Transport-Planning-chapt 1A 2022

TRAFFIC ENGINEERING AND
MANAGEMENT
Chapter 1
By
ZZIGWA MARVIN
Department of Civil and Building Engineering
Course Assessment
❑ Course
work 40%
❑ Class project 30%
❑ Part A 15%
❑Part B 15%
❑Test 10 %
❑ Exam 60%
Course Outline
1. Transportation planning
2. Transport systems
3. Passenger transport systems
4. Measures of Traffic Management
5. Transport Studies
6. Traffic Modelling
7. Capacity and level of service
8. Traffic management at intersection (Traffic signals)
1.0. Transportation Planning- Introduction
The Transport Task
Everybody travels whether it is to work, play,
shop or do business.
Therefore; Transport engineering applies and
scientific principles to planning, functional
design, operation and management of
facilities for any mode of transport in
order to provide for safe, rapid, comfortable,
convenient, economical, and environmentally
compatible movement of people and goods.
 Transportation planning:
 Study of present transportation patterns in relation
to present population, economy and land use of area;
 Estimation of future transportation patterns related

to prediction of future population, land use and
economy;
 3) Development of alternatives/measures/strategies;
 4) Adoption of a transportation plan with proposals

for its implementation and financing.
 Originally Transportation planning involved
◦ Planning and provision of isolated facilities e.g. a bridge, a
highway, railway or widening of an existing street or a line
of mass transportation facility
◦ Transportation facilities were provided by considering only

a specific facility as being the entire component of the
planning and construction processes
◦ No attempt was made to investigate the impact of such

facilities on the wider transportation system
◦ However,
◦ Transportation planning has now evolved from
concentration of a single facility to examination of the total
transportation system
 Levels of Transportation planning:
 Policy planning
◦ Set transportation policy, development goals and objectives in
relation to resources
 System planning
◦ a process under which transportation networks & corridors are
defined, starting from forecast of population and economic
growth to physical description of the system
 Facility planning
◦ determine the scale and layout of individual facility (highway
geometry, junction details, etc)
 Periodical categories of planning:
 Long range: l5-30 years
◦ General in scope, purpose and objectives
◦ Needs to be updated to reflect unexpected change in population,
development
◦ It is a guide for development & it is never fixed (Master plan).
 Intermediate range planning: 5-15 years
◦ It is more specific (e.g. route location)
◦ Provide details of facilities including alternatives, their
characteristics such as benefit to cost ratios environment
impacts, etc.
 Short range: 5 years or less
◦ More detailed and precise
◦ Provides physical information about transport facilities,
development of adjacent land use
 Outputs of Transportation planning process:
◦ Objectives & problems
◦ Alternatives/strategies/measures that can be employed
◦ How will these alternatives match the community desires
◦ What steps need to be taken to implement the plans

satisfactorily
1.1. Approaches to Transportation Planning
 Objectives led approach
◦ Local authority or department responsible first specifies broad
or detailed objectives
◦ Objectives are then used to identify problems
 By assessing the extent to which current or predicted future
conditions in the absence of any interventions, fail to meet the
objectives
◦ See figure l
 Problem- oriented approach
◦ Define the types of problem
◦ Uses data on current (or predicted future) conditions to identify when and
where these problems occur
◦ It starts at the 2nd box in figure l
◦ Objectives are implicit in the specified problems and may never be actually
stated
◦ It has the merit of being easily understood

◦ however it is dependent on developing a full list of potential problems at
the outset
◦ If particular types of problem (like access to job centres) are not identified
because the underlying objective (accessibility) has not been considered, the
resulting strategy will be partial in its impact
◦ It is important that a full set of problems is identified at the onset
 Top-down approach
◦ Based on a vision and broad objectives
◦ Generates an overall strategy which in turn provides the context
for local, detailed planning
◦ It is more appropriate for larger conurbations
 Bottom-up approach
◦ Focuses on local areas and their problems, and identifies the
solutions to these problems
◦ It is more appropriate for smaller conurbations
1.2. Types of Objectives
 An objective is a statement of a desired end
◦ Statement can range from the very general
 e.g. achieving high quality of life or a successful urban economy
◦ to very specific such as reducing accidents to a certain level
◦ the first provides the context for the strategy and direction to
it
◦ the second provides a basis for assessing whether the objective
is being met
 A. Statements of vision
◦ Broad indications of the type of area which politicians or
technocrats or public wish to see
◦ Most general specifications often appear in statements of vision
◦ They serve to identify long term goals to which more detailed
transport objectives can contribute
 A. Statements of vision
◦ Statements say nothing about transport itself, instead they raise
the question; "How best can transport help to realise this
vision?“
◦ The answers to this question help to specify the higher level
objectives
 B. Higher level objectives

