Increasing in Numbers

1. Sexual and Asexual Reproduction

2. Asexual Reproduction
3. Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
• The structure of an insect pollinated flower
• Comparing insect pollinated flowers and wind pollinated flowers
• Pollination
• Fertilisation
• Seed and Fruit Formation
• Seed and Fruit Dispersal
• Germination
• Types of Germination

4. Sexual Reproduction in Humans

• Male and Female Reproductive Organs
• Secondary Sexual Characteristics
• Menstrual Cycle
• Copulation and Fertilisation
• Nutrition and Protection of the Embryo
• Birth and Parental Care
• Methods of Family Planning

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 1. Sexual and Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction is carried out by bacteria, protists, some invertebrates and even in some
plants. Sexual reproduction on the other hand is how humans reproduce, as well as other animals,
some plants and some fungi. Both types of reproduction have their advantages which surround
the mode of life and adaptations of each species.

Sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction

How many parents are
2 1
involved?
Speed? Slow Fast
Is there any genetic
Yes No
variation?
Does it promote
adaptation to changing Yes No
environments?

2. Asexual reproduction
Types of asexual reproduction:

Type Description Examples

Bacteria, Protists
The contents of a cell
Binary fission
double and the cell
(do not confuse
divides into two daughter
with mitosis)
cells

A small part of the cell Hydra (Coelenterate), Yeast

detaches itself to form a
new one

Budding

Mucor
Spores are contained in
sporangia and are
Spore formation
dispersed to form new
individuals.

Strawberry, some ferns and grasses

Part of a plant grows away
from the rest of it. After
Vegetative some time it will form roots
reproduction and be completely
independent of the
original plant.

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 3. Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Reproduction in flowering plants occurs in steps:

1. Pollination
2. Fertilisation
3. Seed and fruit formation
4. Seed and fruit dispersal
5. Germination

Before dealing with reproduction in flowering plants, it is important to remember that there are
two types of flowering plants.

Flowering plants are divided into two groups: Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons.

Monocots Dicots

1 cotyledon
2 cotyledons

Tap root
Fibrous root

Parallel veins
Branching veins

Floral parts in multiples of 4 or

Floral parts in multiples of 3
5

Vascular bundles in stem Vascular bundles in stem

are random are arranged in a ring
E.g. corn, wheat E.g. peas, beans

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The Structure of an Insect Pollinated Flower

Key words:

Anther – Where pollen is formed and stored

Carpel – The female part of the flower

Filament – The stalk that holds up the anther

Ovary – Where fertilization takes place

Petal – Bright and colourful in insect pollinated flowers to attract pollinators

Receptacle - The base that helps hold the flower upright

Sepal – Protects the flower when in bud

Stamen – The male part of the flower

Stigma – The sticky, top part of the female organ where pollen sticks to

Style – The tube that connects the stigma and the ovary

Many flowering plants are known as 'perfect' flowers,

because they have both male and female reproductive
organs within the same flower. Some other flowering plants
have 'male flowers' and 'female flowers' but both on the
same plant. There are others still that have female plants and
male plants.

Sometimes, the positions of the male and female structures

will vary, like in the Hibiscus.

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Comparing insect pollinated flowers and wind pollinated flowers

Insect pollinated flowers Wind pollinated flowers

Flowers are large, brightly-coloured and Flowers are small, dull and without a
scented scent

Nectar is present Nectar is not present

Pollen is quite abundant. Pollen is very abundant.

Pollen grains are large sticky and heavy, Pollen grains are small, dry, smooth and
usually with rough surfaces light
Stamens are not pendulous Stamens are pendulous.

Stigmas are not feathery and are found Stigmas hang outside of the flower, they
inside the flower. They are sticky. are feathery to increase the surface.
Nectar guides may be seen on the petal. Nectar guides are absent.

E.g. buttercup, daisy, sweet pea, orchids E.g. sugarcane, grass flower, cereal
plants like rye, maize, wheat, rice

Pollination

This is the point when the pollen is transferred from the anther to the stigma (the top part of the
carpel).

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Pollination can be:

• Self-pollination: When the pollen travels to the stigma of the same flower or the flowers of
the same individual
• Cross-pollination: When the pollen travels to the stigma of a flower from another individual

Pollination can occur by wind, by insects, or by small animals such as birds with the Hibiscus.

