versions of the integral and the derivative operators [38]. In this
scenario, it is essential to organize the ideas and clearly settle the rules that a definition
of fractional integrodifferential operator has to satisfy. This issue has been discussed

US
in [39]. The so-called Riemann-Liouville and Caputo derivatives [40, 41, 42] are exam-
ples of fractional derivatives satisfying the criteria of [39], and they are indeed the most
common ones found in the applications of fractional calculus. However, the presenta-
AN
tion of the Riemann-Liouville and the Caputo derivatives as formal definitions, in spite
of being an incontestable formal procedure, lacks motivation and leaves aside the con-
structive aspects of these generalizations. The objective of this paper is to provide an
introduction to the fractional calculus, and particularly to the Riemann-Liouville and
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the Caputo derivatives, that can be done using the Laplace transform and the theory
of the Dirac delta function, and which can be easily generalized. It is closely related to
the approach of [43]. In spite of its simplicity, our approach reveals the deep relation
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between these two generalizations of the derivative concept. We aim to unfold this re-
lationship and to pave the way to expose this formalism in one of its many interesting
applications. We should also note that if we are interested only in the Caputo derivative,
PT

its possible generalizations have been studied in [44] in terms of the theory of complete
Bernstein functions, proving results concerning the existence and uniqueness of solutions
of relaxation and diffusion equations.
CE

This paper has been organized as follows. In section 2 we briefly discuss some impor-
tant issues from the theory of distributions that will be useful in this work, with special
attention to the Laplace transform and the relation between the derivatives in the distri-
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bution sense and in the ordinary sense. In section 3 we exploit the former discussion in
order to define a fractional distributional derivative and from it the Riemann-Liouville
and the Caputo versions of the fractional derivative. In section 4 we briefly discuss
how our approach can be generalized in order to encompass other possible definitions
of fractional derivatives. In section 5 we apply the concept of fractional derivative in
order to construct some models for a relaxation process that generalize the usual expo-
nential law and which include as special cases other known models in the literature. In

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section 6 we present our conclusions. In appendix A we give a slightly generalization

of definitions of the Riemann-Liouville and Caputo derivatives for arbitrary intervals.
In appendix B we study particular cases of problems with some definitions of fractional
derivatives addressed in section 5.

2. Sketches from distribution theory

The distribution theory of Schwartz [45] is one of the greatest mathematical achievements
of the XX Century, with many applications in Physics, mostly because of the prominent
role played by the Dirac delta function. Schwartz’s idea was to define a distribution

T
as a continuous linear functional acting on a space of test functions D, which consists
of smooth functions with compact support on R. The Dirac delta function δ(t − t0 ) is

IP
defined in such a way that [46, 47]
hδ(t − t0 ), φ(t)i = φ(t0 ), (1)

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where φ(t) ∈ D. Locally integrable functions f (t) define regular distributions {f (t)}
through Z
h{f (t)}, φ(t)i =

The space of distributions is denoted by D .

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f (t)φ(t) dt.
0
R
(2)

The distribution theory not only places the definition of the delta function on a solid
AN
ground, but also allows us to perform operations on it, like for example calculating its
derivative or its Fourier and Laplace transforms. The derivative T 0 of a distribution T
is defined as [46, 47]
M

hT 0 (t), φ(t)i = −hT (t), φ0 (t)i. (3)

It follows that
hδ 0 (t − t0 ), φ(t)i = −φ0 (t0 ). (4)
ED

This definition is easily generalized to higher orders and it follows that

hδ (n) (t − t0 ), φ(t)i = (−1)n φ(n) (t0 ). (5)
PT

The Fourier transform F [T ] of a distribution T is defined as

hF [T (t)](ω), φ(ω)i = hT (t), F [φ(ω)](t)i, (6)
CE

where F [φ(ω)](t) is the usual definition of the Fourier transform for ordinary functions.
Since F [D] 6⊂ D (that is, the Fourier transform of a function with compact support does
not have compact support), we have to enlarge the set of test functions in order to this
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definition makes sense. We do this by defining the set of test functions of slow growth S
as the set of smooth functions that decreases together with their derivatives, as |t| → ∞,
faster than any power of |t|−1 . Clearly D ⊂ S , and Schwartz proved that F [S ] ⊂ S .
Continuous linear functionals acting on S are called tempered distributions and its
space is denoted by S 0 . Note that S 0 ⊂ D. It follows from the above definitions that
F [T 0 (t)](ω) = −iωF [T (t)](ω). (7)

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2.1. Derivative of functions with jump discontinuities