◦ Higher level objectives (sometimes referred to as aims or goals)
identify attributes of the transport system or its side effects
which can be improved as a means of realising the vision
◦ E.g. to reduce congestion, avoid accidents, protect the
environment and improve accessibility
◦ Indicate the directions in which strategies should be developed
 B. Higher level objectives
◦ Provide a means of assessing the relative performance of
different strategies e.g. in reducing accidents or pollution
◦ Do not however indicate whether a particular solution is
adequate in its impact
 C. Quantified objectives
◦ Indicate a requirement e.g. reducing accidents by 20% or to
avoid frontage noise levels in excess of 68 decibels
◦ Provide a clearer basis for assessing performance of a strategy
◦ But do require careful definition if the specified thresholds are to
be realistic
◦ They provide a direct basis for identifying problems for current
or future conditions,
 on the basis that a problem occurs wherever the quantified objective
is not met
 D. Solution-specific objectives
◦ It is important to avoid specifying solutions within the objectives
as this constrains the search for solutions
◦ A statement such as: “to improve accessibility by public transport
by introducing bus priorities" suggests that this is the only way of
improving accessibility
◦ where such statements are made, it is preferable to ask why this
solution is being proposed and what it is designed to achieve
◦ Answers to such questions should lead to clearer specification of
the true underlying objectives,
◦ and the proposed solution can be tested alongside others in the
strategy formulation process
1.2. 1. Set of Objectives
 Economic efficiency
◦ Means taking all measures for which the willingness to pay of the
beneficiaries exceeds the required compensation for the losers
◦ In transport the efficiency objective is concerned primarily with
maximising the net benefits of the provision of transport
◦ Efficiency defined in this way is central to the principles of social
cost-benefit analysis,
◦ a higher net present value from a cost-benefit assessment
represents a more efficient outcome
 Environmental Protection
◦ Involves reducing the impact of transport facilities, and their use
on the environment of both users and non-users
◦ Environmental impacts include: noise, atmospheric pollution,
vibration, visual intrusion, fear, intimidation, loss of intrinsically
valuable objects, such as flora and fauna, ancient monuments and
historic buildings through consumption of land
 Environmental Protection
◦ while some of the impacts can be readily quantified, others such
as intimidation are much more difficult to define and analyse
◦ Attempts have been made, with impacts such as noise and
pollution, to place money values on them,
◦ and hence include them in a wider cost benefit analysis
◦ but it is generally accepted it will be some time before this can
be done reliably even for those impacts which can be readily
quantified
 Safety
◦ Concerned with reducing the loss of life, injuries and damage to
property resulting from transport accidents
◦ This objective is closely associated with the concerns over fear
and intimidation listed under environmental protection above,
and these concerns could readily be covered under either
heading
 Safety
◦ It is common practice to place money values on accidents and to
include these within a social cost benefit analysis
◦ These values include the direct costs of accidents such as
 loss of output, hospital, police and insurance costs, replacement of
property and more controversially, an allowance for the pain, grief
and suffering incurred
 Accessibility
◦ Concerned with the increasing the ability with which people in
different locations and with differing availability of transport, can
reach different types of facilities
◦ In most cases accessibility is considered from the point of view
of the resident, and assessed for access to activities such as
employment, shopping, leisure, etc
 Accessibility
◦ It is also possible to consider accessibility from the standpoint of
the employer or retail outlet, wanting to obtain as large a
catchment as possible in terms of potential employees or
customers
◦ In either case accessibility can be measured simply in terms of
time spent travelling or using the concept of generalised cost, in
terms of a combination of time and money costs
 Sustainability
◦ This objective as been defined as being in pursuit of
"development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
needs", (Brundtland, l987)
◦ It can therefore be thought of in transport terms as a higher
level objective which considers the trade-off between efficiency
and accessibility on one hand and the environment and safety on
the other
 Sustainability
◦ A strategy which achieves improvements in efficiency and
accessibility without degrading the environment or increasing the
accident toll is clearly more sustainable
◦ However, the definition of sustainability also includes

considerations of the impact on the wider global environment
and on the environment of future generations
◦ Issues to be considered under this heading include the reduction

of carbon dioxide emissions, which are a major contributor to
the process of global warming
◦ controlling the rate of consumption of fossil fuels, which are non-
renewable,
◦ and limiting also the use of other non-renewable resources used
in the construction of transport infrastructure and vehicles
 Economic regeneration
◦ This can be defined in a number of ways, depending on the needs
of the local area
◦ At its most general it involves reinforcing the land use plans of
the area
◦ If these foresee a growth in industry in the inner city, new
residential areas or a revitalised shopping centre, then these are
the developments, which the transport strategy should be
supporting
◦ At its simplest it can do so by providing the new infrastructure
and services required for areas of new development
◦ But transport can contribute to the encouragement of new
activity by improving accessibility to an area, by enhancing its
environment and, potentially, by improving the image of the area.
◦ Economic regeneration objective thus relates directly to those of
accessibility and environmental protection
 Equity
◦ Concerned with ensuring that the benefits of transport
strategies are reasonably equally distributed,
◦ or are focused particularly on those with special needs
◦ Among the latter may be included lower income residents, those
without cars, elderly and disabled people, and those living in
deprived areas
◦ The equity objective will also be concerned with avoiding
worsening accessibility, the environment or safety for any of
these groups
 Finance
◦ Financial considerations act primarily as constraints on the
design of the strategy
◦ In particular they are a major barrier to investment in new
infrastructure, or to measures which impose a continuing
demand on the revenue account, such as low fares
 Finance
◦ In a few cases, the ability to raise revenue may be seen as an
objective in its own right, and it is clearly the dominant objective
for private sector participants in a transport strategy
◦ The finance objective can therefore be defined as minimising
financial outlay or maximising revenue
 Practicability
◦ The other major constraints on strategy design and
implementation are practical ones
◦ Issues under this heading include: the feasibility of new
technology; the ability to acquire land; the simplicity of
administration and enforcement of regulatory measures, and
public acceptability
 Practicability
◦ Flexibility of design and operation, to deal with
uncertainties in future demands or operating circumstances,
may also be important
◦ The practicability objective can thus be defined as ensuring
that the strategies are technically, legally and politically
feasible and adaptable to changing circumstances.
◦ Please find more details in the hand outs on efficiency,

environmental, sustainability, safety, accessibility,
1.3.0The Transportation System
1.3.0 The Transportation System
1.3.0 .1 Passenger transport systems
3.0 .1 Passenger transport systems
1. 3.0 .1 Passenger transport systems
3.0 .1 Passenger transport systems
1.3. Measures
 Measures (means) by which objectives of transport planning
can be achieved
 Or means by transportation problems solved
 These are sometimes referred to as instruments of transport
policy
 Principally the measures can be categorised in two broad