What difference is there if a flower is cross-pollinated and not self-pollinated?

During self-pollination, the pollen comes from the same plant and so there is much less variation,
compared to cross-pollination.

Fertilisation

Sexual reproduction occurs in plants through the process of fertilisation. Fertilisation occurs by the
fusion of a male reproductive cell (found in the pollen) and the female reproductive cell (the
ovule). Pollen is found in the anther. The ovule is found in the ovary.

Fertilisation occurs in four main steps:

1. Pollen nuclei move down the style and move to the ovary by a process known as
chemotaxis, and forms a pollen tube.
2. The male nucleus found inside the pollen moves down the pollen tube
3. The male nucleus then enters the ovary through the micropyle (small opening).
4. The male nucleus fuses with the female nucleus (the ovule) and fertilises it to form a
zygote.

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Seed and fruit formation

After fertilisation, the zygote develops into a seed. This provides it with nourishment and protection.

Seed from the outside Seed from the inside

Key words

Testa – Hard, outer coat of the seed

Micropyle - Small hole through which water and oxygen can enter

Cotyledon – The food store of the seed

Plumule – The future shoot

Radicle – The future root

The seed sometimes gets dispersed as seeds (i.e. without forming a fruit). For example, acorns are
seeds which form a very hard outer covering for protection. This is also seen in the coconut. In
other flowering plants, when fertilisation occurs, the ovary then becomes a fruit which surrounds
the seeds. This is an adaptation for animal dispersal.

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Seed and fruit dispersal

The aim of using energy to form seeds and/or fruits is so that they can then be dispersed to grow
far away from the parent plant. Dispersal is very important as it reduces competition for light,
water and space with other individuals of the same species.

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Fruits are usually dispersed by animals. They get eaten by the animals and thanks to the hard
testa do not get digested. They are then eliminated with faeces at a different location.

Germination

Germination is the process in which a plant emerges from the seed. It is the initial growth of a
plant. For germination to occur, seeds need to have the right conditions:

• Water

The presence of water is what starts off germination. A lot of water is needed during this process.
Water carries out 3 main functions during germination:

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 a) It softens the testa so that it can break open. This will allow air to enter and make
room for the growth of the plumule and radicle.
b) It dissolves the cotyledon (food store). Only the dissolved form can be used
in respiration.
c) It activates the enzymes

• Temperature

A warm temperature is required for germination to occur so that the enzymes can work
well. The higher the temperature, the better the enzymes work. The soil does not reach
temperatures high enough to denature them.

This is also a good precaution to make sure the plant starts growing in good
conditions. If it started growing in winter the shoot and leaves would emerge to
find no sun for photosynthesis. This will cause the plant to wither and die.

• Oxygen

The aim of the seed is to form a plant. For growth to occur energy is needed.
Energy can only be released in the process of respiration. The seeds therefore
take in oxygen which is found between the soil particles and carry out
respiration. If there is no air in the soil, germination will not begin.

Seeds usually grow in the dark under the soil, they do not
need light. In most experiments, germination is left to occur
in a dark cupboard.

If all the three conditions are not satisfied, the seed is in a

state known as dormancy. At this time, the seed waits for
favourable conditions before it begins to grow. That is why
most flowers blossom in spring. At this time, the weather
conditions provide enough water, oxygen and warmth for
germination to occur.

Types of germination

• Hypogeal germination

In Hypogeal germination, the cotyledon (the food reserve) remains in the soil. The cotyledon
eventually breaks down.

E.g. Pea Plant

Think of the
Hypogeum in
Tarxien. It is
underground.

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 • Epigeal Germination

In Epigeal germination, the cotyledon is literally pushed out of the soil and grows outside.

E.g. Bean Plant

4. Sexual reproduction in Humans

In humans, males and females produce gametes for fertilisation to occur. This is known as
gametogenesis. Males produce sperm in the testes while females have ova (eggs) which are
found in the ovary.