The distributional derivative of functions with jump discontinuities is discussed in details
in [47], and it is a fundamental issue for what follows. Let us consider the regular
distribution {f (t)} associated with a function with a discontinuity located at t0 , that is,
Z t−
0
Z ∞
h{f (t)}, φ(t)i = f (t)φ(t) dt + f (t)φ(t) dt. (8)
−∞ t+
0

The derivative {f (t)}0 in the distributional sense is given by

Z t− Z ∞

T
0
0 0 0
h{f (t)} , φ(t)i = −hf (t), φ (t)i = − f (t)φ (t) dt − f (t)φ0 (t) dt, (9)
t+

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−∞ 0

and after integration by parts, we can write that

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{f (t)}0 = {f 0 (t)} + ∆f (t0 )δ(t − t0 ), (10)

where {f 0 (t)} is the regular distribution associated with the usual derivative of the
ordinary function f (t) and

with
∆f (t0 ) = f (t+ −
0 ) − f (t0 ) US (11)
AN
f (t±
0 ) = lim+ f (t0 ± ). (12)
→0

It can be generalized recursively as

M

n−1
X
(n) (n)
{f (t)} = {f (t)} + ∆f (k) (t0 )δ (n−1−k) (t − t0 ). (13)
k=0
ED

Now let us consider t0 = 0. Then we have

{f (t)}0 = {f 0 (t)} + [f (0+ ) − f (0− )]δ(t). (14)

PT

For a causal function f (t) we have f (0− ) = 0 and f (0+ ) = f (0) [48, 49], and its derivative
in the distributional sense is
CE

{f (t)}0 = {f 0 (t)} + f (0)δ(t). (15)

The generalization for higher derivatives is

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n−1
X
(n) (n)
{f (t)} = {f (t)} + f (k) (0)δ (n−1−k) (t). (16)
k=0

Eq.(15) and eq.(16) are very important results and are key formulas in our approach to
fractional derivatives (section 3).

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2.2. The Laplace transform

The Laplace transform is defined for distributions with support bounded on the left
at 0, which we denote by D+0 – in other words, we are considering distributions which
vanishes at t < 0 (for technical details concerning how to define this for distributions,
see [46, 47]). For ordinary functions, we consider causal functions. Let us also define
S+0 = D+0 ∩S 0 and D+0 (a) = {f ∈ D+0 |f (t)e−σt ∈ S+0 for σ > a}. The Laplace transform
0
L [T (t)](s) of a distribution T (t) ∈ D+ (a) can be defined as
L [T (t)](s) = F [T (t)e−σt ](k), with s = σ − ik. (17)
It follows from this definition that the Laplace transform of the Dirac delta function is

T
L [δ(t − t0 )](s) = e−st0 , (18)

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and that
L [T 0 (t)](s) = sL [T (t)](s). (19)

CR
The latter property apparently contrasts with the well-known property involving the
Laplace transform of the derivative of an ordinary function, that is,

US
L [f 0 (t)](s) = sL [f (t)](s) − f (0). (20)
This situation can be cleared after considering the expression for the derivative of a
discontinuous function. From eq.(14) we have
AN
L [{f (t)}0 ] = L [{f 0 (t)}] + [f (0+ ) − f (0− )]. (21)
Let us remember that the theory of Laplace transform involves causal functions [48, 49].
M

Then, if we use eq.(15) in eq.(19), and since L [δ(t)] = 1, we obtain eq.(20) with the
identification {f 0 (t)} = f 0 (t)H(t), where H(t) is the Heaviside step function.
ED

Remark: We can interpret eq.(21) in terms of the usual theory of the Laplace transform
once we define L± as Z ∞
L± [f (t)] = lim+ e−st f (t) dt. (22)
→0 ±
PT

Then, after an usual integration by parts, we obtain that

L± [f 0 (t)] = sL± [f (t)] − f (0± ). (23)
CE

If we compare the above equations with eq.(21) and take into account that L− [f (t)] =
L+ [f (t)], we see that eq.(21) can be interpreted in terms of the usual theory of Laplace
transform once we make the identifications
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L− [f 0 (t)] = L [{f (t)}0 ],

(24)
L+ [f 0 (t)] = L [{f 0 (t)}].
This difference between L+ and L− is important. Although L− [f (t)] = L+ [f (t)], this
distinction reflects in the formulas involving f 0 (t), which has noticeable consequences,
as discussed in [48].