categories namely;
 those that deal with the supply side
 and those that deal with the demand side
 A set of measures constitute a strategy
1.3. 1. Measures
 INFRASTRUCTURE MEASURES
 Involves provision of new infrastructure namely:
◦ Highway construction
◦ Railway Construction
◦ New car parks- cater for cars
◦ Conventional rail provision
◦ Light rail transit
◦ Guided bus
◦ Park and ride- Provide for public transport
◦ Cycle routes
◦ Pedestrian areas- these provide for pedestrians and cyclists
◦ Lorry parks
◦ Trans-shipment facilities- these provide for freight
1.3. 1. Measures
 Highway construction
◦ This leads to congestion relief, environment relief, enhanced
safety and stimulation of economic activity
◦ New roads generate travel time benefits and bypassing sensitive
areas they achieve environmental benefits
◦ Reduction in accidents and thus enhanced safety can also be
achieved
◦ Road construction can lead to improved accessibility for car
users
 However the above benefits can be eroded by generation of
additional traffic
 In addition there are equity implications of additional provision for
car users
 and serious practical constraints arising from high costs of
construction of the road.
1.3. 1. Measures
 Highway construction has an adverse impact on sustainability
◦ it focuses on the car which makes other modes of transport e.g.
walking and cycling less attractive,
◦ it also increases fuel consumption and CO2 emissions
◦ It might also worsen accessibility for pedestrians and cyclists
 Railway Construction
◦ In developing countries, there is an enormous need for
newly built railway infrastructure
 Can be also used for enabling development (mainly governments
intension)
 Specific railway may be operated to allow the sale of a product
 Objective is to allow access to market –railway it self does not
have to be profitable
 Often carries primarily a single products, for example, iron ore
 Railway can be seen as part of the production process, similar to
conveyor belt, Example: Australian mine trains (Rio Tinto)
1.3. 1. Measures
◦ Characteristics of rail transport
1.3. 1. Measures
1.3. 1. Measures
1.3. 1. Measures
 New car parks
◦ Another way in which infrastructure is provided for cars is through
additional parking
◦ Can contribute to reducing the need to search for parking space
◦ There is less evidence of their impacts, but much will depend on the
measures which complement such provision
◦ New off-street parking can probably be best combined with a
reduction in on-street parking
◦ This would reduce traffic searching for parking spaces, improve the
environment and increase safety
1.3. 1. Measures
 New car parks
◦ But it would lead to worsening accessibility especially for those who
need to park close to their destinations
◦ Similarly as with highway construction, the costs of parking
provision and land availability act as constraints
 Conventional rail provision
◦ This involves opening of rail lines and new stations
◦ These can lead to reducing travel time for existing users,
◦ Attract other users from other modes especially cars.
◦ Transfer from car contributes positively to the environment and
also safety;
 by reducing levels of car use they reduce the energy
consumption and CO2 emissions
1.3. 1. Measures
 Conventional rail provision
◦ Rail infrastructure enhances accessibility by reducing waiting times,
increase in-vehicle speeds as trains are protected from road
congestion
◦ They are less likely to have equity implications since they offer a
service that can be used by all
◦ However these benefits are limited to the corridors directly served
◦ Similarly as in the case of other infrastructure, rail constraints
include the high costs and land availability.
 Light rail transit (LRT)
◦ LRTs are specialised form of the conventional rail
◦ A LRT is a tracked, electronically driven local means of transport
◦ It employs steel wheeled single or articulated vehicles propelled by
rotary traction motors, which normally collect power from an
overhead wire at 750V
1.3. 1. Measures
1.3.1. Measures
◦ Vehicles run on conventional railway track of 1435mm gauge
◦ Tracks maybe on-street or segregated or below underground
Table 1. Characteristics of LRT
Characteristic Value
Maximum speed (km/hr) 70-80
Operating speed (km/hr) 20-40
Vehicles per train 1-4
Vehicle length (m) 14-32
Vehicle height & width 3.5m high x 2.65m wide
Passenger per vehicle 200
◦ LRT vehicles may be coupled into trains

