2.

1 Meanings are concepts

The input discusses the importance of understanding the role of meanings in
communication. It provides an example of a scenario where Mary's daughter,
Sheila, is upset after spending time with Mary's dog, Ken. The input provides no
further information about Sheila's response to what happened.
2.1.1 The meaning of a word
The text discusses the concept of meaning in language, focusing on the
word "dog." It explains that the word "dog" represents a specific entity,
and its primary information is its sound form. As a language user, Mary
recognizes the sound pattern of "dog" and understands its meaning as
part of her linguistic knowledge. The meaning of the word "dog" is
stored in Mary's mind as part of her understanding of language.

Categorization is based on the ability to distinguish entities of one kind

from entities of another type. This is done through the use of
information in the mind. For example, Mary can identify that Sheila is
talking about Ken because of the word "dog" used. The use of the
definite article is important as it indicates that the description following
it applies to a specific entity in the given context.

We need more context to understand the conversation between Sheila

and Mary about the dog, Ken. The definite article suggests that Ken is a
dog known to both. Sheila's comment about the dog ruining her blue
skirt further implies that Ken is the only dog that could have done this.

More generally, ((a word can only be considered established if its form
and meaning are linked in the minds of many language users)).
Summary
The text discusses the concept of meaning in language, specifically
focusing on the word "dog." It explains that the word represents a
specific entity; its primary information is its sound form. Mary
recognizes the sound pattern of "dog" and understands its meaning as
part of her linguistic knowledge. The meaning of the word is stored in
Mary's mind. Categorization is based on the ability to distinguish
entities, and using the definite article indicates that the description
applies to a specific entity in the given context. More context is needed
to understand the conversation between Sheila and Mary about the
dog, Ken.

2.1.2 The meaning of a sentence

Mary has a deep understanding of grammar and language, allowing her
to interpret the meaning of a sentence. This involves the concept of
"ruin" contributed by the verb, which includes the event, the ruiner, and
the ruined object. In this specific situation, the event is described as
ruining; the ruiner is a dog, and the ruined object is a blue skirt
connected to the speaker. The use of the present perfect tense
indicates that the current situation results from a previous event.

The meaning of a word and a sentence is a complex concept that

mentally describes a specific situation by combining all sentence
elements.
_The meaning of a word, more precisely, a content word (noun, verb,
adjective), is a concept that provides a mental description of a certain
kind of entity.
_ The meaning of a sentence is a concept that provides a mental description
of a certain kind of situation.
2.2 Descriptive meaning
2.2.1 Descriptive meaning and reference
Reference and the descriptive meaning of words
Referents in sentence analysis include words, objects, events, and time.
In a given sentence, there are five referents: the dog, the speaker's blue
skirt, the speaker herself, the ruining of the skirt, and the time of
utterance. Each subject and object has a referent, and the possessive
pronoun within the object has its own. The finite verb contributes to a
specific event and time through its tense. The adjective "blue" describes
the NP's blue skirt but does not have its referent. Referring

Referents can be applied to content words such as nouns, verbs, and

adjectives. Nouns and verbs have their own referents, while adjectives
describe the referent of a noun. Adjectives do not have their referents
but borrow them from the noun they describe. By extending the notion
of referents to all content words, descriptive meaning can be defined in
a way that directly relates to reference.
DEFINITION
The descriptive meaning of a content word is a concept of its
potential referents.
When a sentence is used in certain contexts, the listeners will try to find
specific things that match the description. However, it is essential to
note that if the sentence is not true, it may not be possible to find
matching things.

(2) There is a letter for you.

The input discusses the scenario where Sheila tells her mother there is
a letter for Mary, but she is not telling the truth. It explains that if the
sentence is false, the phrase "a letter for you" does not have a specific
referent. The input also mentions that the finite verb in a sentence only
has a concrete event referent if the sentence is true. For example, if a
statement about a dog ruining a blue skirt is false, the verb "ruin" does
not have a referent in that context.

The descriptive meaning of sentences: propositions

which the sentence could be true. The notion of potential referents is useful for
understanding how a sentence can have different interpretations depending on the
context or the speaker's knowledge. Overall, the concept of the situation referred to
helps us understand the relationship between a sentence and the real or imagined
world it describes.
The descriptive meaning of a sentence, also known as its proposition or situation
expressed, is a concept that describes the potential situations that the sentence
refers to. Content words and functional elements like pronouns, articles, and tense
shape this meaning
DEFINITION
The descriptive meaning of a word or a grammatical form is its
contribution to descriptive sentence meaning.

Table 2.2 Descriptive meaning

To sum up, the descriptive meaning of a sentence is a concept for a
certain
kind of situation. If the sentence is true in a CoU, such a situation
actually
exists and can be considered the referent of the sentence. The situation
referred to contains the referents of all referring elements of the
sentence.
Table 2.2 gives a survey of different types of potentially referring
expressions,
their respective descriptive meanings and types of referents.
2.2.2 Denotations and truth conditions
Denotations

The meaning of a content word is its potential referents, which

determine a category of entities. For example, the meaning of "dog"
determines the category of all dogs, while the meaning of "ruin"
determines the category of all events of ruining. This category
determined by the meaning of a word is called its denotation.

DEFINITION
The denotation of a content word is the category, or set, of all its
potential referents.
The denotation of a word goes beyond the existing entities of that kind
and includes both real and fictitious referents. The semiotic triangle
often represents the relationship between a word, its meaning, and its
denotation. In this triangle, the arrow connecting the word and its
denotation is depicted with a broken line to indicate that the
connection is indirect through the word's descriptive meaning.

Truth conditions
There is no established term for what would be the denotation of a
sentence. By analogy with the denotation of a content word it would be
the

The input discusses the concept of truth conditions, which refers to the set of
situations in which a sentence is true. It highlights that truth conditions are closely
related to the denotation of a sentence.
DEFINITION
The truth conditions of a sentence are the conditions under which it is
true.
The truth conditions of a sentence determine the situations it can refer to, which is
known as its denotation. Conversely, knowing the situations a sentence can refer to
allows us to determine its truth conditions. This concept of truth conditions is
considered the practical equivalent of the denotation of a sentence. The connection
between a sentence, its proposition, and its truth conditions can be represented by a
semiotic triangle, where the descriptive meaning of the sentence is its proposition,
and the proposition determines the truth conditions

2.2.3 Proposition and sentence type

2.5 Connotations
Connotations are additional meanings associated with a word beyond its primary
lexical meaning. These associations can change over time, while the word's
meaning remains unchanged. For example, the connotations of the word
"computer" have changed since the 1960s, but its meaning has not. The actual
denotation of a word can change, leading to changes in connotations.
The distinction between a word's meaning and its connotations is discussed in this
text. Connotations are seen as connected to the actual denotation of a word rather
than the word itself. Expressive meaning, such as negative attitudes expressed by
derogatory terms, is considered a connotation by some authors. Connotations play
a role in the semantic motivation of swear words and are also responsible for
euphemisms and political correctness. However, replacing terms to be politically
correct often leads to the new expressions taking on old connotations.