Male and Female reproductive organs

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In males, the testes which produce sperm are found in the scrotum (sac) on the outside of the
body, where the temperature is lower. This is because sperm are produced more rapidly in cooler
conditions. As sperm are produced, they make their way up the epididymis where they are
stored. The epididymis connects to the sperm duct, also known as the vas deference, which
connects to the urethra which runs down the centre of the penis. Sperm go through this route
during ejaculation.

Semen is not just made up of sperm, it also contains fluids produced by the seminal vesicles
(found just behind the prostate gland) and the prostate gland. This fluid has three main functions:

• To nourish the sperm

• To neutralise acid from urine
• To help sperm swim vigorously when they are released in the vagina.

Females have two ovaries, one the left and one the right. Ova are present in the ovaries from the
time of birth. During ovulation, one of the ovaries releases an ovum. The following month, the
other ovary will then release an ovum and so on. When the ovum is released from the ovary it has
a follicle around it. The egg travels down the oviduct, also known as the Fallopian tube, and then
down the uterus. In the presence of sperm, the ovum gets fertilised in the oviduct, or sometimes in
the upper uterus, and is then implanted in the uterus lining. If it is implanted in the oviduct, this is
called an ectopic pregnancy and serious complications arise. If the ovum isn't fertilised then the
egg will die within a day or two.

The uterus then leads to the cervix, which opens to the vagina. The cervix produces mucus during
ovulation (when the ovum is released from the ovary) which helps the sperm to swim up the
uterus.

Note: While in females the vagina and the urethra (where urine passes from) are two separate
tubes, in males there is only one opening.

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Secondary Sexual Characteristics

Menstrual cycle

While sperm are always readily available in males, females only release one egg a month,
alternating between the left and right ovary each time. Each month, females go through a cycle
to prepare an ovum, to release it, and to prepare the body in case of pregnancy or if not, go on
to menstruation.

In the case below, the cycle is a typical menstrual cycle. Variations are common. This cycle does
not result in pregnancy.

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Days 1 - 5: Shedding of the uterus lining. The female has her period during this time.

Days 6 - 12: The uteral lining is repaired thanks to the hormone oestrogen. Follicle stimulating
hormone is also released at this time to prepare the ovum for ovulation.

Days 13 - 15: Luteinising hormone is released which results in ovulation.

Days 16 – 28: The uteral lining continues to grow in case of pregnancy thanks to the hormone
progesterone.

The diagram below shows the cycle of the follicle. The follicle initially surrounds the egg and
provides nourishment while the egg is maturing. After the egg is released, the follicle is then known
as corpus luteum. This stimulates the production of progesterone which continues to thicken the
lining of the uterus.

There are four hormones involved in the menstrual cycle:

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH): Stimulates the development of the follicle in the ovary (follicle
maturation). It is secreted by the pituitary gland.

Luteinising Hormone (LH): Stimulates the release of the mature ovum from the ovary. It then
stimulates the development of the corpus luteum. It is secreted by pituitary gland.

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Oestrogen: Repairs the lining of the uterus and stimulates development of female sexual
characteristics. It is released from the ovary.

Progesterone: Keeps the lining of the uterus ready for implantation (when the embryo becomes
embedded in the uterus lining) and pregnancy. It is secreted from the ovary and placenta.

Copulation and Fertilisation

For fertilisation of the ovum and the sperm to occur, the

gametes must first meet. Remember, both gametes are
haploid so that during fertilisation, they fuse to become a
diploid individual.

Fertilisation is achieved through the act of copulation

where the male inserts his erect penis into the vagina.
Both the male and female produce a fluid for lubrication.

During ejaculation, sperm is expelled into the vagina with

substantial force to help the sperm reach the oviduct,
which is a great distance away. Males release millions of
sperm during a single ejaculation. Only a few hundred
actually reach the oviduct and only one will fertilise the
ovum.

Once the sperm reach the ovum, it must get to the ovum
which is surrounded by a thick coat called the zona
pellucida. It manages this with the aid of enzymes that are secreted from the head of the sperm.
Once one sperm manages to get through and meet the ovum, fertilisation occurs. The outer
membrane of the egg then changes to prevent any other sperm from entering.

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Nutrition and Protection of the Embryo

Once fertilisation has occurred, the resulting cell is called a zygote. The zygote continues to divide
first into two, then four, and so on. Once a ball of cells forms, it is now called an embryo. It is the
embryo that then moves down the oviduct and into the uterus where implantation occurs.
Because the embryo is still very small, the embryo gains nourishment from the lining of the uterus.