◦ Overhead wires maybe supported from span wires between buildings
or supported by poles, which maybe between tracks or besides tracks
or part of the street lighting columns and hence reducing the urban
clutter
1.3.1. Measures
◦ LRT as the same impacts on efficiency, environment, safety, accessibility,
sustainability and equity as conventional rail
◦ Constraints include:
 Financial- is expensive to install, (each vehicle costs USD 800,000 and
the tracks costs 6-10 USD per km),
 causes visual intrusion and also the practical problems of inserting
new services into the urban fabric.
 Guided bus
◦ Is a form of dual mode system designed to enable a conventional bus to
operate on both ordinary roads & specialised guide ways
◦ Buses are steered by external means on a dedicated track
◦ Guide systems are grouped into two groups namely:
 Track guidance- where the bus is mechanically controlled by direct contact
of the guide wheels with the track guide rails
 Electronic track guidance- the bus is steered electronically by a buried wire
in the track
1.3.1. Measures
 Guided bus
◦ Travel time for guided buses is improved
◦ A guided bus provides a lower cost alternative to LRT
◦ Totally separate rights of way can be provided e.g. in Adelaide in
Australia and Essen city in Germany.
 Systems in these cities showed that guided buses can attract people from
cars in a similar way as rail.
◦ The impacts of guided buses are still uncertain; it should have less
adverse impact on efficiency than light rail, by requiring less space
◦ However in cases of high bus flows, where there is significant boarding
and alighting at stops, the speed and capacity can be reduced due to
bunching at the stops.
1.3.1. Measures
 Guided bus
1.3. 1. Measures
 Park and Ride
◦ The act of parking at a custom built car park and transferring to public
transport to travel onward to one's destination
◦ This aids in reducing congestion, visual intrusion and accidents in the
central city areas
◦ But it does not improve accessibility and equity since by definition only
car users can use the facility
◦ Land availability, costs of construction and operation are the
constraints.
 Cycle routes and Pedestrian areas
◦ Cycle routes provide dedicated infrastructure for cyclists; they are
primarily intended to make cycling safer
◦ They achieve travel time benefits for cyclists, but will not attract more
people to cycle in the absence of other measures
◦ Availability of suitable corridors and land act as constraints.
1.3.1. Measures
 Cycle routes and Pedestrian areas
◦ Pedestrian areas are streets for use mainly by pedestrians
◦ vehicle maybe excluded or allowed at particular times.
◦ They provide an improved environment and safety for pedestrians
◦ But present accessibility problems for car users and goods
deliveries vehicles
 Lorry Parks and Trans shipment facilities
◦ Lorry parks are dedicated parks for lorries and trucks
◦ Provide a means of reducing the environment impact of on-street
overnight parking of lorries.
◦ Trans shipment facilities provide a means of transferring goods from
larger vehicles, to smaller environmentally intrusive vehicles for
distribution in the town centres
◦ But may lead to increased costs of operation for the freight operators.
1.3. 2. Measures
 MANAGEMENT MEASURES
◦ Conventional traffic management
◦ Traffic calming
◦ Regulatory restrictions on car use
◦ Car sharing
◦ Bus priorities
◦ High occupancy vehicle lanes
◦ Bus (& rail) service levels
◦ Pedestrian crossing facilities
◦ Lorry routes and bans
1.3. 2. Measures
 Conventional traffic management
◦ Concerned with making the best use of the existing road system
◦ either to accommodate as many vehicles as possible or
accommodate as many people as possible
◦ subject to environmental constraints or with priority for those

with greatest need, modifying the demand of other users or
subject to the need to keeping accidents to a minimum
◦ Traffic management measures are designed to improve efficiency

and safety, and to do so at low cost
◦ There is ample evidence that they can reduce accidents, and are
cost effective in doing so
1.3. 2. Measures
 A. One-Way systems
◦ Traffic is only allowed to flow in only one direction
◦ A simple regulatory tool available for relief of traffic congestion
◦ Lead to increase in road capacity,
◦ Slow or moving/stopped vehicles can be safely overtaken,
◦ Conflicts at junctions are reduced,
◦ Linking signals can be facilitated,
◦ Reduction in vehicle-vehicle and pedestrian-vehicle conflicts
 Efficiency & safety benefits can be achieved

 However these benefits can be offset by longer distances, longer
access times for bus users and greater environment intrusion into
other roads/streets
1.3. 2. Measures
 A. One-Way systems
◦ One way schemes need to be thoroughly signed at all points
where the motorist makes a decision
◦ No entry, signs are essential to mark the entrance and exit,
◦ in addition 'No left turn‘ or 'No right turn' signs should be
displayed
 B). Tidal flow

◦ Carriageway width is shared between two directions of travel in
proportion to the flow in each direction
◦ Number of lanes assigned to each direction of travel varies with

the time of day so that extra capacity is provided to heavier
traffic flow during peak periods
1.3. 2. Measures
 B). Tidal flow
◦ Extra capacity is provided on the same road at the time required
◦ Traffic in the minor direction does not have to move to a
complementary street
◦ However, poor implementation can result in increase in the
head-on collision accidents
 C). Parking restriction or controls

◦ Involves limiting parking duration of vehicles or prohibiting
parking at particular times of day or reducing the supply of
parking spaces,
◦ and regulating use through permits or charging.
◦ More road can be released for moving traffic and safety is
enhanced
1.3. 2. Measures
 C). Parking restriction or controls
◦ However these may affect access to local frontages
◦ and enforcement is required for their success
 D). Banned turns

◦ At junctions reduce the vehicle-vehicle conflicts
◦ this enhances safety
1.3. 2. Measures
 Urban traffic control
◦ These systems are a specialist form of traffic management which
extends the principles of traffic signal control by integrating the
control of all signals over a wide area,
◦ using the control parameters of split (of green times in the
cycle), cycle time, and offset (of the start of green at a given
junction) to optimise a given objective such as minimising travel
time or stops
◦ Can lead to travel time savings,

◦ improved environment (since there are fewer stops and queues),
◦ Safety.
1.3. 2. Measures
 Traffic calming measures
◦ Are designed to reduce the adverse environmental and safety
impacts of the car
◦ Involve two approaches namely:
 Segregation- in which extraneous traffic is removed
 Integration- in which traffic is permitted but encouraged to respect the
environment
 Segregation can be achieved by use of:
◦ one way streets, road closures, banned turns
◦ which makes through movement difficult and hence diverts traffic to
surrounding areas
◦ Extra traffic on the surrounding areas can add to congestion and
environmental intrusion there
◦ But the environment and safety in the area where traffic is eliminated is
enhanced
1.3. 2. Measures
 Traffic calming measures
 Integration measures include:
◦ Low speed limits, speed humps, chicanes, pinch points, cushions, speed
table
◦ All designed to encourage the driver to drive more cautiously and
slowly
◦ Can lead to reduction in speeds and accidents, and also equity benefits.
 Regulatory restrictions on car use

