TRAFFIC ENGINEERING AND

MANAGEMENT

By
ZZIGWA MARVIN
Department of Civil and Building Engineering
Basic Elements of Highway Traffic Analysis
Capacity and level of service, Traffic Flow Analysis and
Queuing Theory
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 Capacity and Level of service
Capacity (flow)-ability to accommodate vehicular traffic
is a primary consideration in the planning, design and
operation of highways.
▪ Capacity can be defined as the maximum number of vehicles
per unit of time that can be handled by a particular roadway
component or section under the prevailing conditions [MoWT, 2006]
Road capacity information is useful for:
(a) Transportation planning studies to assess the adequacy or
sufficiency of existing road network to service current traffic
and to estimate the time in the future when traffic growth
may overtake capacity;
(b) It is important in design of road dimensions, number of
lanes and minimum length of weaving length;
(c) In traffic operation analysis in improvement of traffic
operation. @ZZIGWA MARVIN 2022 KYU BENG
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 Capacity and Level of service
Capacity (flow)………….
The highway capacity depends on certain conditions as listed
below;
▪ Traffic conditions
✓ traffic composition in the road

▪ Road way characteristics:

✓ geometric characteristics of the road

▪ Control conditions:
✓ signals at intersections etc

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 Capacity and Level of service
The traffic flow at capacity level is unstable and minor
disturbances in the traffic streams may cause stop-go
operations.

Consequently a Design Capacity is instigated which is less

than the maximum capacity and is related to a “Level
of Service”.

Level of Service expresses the effectiveness of the road in

terms of operating conditions.
It is a qualitative measure of the effect of traffic flow factors, such
as speed and travel time, interruptions, freedom of maneuver,
driver comfort and convenience, and indirectly, safety and
operation costs.
The choice of level of service shall generally be based on
economic considerations. @ZZIGWA MARVIN 2022 KYU BENG
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 Capacity and Level of service
Capacity (flow Density)………….
Determination of capacity

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 Capacity and Level of service
Level of service-is defined based on the measure of
effectiveness. Typically three parameters are used
under this and they are speed and travel time, density,
and delay.
▪ One of the important measures of service quality is the
amount of time spent in travel. Therefore, speed and travel
time are considered to be more effective in defining LOS
of a facility.

▪ Density gives the proximity of other vehicles in the stream.

Since it affects the ability of the driver to maneuver in the
traffic stream, it is also used to describe LOS

▪ Delay is a term that describes excess or unexpected time

spent in travel. @ZZIGWA MARVIN 2022 KYU BENG
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 Capacity and Level of service
Six levels of service are defined. These vary from level A which is the free
flow condition, where drivers can maintain their desired speed (low volume
and high speed); to level E where the traffic is approaching saturation with
drivers traveling at low speed due to high volume of traffic.
▪ The traffic volume at level of service E is the capacity of the facility.
▪ Level of service F is the forced flow condition where the traffic
density is the maximum with drivers subjected to frequent stop-
go and queues. Volumes here vary from 0 to capacity, but usually are
approaching zero.

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Capacity and Level of service

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 Capacity and Level of service
The capacity values in the above table are expressed in
passenger car units in order to take into account the influence
of capacity of different vehicle mixes on different gradients.

* also representative for combined group of medium and heavy goods vehicles and buses.
The following definitions apply to the different vehicle types mentioned in the above table.
Passenger cars: Passenger vehicles, with less than nine seats.
Light goods vehicle: Land rovers, minibuses and good vehicles of less than 1,500kg
unladen weight with payload capacities less than 760 kg.
Medium goods vehicle: Maximum gross vehicle weight 8,500 kg.
Heavy goods vehicle: Gross vehicle weight greater @ZZIGWA
than 8,500MARVIN
kg. 2022 KYU BENG
Buses: All passenger vehicles larger than minibus.
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 Capacity and Level of service and Service flow
Service Flow/Service Volume;
The Service volume for a level is ; the maximum volume that can be
carried at any selected level of service
The traffic flow rates in (veh/hr) that can be served at each level of
service are termed as service flow rate.
Once a level of service has been identified as applicable for design, the
accompanying service flow rate logically become the design
service flow rate, implying that if the traffic flow rate using the
facility exceeds that value, operating conditions will fall below
the level of service for which the facility was designed.
Design service flow rate; is the maximum hourly flow rate of
traffic that a projected road of designed dimensions would be able to
serve without the degree of congestion falling below a pre-
selected level of service.
The objective in road design is to create a facility with dimensional
values and alignment characteristics such that the resulting design
service flow rate (design capacity) is at least as great
@ZZIGWA as to
MARVIN 2022 KYUthe
BENGtraffic
flow rate during the peak 15-minute period IV
of the design hour 10
 Capacity and Level of service and Service flow


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 Capacity and Level of service and Service flow
Maximum service flow rates for multi-lane highways
Assume that ideal conditions exist, i.e. all carriageways are a standard
width (3.65m), there are no obstructions within 3.65m of their edge,
there are no heavy goods vehicles, buses or recreational vehicles on
the road, the driver population consists of regular weekday drivers
and the road is divided by a physical barrier and rural-based.