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2.3. Gelfand-Shilov distribution

The so-called Gelfand-Shilov distribution, denoted by Gν (t), is defined as
tν−1
+ tν−1
Gν (t) = = H(t), ν > 0, (25)
Γ(ν) Γ(ν)
where H(t) is the Heaviside step function, t+ = tH(t), and

Gν (t) = G0ν+1 (t), ν ≤ 0, (26)

with the derivative calculated in the distribution sense. Consequently, since G1 (t) =
H(t), we have G0 (t) = δ(t). It follows that

T
L [Gν (t)] = s−ν ,

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ν > 0, (27)

and from eq.(19), we also have

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L [Gν (t)] = s−ν , ν ≤ 0. (28)

Then, from the convolution theorem, it follows that

An important and usuful property is [46, 47]

US
Gµ (t) ? Gν (t) = Gµ+ν (t). (29)
AN
tν−1
+
lim Gν (t) = lim = δ(t). (30)
ν→0 ν→0 Γ(ν)
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3. Laplace transform and fractional derivatives

It is well-known that
ED

Z t 
1
L f (τ ) dτ = L [f (t)]. (31)
0 s
If we use the notations
PT

Z t
D−1
t [f (t)] = f (τ ) dτ,
0 (32)
CE

0
D1t [f (t)] = Dt [f (t)] = {f (t)} ,

we can write eq.(19) and eq.(31) as

AC

L [D1t f (t)](s) = s1 L [f (t)](s),

(33)
L [D−1 −1
t f (t)](s) = s L [f (t)](s).

A possible generalization of these relations gives the definition of a fractional inte-

grodifferential operator Dαt f (t) satisfying

L [Dαt f (t)](s) = sα L [f (t)](s), (34)

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with −1 ≤ α ≤ 1. For particular cases (α = 0 is trivial), α = 1 and α = −1, we recover

Laplace transform associated with the derivatives and the integral, respectively. Using
the corresponding inverse Laplace transform in eq.(34) we can write
Dαt f (t) = L −1 {sα L [f (t)]} . (35)
Let us exploit this expression. Firstly, let us suppose that 0 < α ≤ 1. We can
rearrange eq.(35) in three different ways,

Dαt f (t) = L −1 s sα−1 L [f (t)]
  
  

 L −1
s L [G1−α (t)] · L [f (t)] ,



T

  
   (36)
−1
= L s L [G1−α (t)] · L [f (t)] ,

IP



  

  

L −1
L [G1−α (t)] · s L [f (t)] ,

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which can be written, after using eq.(19) and the convolution theorem, as
 
L −1







US
s L [G1−α (t)] ? f (t)] = {G1−α (t) ? f (t)}0 ,


AN
−1
L L [{G1−α (t)} ] · L [f (t)] = {G1−α (t)}0 ? f (t),
0
(37)

 
−1
 
L L [G1−α (t)] · L [{f (t)} ] = G1−α (t) ? {f (t)}0 .
0
M

The equivalence of these three different expressions is expected due to the well-known
result that (f ? g)0 = f 0 ? g = f ? g 0 .
ED

We define the fractional distributional derivative of order α for 0 < α ≤ 1 as

Z t
α 0 1 f (τ )
Dt [f (t)] = {G1−α (t) ? f (t)} = Dt dτ. (38)
PT

Γ(1 − α) α
0 (t − τ )

We can easily generalize this procedure for n = dαe = min{n ∈ Z | n ≥ α}, by writing
sα = sn sα−n in place of sα = ssα−1 in eq.(36). We define the fractional distributional
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derivative of order α as
Z t
α (n) 1 n f (τ )
Dt [f (t)] = {Gn−α (t) ? f (t)} = (Dt ) dτ, (39)
AC

Γ(n − α) α−n+1
0 (t − τ )

where n = dαe and in the limit α → n we use eq.(30).

The Caputo derivative and the Riemann-Liouville derivative follow from the fractional
distributional derivative using the relations given by eq.(15) and eq.(16). The fractional
distributional derivative can also be written as
Dαt [f (t)] = G1−α (t) ? {f (t)}0 (40)

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and if we use eq.(15), we obtain that

f (0)t−α
+
Dαt [f (t)] = C Dαt [f (t)] + , (41)
Γ(1 − α)

where we define the Caputo fractional derivative of ordem α as

Z t
α 0 1 f 0 (τ )
C Dt [f (t)] = G1−α (t) ? {f (t)} = dτ. (42)
Γ(1 − α) 0 (t − τ )α

Since t−α
+ /Γ(1 − α) → δ(t) for α → 1, we can interpret eq.(41) as the generalization of
eq.(15) for the case of a fractional derivative. In other words, the fractional distributional

T
derivative is the fractional generalization of the derivative in the distribution sense, while

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the Caputo derivative is the fractional generalization of the derivative in the ordinary
sense [50]. The generalization of eq.(42) is