◦ As an alternative way of reducing car use
◦ Permits are allocated to those who can justify needing their cars in the
centre and other are banned
◦ In particular days odd numbers are allowed and those with even
numbers on other days
1.3. 2. Measures
 Regulatory restrictions on car use
◦ Permit systems are likely to prove expensive in terms of the resources
required to check the validity of applications and to issue permits
◦ Those without permits may experience reduction in accessibility
◦ Experience with the Lagos system revealed that, while it is easier to
operate, it is less effective, since driver can respond by owning two cars
 Car sharing
◦ Sharing of cars offers a means of reducing car traffic while
retaining many of the advantages of private car travel
◦ Unfortunately experience suggests that numbers sharing
voluntarily are small
◦ Such schemes are likely to have a minimal impact in urban areas.
1.3. 2. Measures
 Bus priorities
◦ Provision of priority for buses enables them to bypass congested
traffic and hence to experience reduced and more reliable journey
times
◦ These may include:
◦ With-flow bus lanes, exemption from banned turns, selective
detection at signals
◦ This leads to travel time savings, segregation of traffic enhances
safety.
◦ However, frontage access is affected if parking is restricted,
◦ Queues for other traffic maybe longer and traffic diversion maybe
induced.
◦ Practical limitations for bus lanes include: lack of sites with suitable
space for extra lane and the need for enforcement.
1.3. 2. Measures
 High occupancy vehicle lanes
◦ Lanes dedicated for use by vehicles with 2+ occupants, these may
include car sharers, buses, taxis, commercial vehicles
◦ Experience suggests that these can provide greater benefits,
◦ but enforcement is difficult.
 Bus (and rail) service levels

◦ Level of public transport service can be modified to increase
patronage, and hence attract diversion from car use
◦ For bus services the main options are to increase route density or
to increase frequency on the existing routes
◦ With rail services level could be enhanced by increasing service
frequency
1.3. 2. Measures
 Bus (and rail) service levels
◦ Improvements in service levels leads to improvements in
accessibility and equity
◦ However there are practical barriers that involve costs of
operation.
 Pedestrian crossing facilities
◦ Are primarily a safety measure but may reduce travel time for
pedestrians
◦ Are broadly categorised into groups namely:
 At grade crossings- which include:
 i. Uncontrolled crossings e.g. zebra crossings,
 ii. Light controlled crossing e.g. conventional traffic signals, pelican
crossings
 iii. Person controlled crossings e.g. police-controlled and school
crossings
1.3. 2. Measures
 Pedestrian crossing facilities
◦ Segregated crossings- these are grade separated from the vehicular
carriageway
 Examples include footbridges and subways
◦ These crossings lead to reduced delays and vehicle-pedestrian conflicts,
thus accruing efficiency and safety benefits for the pedestrians.
1.3. 2. Measures
 Lorry routes and bans
◦ Are designed primarily to reduce the environmental intrusion of heavy
lorries
◦ Bans can be area wide or limited to particular roads
◦ Can improve the environment and safety of the areas where lorries are
excluded
◦ Generally restrictions on lorries are likely to result into:

◦ Reduced efficiency (i.e. increase in operating costs)
◦ Environmental losses on the diversion routes
◦ And will require increased enforcement costs.
1.3. 2. Measures
 REFERENCE(S)
 C A O’Flaherty, et al(1996). Transport Planning and Traffic
Engineering. Arnold.
 Ogunisanya A (l984). Improving urban traffic flow by restraint
of traffic: the case of Lagos. Transportation l2(2)
1.3. 3. Measures
 PRICING MEASURES
◦ Vehicle ownership taxes
◦ Fuel taxes
◦ Parking charges
◦ Congestion charging
◦ Fare levels
◦ Concessionary fares
1.3. 3. Measures
 Vehicle ownership taxes
◦ Include vehicle licensing fees, taxes on car purchase
◦ However there is little evidence that they have a significant impact on
car ownership
 For example in Hong Kong when the car purchase tax was doubled
and annual car tax tripled in 1982, car ownership fell dramatically,
 But car use fell in low income areas but rose where it was most
congested
 However are a major source of revenue which can potentially be
used to finance transport investment.
 Fuel taxes
◦ These taxes have a more direct effect on car usage
◦ Studies at the time of the 1970s fuel crises suggested a short-run
elasticity of around -0.2 to the fuel price, implying a 2% reduction in car
use to a 10% increase in fuel price
1.3. 3. Measures
 Fuel taxes
◦ But in the long run drivers are more likely to switch to more fuel-
efficient vehicles.
◦ This would contribute to fuel savings and hence efficiency,
◦ environmental and sustainability objectives, but would have little effect
on congestion or safety
◦ Fuel taxes bear heavily on low-income drivers and income earners
whose accessibility they may adversely affect
◦ Fuel taxes are a major source of revenue.
 Parking charges
◦ Charging for parking is one of the most widely used forms of parking
control
◦ Enable demand to be kept below the supply of parking spaces, thus
reducing time spent searching for parking spaces
◦ However, increasing parking charges it might encourage drivers, and
particularly shoppers to go elsewhere, thus adversely affecting the
1.3. 3. Measures
 Parking charges
◦ Parking charges will affect low-income drivers more, and thus have
equity implications
◦ They are only applicable to publicly controlled parking space and do not
apply to through traffic
◦ However, they are a source of revenue.
 Congestion charging (Road pricing)

