CHAPTER 41: NEURAL SIGNALING

The Nervous System

 Regulates involuntary and voluntary bodily functions
 Endocrine system (neurotransmitters) right hand man ng nervous system;
regulates bodily functions, growth and development, and hormones
 Transmits information to the spinal cord and brain
- Neurons: passageway
- Glial cells: help prevent blockages in the passageway; inaayos din nila
Neurobiology
 Active areas of research include neurotransmitters and receptors that bind
with neurotransmitters
 Structure of a neuron is dependent on the organ it facilitates
 Millions and trillions of neurons in a body
 Neurons undergo G-0
- After G-2 sa interphase, pupunta sa G-0
- Cant perform mitosis
- Nde makareplicate
 Neurogenesis
- Production of new neurons
- Brain will create more neurons para makapagstore ng more info; so
lumalaki ung brain kaso ung skull nde na lumalaki (fixed); to mediate this,
ung brain ang magaadjust kaya nagkakaroon ng foldings sa brain; mas
maraming foldings, mas matalino; pag smooth=intellectually impaired
- Different regions of the brain are responsible for diff functions
Neural Signaling
 Magreceive ng signal/stimulus ang mga sensory receptors (galing sa
environment or galing sa info from another neuron)
 Ipapadala sa nervous system (afferent: receive; efferent: send/action)
 Pag-aaralan or isosort (integration) kung ano gagawin ng brain sa info na
nareceive
 Certain action will be created (motor neurons ang gagawa ng action)
 Leader ang brain then other neurons will perform functions commanded by
the brain
 Life is full of habits
- Toothbrush w/ opposite hand
Neurons and Glial Cells
 Neurons
- Synaptic terminal
- Pre-synaptic terminal (dulo ng neuron 1 para magsend kay neuron 2)
- Post-synaptic terminal (ung nagreceive ng info sa neuron 2 from neuron 1)
 - Gitna ng dalawa is synapse
 Axon hillock ang magproproduce ng action potential para matransfer sa axon
ung action
Action Potential thru depolarization
 Dapat ung buong katawan in balance (homeostatic ang lahat) kaso pagstable
lahat smth cant happen
 For you to perform an action, kelangan magkaroon ng change in the voltage
of the body (change of equilibrium; action potential)
- Initially at rest ang brain, if need ng action tsaka magkakaroon ng action
potential
 Gap Junction
- Opening bet. Neurons which enable them to transfer neural signals
 Without neurotransmitters, nde gagalaw ung mga responses natin sa brain (
- Chemical reactions to certain stimuli
- Ex. ACH (acetylcholine), kung wala ito, nde macocontract ang muscle
- Polar: positive and negative, pag nagdepolarization, tatanggalin mo ung
difference na un. (gagawing ++ or --)
- Resting phase ng neurons is -70 (inside of the cell is partially negative,
and the outside is partially positive; mas maraming ion sa labas kaya
positive sa labas; meron parin ions sa loob kaya nde 0 ang resting phase)
- Pag nde nareach ang -55 (threshold), nde mo maaachieve ang action
potential (capability of the neuron to transmit signals); kelangan mo
magrelease ng enough neurotransmitters para maabot mo ung -55. (too
much or less of hormones is bad; it should only be enough to reach the
threshold)
- ACH is also created in learning
- Failed initiations (nde umabot sa threshold)
- Pag umabot na ng -55, bubukas na mga ion channels
- Sodium potassium pump
 2/3 ng ATP
 Sodium sa labas (+60) while potassium sa loob
 3 Na papasok and 2 K ang lalabas (mas mabilis pagpasok ng Na,
 Positive ang sodium so pag nakapasok ng 3 positive Na, magiging
+40 na ung sa loob, pero nung nagbukas na ung mga positive K
gates, lalabas ule ng positive ions so bababa nanaman active
potential; normal action potential umaabot ng +60
 Mabilis bumukas ung Na gate and mabilis magsara, matagal
magbukas ung K gates and matagal magsara
- Hyperpolarization (refractory period)
 Bababa super pero eventually mag neuneutralize din
  Bumababa pa ng -90 (nagflufluctuate)
 What creates action
 Ligand attached to the protein pump para magopen ung pump kaya
maachieve natin ung depolarization
Nerves and Tracts
 Flat ang mga nerves kasi kelangan nila maging efficient sa pagtransfer ng
info (nde sila pangstore; mga blood vessels ang nagstostore ng nutrients and
nakaconnect sa mga neurons
Glial Cells
 6 types overall; 4 sa CNS and 2 sa PNS
 Collectively make up the neuroglia
- More than 75% of cells in the human CNS are glial cells
 Astrocytes/Satellites Cell
 Oligodendrocytes/Schwann
 Ependymal Cells
 Microglia
 Satellite and Schwann nakadikit sa cells;
Astrocytes
 Star shaped
 ??
Oligodendrocytes
 Gumagawa ng skyway
 Nagpapabilis/gumagawa daan
 Insulating myelin sheaths
- Nagbobounce ang mga signal (mas efficient ito kesa sa deretso lng)
 Nodes of Ranvier
Ependymal
 Pinapaikot ung cerebrospinal fluid para maregulate ung mga nutrients
 May cilia
Microglia
 Specialized macrophages
 Immune cell
 Engulf diseases or injuries

Chapter 42

Nervous System
 Studying Neural Function
- Using functional magnetic resonance imaging to allow the study of
responses of neural networks in the brain
Nerve Net
 Hydra and other cnidarians have nerves kasi nde involuntary pagreact nila sa
environment
 The environment gives them what they need then they react
Radial Nervous System
 Quadrants
 Nerve ring sa gitna to coordinate functions and movements
Bilateral Nervous System
 Nerve cords and cerebral ganglia to be symmetric on both sides (mas
efficient delivery ng info)
 Flat
Annelid and Arthropod Nervous System
 Ganglia: concerned on a specific area
Cephalopod, Mollusk Nervous System
Humans din have ganglia
Octopus, dog matatalino
 Maraming nerves sa tentacles ng octopuus
Trends in Evolution of Nervous System


CNS
 Properly send out signals, organize info
 Cerebrospinal fluid
PNS
 Receive stimulus or perform action
 Pag masakit, mas gumagalaw