Given the existence of ideal conditions, the maximum service flow, SFMax(i),
can be defined as:
N is the number of lanes in each
direction, and Cj is the capacity of a
standard highway lane for a given design
speed j. Its values are shown in Table 4.1:

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 Capacity and Level of service and Service flow
Maximum service flow rates for multi-lane highways………

The maximum ratios of flow to capacity for each level of service and design
speed limit are given in Table 4.2.

Example
A rural divided 4-lane highway has a peak hour volume (V) in one direction of 1850
vehicles per hour. Ideal conditions apply, therefore there are no heavy goods vehicles,
buses or recreational vehicles in the traffic. The peak hour factor is 0.8. The design
speed limit is 70 mph. Determine the level of service being provided by the highway.

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 Capacity and Level of service and Service flow
Maximum service flow rates for multi-lane highways………

Under the prevailing ideal conditions, therefore, with

reference to Table 4.2, the ratio of flow to capacity is
greater than 0.54 but less than 0.71. The highway thus
provides level of service
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 Capacity and Level of service and Service flow
Maximum service flow rates for multi-lane highways
For non-ideal conditions,

Adjustment factor fw ; When lane widths are narrower than 3.65 m

and/or barriers, lighting posts or any such obstructions are closer than 1.83m
from the edge of the travelled pavement (either at the kerb or median).

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 Capacity and Level of service and Service flow
Maximum service flow rates for multi-lane highways
For non-ideal conditions,

Reduction in capacity, termed the fHV ; Heavy vehicles such as trucks, buses
and recreational vehicles have a negative effect on the capacity of a highway
due to their physical size together with their relatively slow acceleration and
braking.

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 Capacity and Level of service and Service flow
Maximum service flow rates for multi-lane highways
For non-ideal conditions,

This correction factor, fE ; reflects the reduction in capacity

resulting from the absence of a physical barrier along the centre line
of the road, with consequent interference from oncoming traffic
together with the greater likelihood of interruptions in the traffic
stream in an urban or suburban environment.

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 Capacity and Level of service and Service flow
Maximum service flow rates for multi-lane highways
For non-ideal conditions,

This correction factor, fp

If the driver population is deemed not to be ideal, i.e. not composed entirely
of regular weekday commuters, then a reduction factor can be utilized,
reducing the capacity of the highway by anything between 10% and 25%.
There are no quantitatively derived guidelines that can assist in making this
assessment. Professional judgement must be the basis for the valuation used.

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 Capacity and Level of service and Service flow
Maximum service flow rates for multi-lane highways
For non-ideal conditions, ……

Example
A suburban undivided 4-lane highway on rolling terrain has a peak hour
volume (V) in one direction of 1500 vehicles per hour, with a peak hour factor
estimated at 0.85. All lanes are 3.05 m (10 ft) wide. There are no obstructions
within 1.83 m (6 ft) of the kerb.
The percentages for the various heavy vehicle types are:

Determine the level of service of this section of highway.

Solution
1) Data Given
▪ Hourly volume (V)= 1850 Veh/hr
▪ Non Ideal condition
▪ PHF = 0.85 @ZZIGWA MARVIN 2022 KYU BENG
▪ Design speed = 60 mph IV 19
 Capacity and Level of service and Service flow
Maximum service flow rates for multi-lane highways
For non-ideal conditions, ……Example…….

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 Capacity and Level of service and Service flow

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 Capacity and Level of service and Service flow

The service flow is obtained using the ratios of flow to capacity associated with the
required level of service, as given in Table 4.7.