◦ Involves imposing charges for road use
◦ Charging has been proposed in a number of forms,
◦ E. g. using paper licences to cross screen lines or cordons (as in
Singapore- in 1975), toll gates (as in Norway) or fully electronic
charging (as in Singapore- 1998)
◦ Systems which charge continuously in a defined area, based on time
taken, distance travelled or time spent in congestion, have also been
proposed.
1.3. 3. Measures
◦ The simplest means of charging for car use in congested areas at
congested times is Supplementary or Area Licensing, as introduced in
Singapore in 1975
◦ cars with less than four people were charged 60p to enter the area
between 0730 and 1015.
◦ No evening peak charges were imposed, in addition park and ride and
other parking controls were introduced.
◦ Traffic levels fell dramatically by 44%, with significant transfers to other
times, to bus and to car sharing,
◦ speeds increased by 20% in the centre,
◦ boundary route speeds reduced by 20%,
◦ the benefits were substantial and adverse impacts small.
◦ Subsequent changes extended charging to the evening peak and inter-
peak.
1.3. 3. Measures
◦ However, the system was seen as increasingly inflexible, and was
replaced in 1998 by the world's first electronic pricing system.
◦ 97% of the 700,000 vehicles were equipped with in-vehicle units that
are detected as they pass gantries
◦ A charge, which varied by vehicle type and time of day, was deducted
from the vehicle's smart card every time it passed a gantry
◦ Charges were varied every three months to keep the city centre and
expressway speeds within acceptable ranges
◦ Traffic levels, relative to those with Area Licensing, fell by around 15%
but with some increases before charging starts in the morning
◦ The scheme proved very successful, with low violation rates,
(Menon, 2000).
◦ Congestion charging could significantly reduce car use in the charged
area, and hence reduce environmental impact of cars and accidents.
1.3. 3. Measures
◦ Improves accessibility, although the time and money costs of private
travellers will increase.
◦ Generates substantial revenue, which can potentially be used to finance
other transport investments
◦ The equity implications are more uncertain.
◦ Bus users, pedestrians and cyclists will benefit, rail users will be little
affected
◦ Car users, and particularly the low-income earners would suffer
◦ May lead to adverse impact on the economy of the charged area if
charging encourages drivers to travel elsewhere, on which there is little
or no evidence.
◦ Encourages adverse boundary effects e.g. re-routeing of traffic, etc.
◦ Practicability issues include the reliability of the technology involved,
enforcement costs and public acceptability.
1.3. 3. Measures
 Fare levels and Concessionary fares
◦ Fares can be adjusted on all public transport services and will have a
direct effect on patronage and on car use
◦ Fare reductions can contribute to efficiency and environmental
objectives,
◦ As well as improving accessibility for public transport users and hence
equity
◦ The major draw back is there cost
◦ Concessionary fares provide lower fares or free travel to specific
categories of people with special needs such as school children, elderly
people and people with disabilities
◦ They have no significant efficiency and environmental benefits
◦ but they do improve accessibility for a target population
◦ However, they impose a substantial financial burden on the local
authorities which support them.
1.3. 3. Measures
 RETERENCES
 Menon , APG (2000). Electronic road pricing in Singapore: a perspective
one year on. Traffic Engineering and Control 4l(2)
 CA O‘Flaherty, et al(1996).Transport Planning and Traffic Engineering.
Arnold. Chapter 3.
1.3. 4. Measures
 INFORMATION PROVISION MEASURES
◦ Conventional direction signing
◦ Variable message signs
◦ Real-time driver information systems and route guidance
◦ Parking information systems
◦ Telecommunications
◦ Public awareness campaigns
1.3. 4. Measures
 Conventional direction signing
◦ Good direction signing can provide benefits to car users, and other
traffic, by reducing journey lengths and travel times
◦ evidence suggests that around 6% of the travel time may be accounted
◦ for by poor routing, and that inadequate destination signing may as
much double the time spent searching for unfamiliar destinations,
(Jeffery, 1981).
◦ Direction signing can be used to divert traffic away from
environmentally sensitive routes
◦ However familiar drivers are unlikely to respond to such measures.
 Variable message signs

◦ Enable drivers to be diverted away from known incidents like
congestion, accidents, etc.
◦ They are very location specific in their application, and hence in their
benefits
1.3. 4. Measures
 Variable message signs
◦ Potential benefits are primarily in terms of efficiency; but drivers are
unwilling to divert in significant numbers to avoid the incidents
 Real-time driver information systems and route guidance

◦ Information from equipped vehicles or traffic sensors is used to provide
radio or in-vehicle display messages of delays, or to indicate preferred
routes to avoid congestion
◦ Evidence suggests that familiar drivers are more likely to prefer
information, and to choose their own routes, while unfamiliar drivers
prefer guidance, (Bonsall, 1992).
◦ Several studies have predicted reductions in travel time of around l0%
from such systems, when applied in urban areas, together with
reductions in accidents
◦ Most benefits will accrue to equipped vehicles in the form of improved
accessibility; benefits for other private traffic may well be very small,
thus raising equity considerations.
1.3. 4. Measures
 Real-time driver information systems and route guidance
◦ It has also been suggested that improved information may generate
additional travel, however there is still little evidence to support this.
 Parking information systems