At about 8 weeks, the placenta forms, which has a number of functions (see next page). The
placenta is linked to the foetus by the umbilical cord. As the foetus grows, the uterus expands and
fills up with amniotic fluid for protection.

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17
Once the heart forms, it begins pumping blood around the body. The blood will contain nutrients
like oxygen, glucose, amino acids and salts from the mother, which diffuse from the mother's
blood to the placenta. Similarly, carbon dioxide and waste products pass through the umbilical
cord and to the placenta where they diffuse to the mother's blood.

There is never any mixing of blood between the mother and the foetus. The exchange relies solely
on diffusion. It is also a way from protecting the foetus as many harmful substances do not reach it
thanks to the placenta, although others do such as alcohol and HIV. It is also important in cases
where the blood type of the mother and child are different.

Birth and Parental Care

The time it takes from fertilisation to birth is known as the gestation period and lasts 38 weeks.
Labour then begins as the uterus begins to contract
due to the release of a hormone called oxytocin.
The amnion breaks to release the amniotic fluid. As
the contractions increase in both frequency and
pain, the cervix begins to widen to allow the foetus
to pass through. Muscular contractions continue until
the baby is pushed head first through the cervix, and
then the vagina. The umbilical cord is then cut and
the afterbirth (the placenta) is removed from the
uterus.

During pregnancy, the mother's mammary glands

increase in size due to the increase in milk-secreting
cells. Milk is actually produced for the first time during
the first suckling. The first time, colostrum only is
released. Later on, some colostrum would be present
with the milk. The production of milk is later
dependent on hormones and quantity needed by the baby.

Breast milk is rich in fat to help growth, as well as other nutrients such as proteins, vitamins and
minerals. No iron is present however for red blood cell production, and so, for the first few weeks,
the baby used iron it had stored in its liver during gestation. Breast milk has all the nutrients present
in the correct quantities.

Antibodies are also passed on to the baby through breast milk, which help the baby's immunity, a
main reason for the slogan 'breast is best' to encourage mothers to breast feed their babies and
not bottle feed. The milk is also found at the right temperature and could protect the babies from
certain allergies.

Methods of Family Planning

• Natural family planning: Billing's method

This method makes use of two methods: thermal method and mucus method. It uses the slight
increase in temperature of female during ovulation to detect when she is fertile. During ovulation
women also produce mucus to help the sperm on their journey. Abstaining during this time is a
natural method of avoiding pregnancy.

• Artificial family planning: condom, diaphragm, contraceptive pill (see diagram on pages
14 and 15 of notes)

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The condom and diaphragm have the same role, except the condom is a sheath for males worn
over the penis while the diaphragm is used by females and is placed over the cervix. Both are
used to prevent sperm from entering the uterus. With condoms, sperm does not even enter the
vagina as it is kept in the sheath itself. Condoms also prevent a number of STDs and STIs from
being transmitted.

The contraceptive pill is taken by females once a day. This prevents ovulation, and in the case of
some stronger types of pills, also prevents the stimulation for the production of the follicle, without
which the ovum cannot mature.

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Checklist: Reproduction (in flowering plants and humans)

1. Can I name three differences between sexual and asexual reproduction?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
2. Can I give one difference between binary fission and budding?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
3. Do I know an organism that reproduces by spores? _______________________________
4. Can I name three differences between monocots and dicots?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
5. Do I know the functions of these: stamen, filament, stigma, style, ovary and petal?

Anther: _______________________________________________________________________________
Filament: _____________________________________________________________________________
Stigma: _______________________________________________________________________________
Style: _________________________________________________________________________________
Ovary: ________________________________________________________________________________
Petal: _________________________________________________________________________________
6. Can I name the two ways in which pollination can occur in flowers?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
7. Can I name three differences between the two types of pollination mentioned in
the previous question?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
8. Do I know the definition of pollination?

_____________________________________________________________________________________ __
9. Do I know the difference between self-pollination and cross-pollination?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
10. Do flowering plants carry out internal or external fertilisation? _____________________

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 11. Do I know the definition of fertilisation?