CR
Z t
α (n) 1 f (n) (τ )
C Dt [f (t)] = Gn−α (t) ? {f (t)} = dτ, (43)
Γ(n − α) 0 (t − τ )α−n+1

where n = dαe, and the generalization of eq.(41) is

Dαt [f (t)] = α
C Dt [f (t)]
US+
n−1
X f (k) (0)
tk−α , (44)
AN
k=0
Γ(k − α + 1) +

where we used eq.(16) and

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(n−1−k)
Gn−α ? δ (n−1−k) (t) = Gn−α (t) ? δ(t)
tk−α
+
(45)
= Gk+1−α (t) = .
ED

Γ(k − α + 1)

Moreover, since
 (n)
tk+
PT

(n−1−k)
δ (t) = , (46)
k!
we can also write
CE

 (n)
tk
Gn−α (t) ? δ (t) = Gn−α (t) ? +
(n−1−k)
k!
 (n)   (47)
AC

tk tk
= Gn−α (t) ? + = Dαt + ,
k! k!

and then " #

n−1 (k)
X f (0)
C Dαt [f (t)] = Dαt f (t) − tk+ . (48)
k=0
k!

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We define the Riemann-Liouville derivative as

RL Dαt [f (t)] = (Gn−α (t) ? f (t))(n) . (49)

The difference between the fractional distributional derivative and the Riemann-Liouville
derivative follows from eq.(16), and it gives
n−1
X
Dαt [f (t)] = α
RL Dt [f (t)] + (Gn−α (t) ? f (t))(k) (0)δ (n−1−k) (t). (50)
k=0

Since δ(t) = 0 for t > 0, we can write

T
Dαt [f (t)] = RL Dαt [f (t)], t > 0. (51)

IP
Remark: It is also important to consider the Laplace transform of the different defini-
tions of fractional derivatives. By construction, the Laplace transform of the fractional

CR
distributional derivative is

L [ Dαt [f (t)]] = sα L [f (t)]. (52)

US
The Laplace transform of the Caputo derivative follows using eq.(44), that is,

L [ C Dαt [f (t)]] = sα L [f (t)] −

n−1
X
sα−1−k f (k) (0). (53)
AN
k=0

The Laplace transform of the Riemann-Liouville derivative is

M

n−1
X
L [ RL Dαt [f (t)]] α
= s L [f (t)] − sn−1−k (Gn−α (t) ? f (t))(k) (0). (54)
k=0
ED

This expression for the Laplace transform of RL Dαt [f (t)] clearly shows why it has not so
much interest in physics; indeed, while in eq.(53) we have the presence of the derivatives
f (k) (0), which have an obvious interpretation in terms of an initial value problem, in
PT

eq.(54) we have the terms (Gn−α (t) ? f (t))(k) (0), which lack any apparent interpretation.

4. Possible generalizations
CE

Our approach to the fractional integrodifferential operator was based on choosing eq.(34)
as a generalization of eq.(33). However, if we look to that situation from a more general
AC

point of view, we can think of other possible generalizations; that is, let us look for a
fractional integrodifferential operator defined in terms of a function Φ(s, α) as

L [Dαt f (t)](s) = Φ(s, α)L [f (t)](s), (55)

and such that Φ(s, 1) = s, Φ(s, 0) = 1 and Φ(s, −1) = s−1 . Then eq.(34) was based on
the very natural choice Φ(s, α) = sα . However, other choices are also possible.

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In order to exemplify our idea, let us consider the slightly more modest task of defining
a fractional differential operator for 0 ≤ α ≤ 1. If we write Φ(s, α) in the form
Φ(s, α) = sψ(s, α), (56)
where ψ(s, 1) = 1 and ψ(s, 0) = s−1 , then, following the same steps of section 3, we
obtain that Z t
∗ α
Dt [f (t)] = Dt Ψ(t − τ, α)f (τ ) dτ, (57)
0
where
L [Ψ(t, α)] = ψ(s, α) (58)

T
and we have used the asterisk to distinguish this new case. A Caputo-like fractional
derivative, in analogy to eq.(42), is

IP
Z t
∗ α
C Dt [f (t)] = Ψ(t − τ, α)f 0 (τ ) dτ. (59)

CR
0

Its Laplace transform is

L [ ∗C Dαt [f (t)]] = ψ(s, α)sF (s) − ψ(s, α)f (0). (60)

US
Recently, in their study of constitutive equations in materials, Fabrizio and Caputo
(FC) [51] have proposed a new definition of fractional derivative which can be modelled
in our approach by the function
AN
1
ψ1 (s, α) = , (61)
(1 − α)s + αt−1
0

where t0 is a characteristic time, and which leads to a Caputo-like derivative as

M

Z t
∗ 1
α
FC Dt [f (t)] = e−(t−τ )α/t0 (1−α) f 0 (τ ) dτ. (62)
1−α 0
ED

In [51] the authors used t0 = 1. We notice, however, that recently Ortigueira and
Tenreiro Machado [52] and Tarasov [53] have criticized this definition as a candidate for
fractional derivative. As we will see in the next section, we also have some concerns
PT

about its use in fractional relaxation models.