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 Capacity and Level of service and Service flow


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 Capacity and Level of service and Service flow


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 Capacity and Level of service and Service flow
Maximum service flow rates for 2-lane highways………
Under Non- ideal conditions
Level of service values for 2-lane highways – with no passing zones

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 Level of service values for 2-lane highways –
According to Uganda Geometric Design Manual

Under Non- ideal conditions

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 Capacity and Level of service and Service flow
Maximum service flow rates for 2-lane highways………
Under Non- ideal conditions-Example 1
A 2-lane highway has lane widths of 9 ft (2.75 m), with 6 ft (1.83 m) clear hard
shoulders. There are no-passing zones along 40% of its length. The directional split is
70/30 in favour of the peak direction.
The percentages for the various heavy vehicle types are:

The terrain is rolling.

Calculate the service flow of the highway when running at full capacity.

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 Capacity and Level of service and Service flow
Maximum service flow rates for 2-lane highways………
Under Non- ideal conditions-Example 2
Determine the level of service provided by a 2-lane highway with a peakhour volume
(V) of 1200 and a peak-hour factor of 0.8. No passing is permitted on the highway.
The directional split is 60/40 in favour of the peak direction. Both lanes are 12 ft (3.65
m) wide.There is a 1.22 m (4 ft) clearance on both hard shoulders.
 The percentages for the various heavy vehicle types are:
PT = 10%; PB = 4%; PR = 2%
 The terrain is level.

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 Capacity and Level of service and Service flow
Sizing a Road using the Highway Capacity approach
When sizing a new roadway, a desired level of service is chosen by the
designer.
This value is then used in conjunction with a design traffic volume (DHV) the
Design Hourly Volume in order to select an appropriate cross-section for the
highway.

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 Capacity and Level of service and Service flow
Sizing a Road using the Highway Capacity approach ……….
Finally, since DHV is a two-directional flow (as is AADT), the flow in the peak
direction (the directional design hour volume (DDHV)) is estimated by multiplying
it by a directional factor D:
Example
A divided rural multi-lane highway is required to cope with an AADT of 40 000
vehicles per day.
A 70 mph design speed is chosen with lanes a standard 3.65 m wide and there are no
obstructions within 1.83 m of any travelled edge. The traffic is assumed to be
composed entirely of private cars and the driver population is ideal.
The peak hour factor is 0.9 and the directional factor, D, is estimated at 0.6. The
highway is required to maintain level of service C. It is to be designed to cope
with the thirtieth highest hourly volume during the year.
Calculate the required physical extent of the highway, i.e. the number of lanes
required in each direction.

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 Capacity and Level of service and Service flow
Sizing a Road using the Highway Capacity approach ……….
Example…….
Calculate the required physical extent of the highway, i.e. the number of lanes
required in each direction.

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 Flow, Density and Speed of a Stream of Traffic
Flow, q -the number of vehicles, n, passing some given point
on the highway in a given time interval, t - in veh/hr

Density, k -number of vehicles on a given section of highway-

in veh/km

Space-mean Speed, u - For a given section of road

containing k vehicles per unit length l, the average speed of the
k vehicles is termed the space mean speed, u

Relationship between Flow, q, Density, k and Space-

Mean Speed, u
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 Flow, Density and Speed of a Stream of Traffic
Basic Traffic Stream Models
a) Speed-Density Model

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 Flow, Density and Speed of a Stream of Traffic
Basic Traffic Stream Models
b) Flow-Density Model

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 Flow, Density and Speed of a Stream of Traffic
Basic Traffic Stream Models
c) Speed-Flow Model

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 Flow, Density and Speed of a Stream of Traffic
Basic Traffic Stream Models
c) Speed-Flow Model

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 Models of Traffic Flow
The most simplistic approach to vehicle arrival modelling is to assume that
all vehicles are equally or uniformly spaced. This results in what is termed a
deterministic, uniform arrival pattern.
Poisson Models;
Models that account for the non-uniformity of flow are derived by assuming
that the pattern of vehicle arrivals corresponds to some random process.
An example of such a distribution is the Poisson distribution which is expressed
as:

Example– Applying the Poisson model

An engineer counts 360veh/hr at a specified highway location. Assuming that the
arrival of vehicles at the highway location is Poisson distributed, estimate the
probabilities of having 0, 1, 2, 3, and 5 or more vehicles arriving over a 20-second
interval.

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 Queuing Theory and Traffic Flow Analysis
The purpose of traffic queuing models is to provide a means to
estimate important measures of highway performance including
vehicle delay and traffic queue length.
Such estimates are critical to highway design (e.g. the required length of right
turn bays(An area where vehicles that are turning right can wait until it is safe to
tun, without holding up vehicles going straight through),
and the number of lanes at intersections and traffic operations control including
the time of traffic signals at intersections)

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 Queuing Theory and Traffic Flow Analysis
Arrival patterns: Given an average vehicle arrival time, two possible distributions of
the time between the arrivals of successive vehicles considered so far are: equal time
intervals (derived from the assumption of uniform, deterministic arrivals) and
exponentially distributed time intervals (derived from the assumption of Poisson
distributed arrival).