◦ Are designed to reduce the high level of traffic searching for parking
space in urban centres
◦ Detectors identify car parks which are full or almost full, and trigger
signs indicating the route to the nearest available space
◦ Studies have demonstrated a significant reduction in time spent finding
a parking space, thus leading to efficiency and accessibility benefits.
 Telecommunications
◦ Modern telecommunication technology provides an alternative to travel
for all, but studies have focused particularly on their use as an
alternative to car travel.
1.3. 4. Measures
 Telecommunications
◦ Application include:
 Teleworking- through which employees can work at home
 Studies in US and Holland suggest that teleworking can reduce car
use; typical teleworkers work from home two days a week, and their
cars are used much less on the days when they are at home, (Hamer,
et al, 1991).
 Teleconferencing & teleshopping
 Public awareness campaigns
◦ Campaigns can be developed by local authorities as ways of making
residents, particularly car users, more aware of the effects of their travel
behaviour on the environment,
◦ And to alert them to the alternatives available, including use of other
modes.
1.4 . 0 Highways
The Importance of;
➢ vitally important to a country’s economic
development.
➢ high quality road network directly increases a
nation’s economic output by reducing journey
times and costs, making a region more
attractive economically.
The actual construction process will have the added effect of
stimulating the construction market
▪ A good transportation system is a measure of a country’s
economic and social development. There is a correlation
between a country’s economic status and how well that
country is served by its roads, railways, airports, ports,
pipelines and shipping.
1.4 . 1 The Administration of Highway Schemes
 The administration of highway projects differs
from one country to another depending upon
social, political and economic factors.
 The design, construction and maintenance of
major national primary routes such as
motorways or dual carriageways are generally
the responsibility of a designated government
department or an agency of it.
1.4 . 1 The Administration of Highway Schemes
Sources of Funding for Highway Schemes
 Obtaining adequate sources of funding for highway is an
ongoing problem. Highway construction has been mainly
funded by public monies. Increasing competition for
government funds from the health and education sector has
led to an increasing desire to remove the financing of major
highway projects from competition for government funds by
the introduction of user or toll charges.
 The question of whether public or private funding should be
used to construct a highway facility is a complex political issue.
Increasingly, highway projects utilising the procedure Private
Finance Initiative (PFI) or Private Public Partnership (PPP)
framework.
◦ Within the UK, PFI can involve the developer undertaking to share with
the government the risk associated with a proposal before approval is
given from the government’s and the developer is willing to take on
most of this risk.
1.4 . 2 Transport Administration in Uganda
 The Ministry of Works, and Transport (MoW&T) is mandated
to plan, develop and maintain adequate and effective
infrastructure to facilitate provision of safe and efficient
transport services by road, rail, water and air. The Road
Agency Formation Unit (RAFU) was set up in 1998 as a
precursor to the Uganda National Road Authority which was
expected to be established by year 2002.
 The Uganda National Road Authority has taken on the road

management activities of the Ministry of Works, and
Transport (MoW&T) thereby enabling the Ministry to give
more momentum to its prime responsibility as a policy
making and regulatory body.
◦
1.4 . 3 The Road System in Uganda
a) Concept of Categorisation
 Based on its proposed function and roads grouped under a
particular categorization will be characterised by the level of
service they provide.
 When the functional categorisation has been selected, design
standards can be applied which will encourage the use of the
road as intended;
 Design features that can convey the level of functional
categorisation to the driver include; carriageway width,
continuity of alignment, spacing of junctions,
frequency of access, standards of alignment and
grades, traffic controls and road reserve
b) Division into Road Category
◦
c) Division into Road Class
◦ Factors that affect capacity of
a road
◦
◦ Conversion Factor of Vehicle into Passenger Car
◦
d) Terrain (Topography) and Geotechnical
Conditions
 Have major importance on investment and maintenance costs
for the selection of speed limit and consequently alignment
standard.
d) Terrain (Topography) and Geotechnical
Conditions
 Have major importance on investment and maintenance costs
for the selection of speed limit and consequently alignment
standard.
1.4 . 4 Road Classification in Uganda
Primary Roads;
 Inter-connect principal urbanised regions;
 Inter-connect major centres of commerce;
 Connect to major ports of entry i.e. provide transitional routing
for foreign traffic; and
 Connect to major international airports.
Secondary Roads;
 Connect major regional commercial activity centres to the
primary network;
 Connect district administrative centres to the primary network;
and
 Connect rural feeder road systems to the primary network.
Tertiary Roads;
 Connect local towns and communities to the secondary network;
 Connect rural regions and small communities to administrative
district centres and other public service facilities.
1.4 . 5 The Road Network and its Administration
in Uganda
Uganda’s road network is divided into four categories namely;
National Roads, District Roads, Urban Roads, and
Community Access Roads.
 National (Trunk) Roads
The present geometric characteristics of national roads
indicate a tendency to prepare low cost designs with relatively
little earth moving and possibly avoid locations with swamps or
other geotechnical problems in order to minimise construction
costs. As regards the vertical alignment, more than half (i.e. 50%)
the total length of the National Road Network has an alignment
located in flat or rolling terrain.
1.5 . 0 Highway Planning
 The process takes place at a number of levels.
◦ At an administrative/political level, a transportation policy is
formulated and politicians must decide on the general
location of the transport corridors/networks to be
prioritized for development,
◦ on the level of funding to be allocated to the different
schemes and the mode or modes of transport to be used
within them.
 At the lowest planning level, each project within a given
system is defined in detail in terms of its physical extent and
layout. In the case of road schemes, these functions are the
job of the design engineer, usually employed by the roads
authority within which the project is located.
1.5 . 1 Travel Data
The planning process commences with the collection of
historical traffic data covering the geographical area of interest.
 Demand for travel depends on a number of factors:
 The location of people’s work, shopping and leisure facilities
relative to their homes;
 The type of transport available to those making the journey;
The demographic and socio-economic characteristics of the
population in question Characteristics such as
◦ population size and structure,
◦ number of cars owned per household and
◦ income of the main economic earner within each
household
tend to be the demographic/socioeconomic characteristics
having the most direct effect on traffic demand.
1.5 . 2 Highway Planning Strategies
Road and public transport problems are currently a significant
issue in most countries,
◦ However, resolving these problems requires changes in
public attitudes and modifications in personal practices as
much as technical solutions
Traffic congestion is now recognized as a major problem in
Uganda in respect of both work and non-work trips.
◦ Traffic delays, particularly in large urban areas, inter-city
corridors, and on heavily-used tourist routes, are
substantial and growing, and this is affecting people’s
convenience and business costs.
◦ There is also an increasing concern about road accidents,
global warming, environmental pollution and fossil fuel
depletion.
The measures which can help with congestion management
and travel demand management are;
 Reduce the need to make a trip; Reduce the length of a
trip; Promote non-motorised transport; Promote public
transport; Promote car pooling; Shift peak-hour travel;
Shift travel from congested location; Reduce traffic delays.
It is useful to present the various demand- and supply-side