Another possible definition, proposed by Atangana and Baleanu (AB) [54], is
CE

s−1
ψ2 (s, α) = . (63)
(1 − α) + α(st0 )−α
The inverse Laplace transform of ψ2 (s, α) is given in terms of the Mittag-Leffler function
AC

[55], so that Z t  
∗ 1 −α(t − τ )α
α
AB Dt [f (t)] = Eα f 0 (τ ) dτ, (64)
1−α 0 tα0 (1 − α)
where Eα (·) is the Mittag-Leffler function with parameter α. In [54] the authors used
t0 = 1. In the next section, we will see this definition has the same problem as the FC
one when we consider its use in fractional relaxation models.

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5. Fractional relaxation
A relaxation process is a response of a system to an external perturbation. Among the
characteristics properties of the response function, we will assume it to be a completely
monotonic function [56], that is, a function f (t) such that (−1)n f (n) (t) ≥ 0 for n =
0, 1, 2, . . ., since it ensures, for example, that in isolated systems the energy decays
monotonically. Completely monotonic functions have also a very useful characterization
as a result of Bernstein’s theorem [57]. Relaxation process is a very important process
in several areas of physics [58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63]. Let us mention some cases: (i)
In the study of nuclear magnetic ressonance and magnetic ressonance imaging where
the term, associated with the relaxation, describes how a signal can change with time

T
[64, 65, 66]; (ii) The vibrational energy relaxation [67, 68, 69] is a process in which
population distribution amended by an external perturbation returns to the classical

IP
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution [70]; (iii) Dieletric relaxation, which was the object of
a recent study [71], where the Cole-Cole [72, 73], the Davidson-Cole [74], the Havriliak-

CR
Negami [75, 76] and the Kolhrausch [77] were discussed, as models based on Mittag-
Leffler functions [55]; (iv) The structural relaxation [78, 79, 80] which is responsible for
the glass transitions was also a material of recently study [81, 82]. In all those cases, the

equilibrium position. US
term associated with the relaxation means the return of a perturbated system into the

The simplest model of relaxation function f (t) is the well-known exponential law
AN
f (t) = f (0) exp (−t/τ ), where τ is the relaxation time. If we want to study a model that
deviates from this exponential behaviour but which reproduces it in an appropriate limit,
fractional calculus can help us. In order to do this, we note that f (t) = f (0) exp (−t/τ )
satisfy the first order differential equation f 0 (t) = −τ −1 f (t); then, as a generalization of
M

it, we can consider a function satisfying fractional differential equations of order α that
has this ordinary differential equation as limit for α → 1.
The most natural fractional generalization of the differential equation f 0 (t) = −τ −1 f (t)
ED

is
α
? Dt [f (t)] = −Λ(τ, α)f (t), (65)
with 0 < α ≤ 1 and Λ(τ, α) is a function such that Λ(τ, 1) = τ −1 , like for example τ −α
PT

where τ is the relaxation time. The question mark in the above equation is a reference
to a question we must answer: which derivative should we consider? Riemann-Liouville
or Caputo? In order to answer this, we first note that, from eq.(102) and eq.(105) (in
CE

the appendix), we have

t−α
Dαt [1] = 0, Dαt [1] = , (t > 0). (66)
AC

C RL
Γ(1 − α)

But, from the physical point of view, we expect that, the larger the relaxation time is,
the closer the function is to its initial value. Consequently, for τ → ∞, we expect that
α
? Dt [const] = 0, and as we see from the above equation, this property is satisfied by the
Caputo derivative or by the Caputo-like generalizations as in eq.(59).

12
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Our model for a fractional relaxation function is given therefore by the solution of the
fractional differential equation
∗
C Dαt [f (t)] = −Λ(τ, α)f (t), (67)

with 0 < α ≤ 1. Just like in the α = 1 case, we can solve this equation by using the
Laplace transform. Using eq.(60) we have

ψ(s, α)sF (s) − ψ(s, α)f (0) = −Λ(τ, α)F (s), (68)

which gives
F (s) = H(s, α)f (0), (69)

T
where

IP
ψ(s, α)
H(s, α) = . (70)
sψ(s, α) + Λ(τ, α)