______________________________________________________________________________________
12. Do I know the function of the pollen tube?

______________________________________________________________________________________
13. Do I know the name of the opening through which the male nucleus moves into
the ovary? ______________________________________________________________________
14. Do I know the name of the cells that result after fertilisation in flowering plants?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
15. What does the zygote develop into later on? ____________________________________
16. What is the function of the testa in seeds?

______________________________________________________________________________________
17. Do I know the name of the part of the seed that will develop into the root?

______________________________________________________________________________________
18. Do I know the name of the part of the seed that will develop into the shoot/stem?

____________________________________________________________________________________ ___
19. Do I know why a fruit develops around seeds in some cases?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
20. Do I know why dispersal of seeds and fruit is very important?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
21. Can I name two ways fruits/seeds are dispersed by animals?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
22. Can I name two structures seeds have to help them be dispersed by the wind?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
23. Can I name two ways in which the plant disperses the seeds itself (self-dispersal)?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
24. Can I define germination?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
25. Can I name the three reasons water is important in germination?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
26. Do I know why a warm temperature is needed for germination to occur?

_______________________________________________________________________________________

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 27. Do I know why plenty of oxygen is needed for germination to occur?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
28. Do I know why dormancy occurs in seeds?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
29. Do I know the difference between epigeal and hypogeal germination?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
30. Can I name one difference between a sperm and an ovum?

_______________________________________________________________________________________

31. Do I know the functions of the following: testes, epididymis, prostate gland, sperm
duct and urethra?

Testes: ________________________________________________________________________________
Epididymis: ____________________________________________________________________________
Prostate gland: _______________________________________________________________________
Sperm duct: __________________________________________________________________________
Urethra: ______________________________________________________________________________
32. Do I know the functions of the following: ovary, oviduct, uterus, cervix and vagina?

Ovary: ________________________________________________________________________________
Oviduct: ______________________________________________________________________________
Uterus: ________________________________________________________________________________
Cervix: ________________________________________________________________________________
Vagina: _______________________________________________________________________________
33. Do I know what the term ‘implantation’ means?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
34. Can I name two secondary sexual characteristics that occur in males?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
35. Can I name two secondary sexual characteristics that occur in females?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
36. How often does each ovary release an egg? ____________________________________
37. Do I know what the term ‘menstruation’ means? _________________________________
38. Do I know what the term ‘ovulation’ means?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
39. On what day does ovulation usually occur? _____________________________________

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 40. Why does the uteral lining continue to thicken after ovulation?

_____________________________________________________________________________________
41. If the female does not get pregnant, what happens after the 28 th day?

______________________________________________________________________________________
42. Do I know the function of the follicle?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
43. Do I know the function of FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
44. Do I know the function of LH (Luteinising hormone)?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
45. Do I know the function of oestrogen?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
46. Do I know the function of progesterone?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
47. During which day/s would most FSH be present in females? _______________________
48. During which day/s would most LH be present in females? ________________________
49. During which day/s would most oestrogen be present in females? _________________
50. During which day/s would most progesterone be present in females? _____________
51. How does the ovum prevent more than one sperm from fertilising it?

______________________________________________________________________________________
52. How does sperm manage to pass through the zona pellucida?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
53. Do I know the functions of: placenta, umbilical cord, amnion and amniotic fluid?

Placenta: _____________________________________________________________________________
Umbilical cord: ________________________________________________________________________
Amnion: ______________________________________________________________________________
Amniotic fluid: ________________________________________________________________________
54. What term is used to describe the cell formed just after fertilisation? _______________
55. What term is used to describe the group of cells that result from the zygote?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
56. What term is used to describe a more developed embryo? _______________________
57. Does the blood of the mother and the foetus ever mix? Give one reason why.

_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________

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 58. What is the function of oxytocin during birth?

_____________________________________________________________________________________
59. What is the name of the type of milk that is released the first time by the mother?

_____________________________________________________________________________________
60. Do I know which nutrient breast milk is richest in? _______________________________
61. Can I name three reasons why breast milk is better than formula milk?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
62. Do I know how the Billing’s method as a type of natural family planning works?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
63. Can I name three methods which are artificial ways of family planning?

_______________________________________________________________________________________

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