Vehicle departure characteristics (distribution of the amount of time it takes a

vehicle to depart, e.g. the time required to pay a toll at a toll booth). Equal
intervals and exponentially distributed time intervals described for arrival patterns
are also considered appropriate for vehicle departure characteristics.
Number of available departure channels is also another important aspect of
queuing models. For most traffic applications only one departure channel
will exist, such as highway lane or group of lanes passing through an
intersection.
Queuing models are typically identified by three alphanumeric values: the first value
indicates the arrival rate assumption; the second value gives the departure rate
assumption; and the third value indicates the number of departure channels. Uniform,
deterministic arrival and departure assumptions distribution is denoted D,
and the exponential distribution is donated M. Thus a D/D/1 queuing model
assumes deterministic arrivals and departures with one departure
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channel. IV 39
 Queuing Theory and Traffic Flow Analysis
a) D/D/1 Queuing: Consider vehicles arriving at an entrance to a recreational park.
There is a single gate (at which all vehicles must stop), where a park attendant distributes
free brochures. The park opens at 8:00am, at which time vehicles begin to arrive at a rate of
480Veh/hr. After 20 minutes, the arrival flow rate declines to 120Veh/h and continues at that
level for the remainder of the day. If the time required to distribute the brochure is 15
seconds, and assuming D/D/1 queuing, describe the operation characteristics of the queue.

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 Queuing Theory and Traffic Flow Analysis
a) D/D/1 Queuing:-Example.
After observing arrivals and departures at a highway toll booth over a 60-minute
period, an observer notes that the arrival and departure rates (or service rates) are
deterministic but instead of being uniform, change over time according to a known
function. The arrival rate is given by the function λ(t) = 2.2 + 0.17t - 0.0032t2, and the
departure rate is given by µ(t) = 1.2 + 0.07t, where t is in minutes after the beginning
of the observation period and λ(t) and µ(t) are in vehicles per minute.
Determine the total vehicle delay at the toll booth and the longest queue
assuming D/D/1 queuing.

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 Queuing Theory and Traffic Flow Analysis
a) D/D/1 Queuing:-Example………….

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 Queuing Theory and Traffic Flow Analysis
a) D/D/1 Queuing:-Example………….

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 Queuing Theory and Traffic Flow Analysis
b) M/D/1 Queuing- Exponentially distributed arrivals, deterministic
departures, and one departure channel. A graphical solution to an M/D/1
queue is difficult, but a mathematical solution is straight forward.

Example
Consider the entrance to the recreation park earlier. However, let the average arrival
flow rate be 180Veh/hr and Poisson distributed (exponential times between arrivals)
over the entire period from park opening time (8:00am) until closing at dusk.Compute
the average length of queue (in vehicles), average waiting time in queue, and average
time speed in the system, assuming M/D/1 queuing.

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 Queuing Theory and Traffic Flow Analysis
b) M/D/1 Queuing-Example……..

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 Queuing Theory and Traffic Flow Analysis
c) M/M/1 Queuing

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 Queuing Theory and Traffic Flow Analysis
d) M/M/N Queuing
This is a more general formulation where N is the total number of departure
channels.
A parking lot, and checkout lines at retail stores, and security checkpoints at
airports are examples of M/M/N queuing.

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 Queuing Theory and Traffic Flow Analysis
d) M/M/N Queuing………….

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 Queuing Theory and Traffic Flow Analysis
d) M/M/N Queuing…………. Example….

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 Queuing Theory and Traffic Flow Analysis
d) M/M/N Queuing…………. Example….

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 Queuing Theory and Traffic Flow Analysis
e) Traffic Analysis at Highway Bottlenecks
Some of the most severe congestion problems occur at highway
bottlenecks, which can be generally defined as a portion of highway
with lower capacity [qm] than the incoming section of highway.

This reduction in capacity can originate from a number of sources

including a decrease in the number of highway lanes and reduced
shoulder width.
There are two types of traffic bottlenecks-those that are recurring,
and those that are incident-induced.

The analysis of traffic flow at bottlenecks can be

undertaken using the queuing models.
The most intuitive approach from which traffic congestion at
bottlenecks can be analysed is to assume D/D/1 queuing.

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