CR
The solution of eq.(67) is therefore

f (t) = f (0)h(t, α), (71)

where
US
h(t, α) = L −1 [H(s, α)]. (72)
AN
Different relaxation models are therefore characterized by different choices of the function
ψ(s, α) which models the fractional derivative. However, the choice of the function
ψ(s, α) has to satisfy one extra condition, that is,
M

lim h(t, α) = 1. (73)

t→0

Using the initial value theorem of the Laplace transform [57], this condition can be
ED

replaced by
lim sH(s, α) = 1, (74)
s→∞

and from eq.(70),

PT

1
lim = 1, (75)
s→∞ 1 + Λ(τ, α)[sψ(s, α)]−1
CE

which gives
1
lim = 0. (76)
s→∞ sψ(s, α)
AC

The condition eq.(76) is clearly satisfied the Caputo derivative with ψ(s, α) = sα−1
for α > 0. However, the FC derivative with ψ(s, α) given by eq.(61) does not satisfy it,
as well as the AB derivative with ψ(s, α) given by eq.(63). This means that solutions of
eq.(67) with these derivatives will not satisfy the initial condition (except for the integer
case α = 1). This fact completely excludes the usefulness of the FC and AB fractional
derivatives in fractional relaxation models of the form of eq.(67). In appendix B we
explicitly show this fact by presenting the solutions of the models with these derivatives.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

We also note that the FC and AB derivatives does not satisfy the conditions supposed
by Kochubei for the proposed generalizations of the Caputo derivative in [44].
Let us consider therefore fractional relaxation model based on the Caputo derivative
in the form
α −α
C Dt [f (t)] = −τ f (t). (77)
In this case we have
sα−1 s−1
H(s, α) = = , (78)
sα + τ −α 1 + (τ s)−α
which can be inverted using
 
s−1

T
−1
f (t) = f (0) L
1 + (τ s)−α

IP
X∞ (79)
 
= f (0)τ (−1)n L −1 (τ s)−αn−1 ,

CR
n=0

for s > τ −1 , which gives

∞
X
f (t) = f (0)
[−(t/τ )α ]n
n=0 US
Γ(αn + 1)
≡ f (0) Eα [−(t/τ )α ]. (80)
AN
where Eα (·) is the Mittag-Leffler function [55]. Note that, for α = 1 we have the
classical result f (t) = f (0) exp(−t/τ ). The Mittag-Leffler function can be considered
as a generalization of the exponential function. In Figure 1 we compare their plots for
f (0) = τ = 1.
M

f (t)

1.0
ED

0.8

0.6
PT

0.4

0.2
CE

t
1 2 3 4 5 6

Figure 1: Plots of exp(−t) = E1 (−t) (continuous curve), E0.8 (−t0.8 ) (dashed curve) and
E0.6 (−t0.6 ) (dotted curve).
AC

The model eq.(77) can also be solved using the usual power series method. In order
to include the fractional case we consider a series of the form
∞
X
f (t) = an tαn . (81)
n=0

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

If we use eq.(102) and eq.(44), we obtain that

(
Γ(αn+1)
α αn Γ(α(n−1)+1)
tα(n−1) , n = 1, 2, . . .
C Dt [t ]= (82)
0, n = 0,

which gives
∞
X
α Γ(α(n + 1) + 1) αn
C Dt [f (t)] = an+1 t . (83)
n=0
Γ(αn + 1)
Then eq.(67) gives the recurrence relation

τ −α Γ(αn + 1)

T
an+1 = − an , (84)
Γ(α(n + 1) + 1)

IP
which gives
(−τ −α )n

CR
an = a0 , (85)
Γ(αn + 1)
and the solution of eq.(67) is

f (t) = f (0)
∞
X [−(t/τ )α ]n
n=0
US
Γ(αn + 1)
≡ f (0) Eα [−(t/τ )α ], (86)
AN
as expected.
Another possible generalization of f 0 (t) = −τ −1 f (t) is

Dαt [f (t)] = −τ −1 t1−α f (t), (87)

M

with 0 < α ≤ 1 and where τ is the relaxation constant with usual dimension [T ]−1 . This
is a special case of the class of models for anomalous relaxation studied in [29, 83]. The
ED

solution of this equation can be found by the series method, writing

∞
X
f (t) = an tn . (88)
PT

n=0

The recurrence relation is

CE

Γ(n − α + 2)
an+1 = −τ −1 an , n = 0, 1, 2, . . . (89)
Γ(n + 2)
and the general term can be written in the form
AC

(−τ −1 )n G(2 − α + n)
an = a0 , (90)
n! G(2 − α) G(1 + n)

where G(·) is the Barnes’ G-function [84], which satisfies

G(z + 1) = Γ(z) G(z), G(1) = 1. (91)

15
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

The solution of eq.(87) can be written as

f (t) = f (0) Fα (−t/τ ), (92)
where Fα (·) is given by
∞
X G(2 − α + n) z n
Fα (z) = . (93)
n=0
G(2 − α) G(1 + n) n!