measures in the context of five contrasting transport planning
approaches in an urban area
 Do-minimum; Use of land-use planning to reduce trips
and trip lengths; Development of a transport network
that is heavily car-oriented; Development of a transport
network that is heavily public transport oriented; Manage
the demand for travel
a) The Do-Minimum Approach; Assumes that traffic
congestion, road accidents, and environmental degradation are
inescapable features of modern-day life and, if left to itself,
human ingenuity and self-interest will ensure that congestion
will become self regulating before it becomes intolerable. ---
effect of causing irretrievable long-term damage to both urban and
rural areas, and would ultimately have the effect of reinforcing car-
dependent lifestyles
b) The Land-Use Planning Approach; the
management of land use planning is seen as the solution to
controlling the demand for transport.----Transport plans that
utilize this approach generally seek to influence settlement patterns
so as to increase the accessibility of jobs, shops, educational
institutions, places of entertainment etc.,without the need to travel
by car.
b) The Land-Use Planning Approach; Where a car
must be used, its usage is minimised and travel distance
shortened. Practical land use control measures commonly
related to transport plans include:
➢ Limiting the spread of cities so as to maintain residential
density and protect green belts.
➢ The supply of housing in existing larger urban areas is increased
so that they are easily accessible to existing facilities.
➢ High-density offices and retail establishments should be located
at sites already well served by public transport.
➢ Developments that attract significant movement of freight e.g.
large scale warehouses should be located away from residential
areas and close to transport networks.
➢ Sites that are unlikely to be served by public transport should
be allocated for uses which are not employment intensive.
c) The Car-Oriented Approach. It seeks to cater for
the future increases in traffic demand through the
construction of bigger and better roads, be they inter-urban or
intra-urban links. Such an approach prioritises the development
of road linkages both within and between major urban centres.
d) The Public Transport-oriented Approach;
Emphasise the importance of bus and rail-based improvements
as the preferred way of coping with increased transport
demand.
Supporters of this approach point to the environmental and
social advantages of such a strategy i.e. reducing noise and air
pollution and increasing efficiency in use of fossil fuels while
also making transport available to those who cannot afford to
run a car.
d) The Public Transport-oriented Approach; The success of
this strategy depends on the ability to induce private car users to change
their mode of travel during peak hours to public transport.
This can only be achieved if the public transport service is clean,
comfortable, regular and affordable. Public transport would have to be more
competitive than the private car in order to succeed.
e) The Demand Management Approach; Planning for the

future by managing demand more effectively on the existing road
network rather than constructing new road links.
Demand management measures include the tolling of heavily
trafficked sections of highway, possibly at peak times only, and car
pooling, where high occupancy rates within the cars of commuters is
achieved voluntarily either by the commuters themselves.
Use of car pooling can be promoted by allowing private cars with multiple
occupants to use bus-lanes during peak hour travel or by allowing them
reduced parking charges at their destination.
ASSIGNMENT 1; (10 marks) in groups of 5
members
Considering the traffic congestion problems with the
Kampala and its surrounding areas, you are required
as a team of experts to carry a strategic highway plan
within kampala area to overcome the problem;
considering: Do-minimum; Use of land-use planning; car-
oriented; public transport oriented; Manage the demand
for travel.
 Write a 15 page strategic plan report

1.5 . 3 Transportation Studies/surveys
There is a fundamental connection between traffic needs and
land use activity. The study of transportation requirements
of differing land uses as the cause of the problem rather
than the study of existing traffic flows.
Whatever the nature of the proposed highway system under
consideration, a study must be carried out to determine the
necessity or appropriateness of the proposal.
This process will tend to be divided into two subsections;
➢ A transportation survey to establish trip-making patterns;

➢ The production and use of mathematical models both to
predict future transport requirements and to evaluate
alternative highway proposals.
Stages in the design and conduct of a survey
Data requirement
1.5 . 3.1 Observational transport surveys
1.5 . 3.1 Observational transport surveys
1.5 . 3.2 Participatory transport surveys
END

Transport-Planning-chapt 1A 2022

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Transport-Planning-chapt 1A 2022

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

TRAFFIC ENGINEERING AND

 Estimation of future transportation patterns related

 4) Adoption of a transportation plan with proposals

◦ Transportation facilities were provided by considering only

◦ No attempt was made to investigate the impact of such

◦ Alternatives/strategies/measures that can be employed

◦ How will these alternatives match the community desires

◦ What steps need to be taken to implement the plans

◦ It has the merit of being easily understood

 B. Higher level objectives

◦ However, the definition of sustainability also includes

◦ Issues to be considered under this heading include the reduction

◦ Please find more details in the hand outs on efficiency,

 Principally the measures can be categorised in two broad

◦ LRT vehicles may be coupled into trains

◦ subject to environmental constraints or with priority for those

◦ Traffic management measures are designed to improve efficiency

 Efficiency & safety benefits can be achieved

 B). Tidal flow

◦ Number of lanes assigned to each direction of travel varies with

 C). Parking restriction or controls

 D). Banned turns

◦ Can lead to travel time savings,

 Regulatory restrictions on car use

 Bus (and rail) service levels

◦ Generally restrictions on lorries are likely to result into:

 Congestion charging (Road pricing)

 Variable message signs

 Real-time driver information systems and route guidance

 Parking information systems

 The Uganda National Road Authority has taken on the road

It is useful to present the various demand- and supply-side

e) The Demand Management Approach; Planning for the

 Write a 15 page strategic plan report

➢ A transportation survey to establish trip-making patterns;

You might also like