It is easy to see that for α = 1 we have F1 (−t/τ ) = exp(−t/τ ). The convergence of

this series follows using the ratio test with Gautschi’s inequality ([84], p.138), which is
Γ(x + 1 − α)/Γ(x + 1) < x−α for 0 < α < 1. In Figure 2 we compare the plots of f (t)

T
for different values of α for f (0) = τ = 1.

IP
f (t)

1.0

CR
0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
US
AN
t
1 2 3 4 5 6
M

Figure 2: Plots of exp(−t) = F1 (−t) (continuous curve), F0.8 (−t) (dashed curve) and
F0.6 (−t) (dotted curve).
ED

6. Concluding remarks
PT

The fractional derivative definitions of Riemann-Liouville and of Caputo are the most
common ones found in the applications of fractional calculus. We have provided an
introduction to the Riemann-Liouville and the Caputo derivatives based on the Laplace
CE

transform and on the theory of distributions, from which we had naturally led to a
definition of a fractional distributional derivative. We have clarified the deep relation
between these generalizations of the derivative concept, and obtained some important
AC

properties of them. We have also seen how to deal with some other possible definitions
of fractional derivative in our approach, in particular the definitions of Fabrizio-Caputo
and Atangana and Baleanu. As an example of possible applications of the formalism,
we have discussed some generalizations of the exponential law relaxation model. We
have found that only the Caputo derivative provides a consistent model satisfying the
initial conditions for an arbitrary order α (0 < α ≤ 1) of the fractional derivative. We
provided the solutions for two specific models.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Acknowledgements: SJ is grateful to CNPq for the financial support. JV is grateful to

Prof. S. Mann and the University of Waterloo, Canada, for the hospitality during the
final preparation of this work.

A. Fractional integrodifferential operators in arbitrary

intervals
In what follows, we will only consider spaces where the functions are continuous or
continuous by parts [40, 41]. We will introduce the Riemann-Liouville fractional integral
taking into account the possibilities of having integrals defined over intervals on the left

T
and on the right of a point, and in the sequel, we will use these integrals to define the

IP
fractional distributional derivative, and from it the Riemann-Liouville and the Caputo
derivatives.
Let Ω = [a, b] with −∞ < a < b < ∞ be a finite interval on the real axis R. The

CR
α
integrals of arbitrary orders in the Riemann-Liouville sense, denoted by, (Ia+ f )(t) ≡
a It f (t) and (Ib− f )(t) ≡ t Ib f (t) both of order α ∈ C, with Re(α) > 0 are defined by
α α α

Z t

with t > a and

α
(Ia+ f )(t) =
1
US f (τ )
Γ(α) a (t − τ )1−α
dτ, (94)
AN
Z b
α 1 f (τ )
(Ib− f )(t) = dτ, (95)
Γ(α) t (τ − t)1−α
with t < b, respectively. These integrals are named fractional integrals in the Riemann-
M

α
Liouville sense on the left and on the right, respectively. Note that (Ia+ f )(t) and
α
(Ib− f )(t) are adjoint, in the sense that
Z Z
ED

b b
α α
f (t)(Ia+ g)(t) dt = (Ib− f )(t)g(t) dt. (96)
a a

The left and right fractional distributional derivatives in a finite interval on the real
PT

axis, denoted by Dαa+ y and Dαb− y respectively, of order α ∈ C with Re(α) ≥ 0, are


Dαa+ [y(t)] = (Dt )n Ia+
n−α
y (t)
CE

Z t
1 n y(τ ) (97)
= (Dt ) α−n+1
dτ,
Γ(n − α) a (t − τ )
AC

with t > a, and

Dαb− [y(t)] = (− Dt )n (Ib−

n−α
y)(t)
Z b
1 y(τ ) (98)
= (− Dt )n α−n+1
dτ,
Γ(n − α) t (τ − t)

with t < b, and where n = dRe(α)e.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

The left and right Caputo derivatives in a finite interval on the real axis, denoted by
α α
C Da+ y and C Db− y respectively, are defined like in eq.(48), that is,
" n−1 (k)
#
X y (a)
α α
C Da+ [y(t)] = Da+ y(t) − (t − a)k+ (99)
k=0
k!
and " #
n−1 (k)
X y (b)
C Dαa+ [y(t)] = Dαa+ y(t) − (b − t)k+ . (100)
k=0
k!
Using the beta function [85], we can find that
k!(t − a)k+α

T
0
α0 +
Ia+ (t − a)k+ = , (101)
Γ(α0 + k + 1)

IP
and consequently that
k!(t − a)k−α

CR
+
Dαa+ [(t − a)k+ ] = . (102)
Γ(k − α + 1)
An analogous expression holds for Dαb− [(b − t)k ], and then we have that

−
n−1
X US
Dαa+ [y(t)] = Dαa+ [y(t)]
y (k) (a)
Γ(k − α + 1)
(t − a)k−α
+ ,
(103)
AN
k=0

and
C Dαb− [y(t)] = Dαb− [y(t)]
n−1
X
M

y (k) (b) (104)

− (b − t)k−α
+ ,
k=0
Γ(k − α + 1)
ED

which generalize eq.(44).

Finally, left and right Caputo derivatives can also be written as
Z t
α 1 y (n) (t)
D [y(t)] = dτ (105)
PT

a+
C
Γ(n − α) a (t − τ )α−n+1
and Z b
α (−1)n y (n) (t)
C Db− [y(t)] = dτ, (106)
CE

Γ(n − α) t (τ − t)α−n+1
where n = dRe(α)e.
The left and right Riemann-Liouville derivatives in a finite interval on the real axis,
AC

denoted by RL Dαa+ y and RL Dαb− y respectively, of order α ∈ C with Re(α) ≥ 0, are

defined by
 n
α d n−α


RL Da+ [y(t)] = Ia+ y (t)
dt
 n Z t (107)
1 d y(τ )
= α−n+1
dτ,
Γ(n − α) dt a (t − τ )

18
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

with t > a, and

 n
α d n−α
RL Db− [y(t)]= − (Ib− y)(t)
dt
 n Z b (108)
1 d y(τ )
= − α−n+1
dτ,
Γ(n − α) dt t (τ − t)

d
with t < b, and where dt
denotes the usual derivative and n = dRe(α)e.

B. Fractional relaxation models with FC and AB

T
derivatives

IP
In this appendix we illustrate with examples the problem discussed in the main text
about the failure of solutions of fractional differential equations of the form of eq.(65)

CR
with FC and AB derivatives to satisfy the initial condition. Let us consider models of the
form of eq.(77), which are particular cases of eq.(65), but using FC and AB derivatives.
Let us start with FC derivative,
∗
FC
US
Dαt [f (t)] = −τ −α f (t),
with 0 < α ≤ 1 and τ is a constant with physical dimension [T ]. We can solve this
(109)
AN
equation by the Laplace transform method. The Laplace transform of the FC derivative
is
sL[f ] − f (0)
L [ ∗FC Dαt [f (t)]] = . (110)
(1 − α)s + αt−10
M

Taking t0 = 1 and applying Laplace transform to equation (109), we get

τα
L[f ](s) = f (0) , (111)
ED

(τ α + 1 − α)s + α
from which we obtain the solution
     
τα α
PT

f (t) = f (0) exp − t . (112)

τ −α + 1 − α τ −α + 1 − α
In Figure 3 we compare the plots of the solutions when f (0) = τ = 1 for α = 1, α = 0.8
CE

and α = 0.6. The initial condition is only satisfied when α = 1.

For the model with AB derivative, we have
∗
Dαt [f (t)] = −τ −α f (t),
AC

AB (113)
with 0 < α ≤ 1 and τ is a constant with physical dimension [T ]. Once again, we can
solve this equation by the Laplace transform method. Since the Laplace transform of
the one-parameter Mittag-Leffler function is given by [55]
sα−1
L [Eα (−λ tα )] = , (114)
sα − λ

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

1 2 3 4 5 6

T
Figure 3: Plots of solution (112) α = 1 (continuous curve), α = 0.8 (dashed curve) and

IP
α = 0.6 (dotted curve).
1.0

CR
0.8

US
0.6

0.4
AN
0.2

1 2 3 4 5 6
M

Figure 4: Plots of solution eq.(117) α = 1 (continuous curve), α = 0.8 (dashed curve)

and α = 0.6 (dotted curve).
ED

the Laplace transform of the AB derivative is

PT

sα L[f ] − sα−1 f (0)

L ∗AB Dαt [f (t)] = . (115)
(1 − α)sα + αt−α 0

Taking t0 = 1 and applying Laplace transform to the equation (113), we obtain

CE

τ α sα−1
F (s) = f (0) , (116)
(τ α + 1 − α)sα − α
AC

from which we get the solution

 
τα α tα
f (t) = f (0) α Eα − α . (117)
τ +1−α τ +1−α
In Figure 4 we compare the plots of the solutions when f (0) = τ = 1 for α = 1, α = 0.8
and α = 0.6. The initial condition is only satisfied when α = 1.

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