War. Res. Vol. 29, No. 1, pp.

227-236, 1995
~ Pergamon 0043-1354(94)E0117-O ElsevierScienceLtd. Printedin Great Britain

EFFECT OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS ON WASTEWATER

DISINFECTION EFFICIENCY BY CHLORINE DIOXIDE
NAVA NARKIS*@, ROBERTARMON, REGINAOFFER, FRIEDAORSHANSKYand
EUGENIAFRIEDLAND
Environmental and Water Resources Engineering, Technion, Israel Institute of Technology,
Haifa 32000, Israel

(First received April 1993; accepted in revised form April 1994)

Abstract--Effluents enriched with high suspended solids concentration were tested for disinfection with
chlorine dioxide. Following disinfection with various chlorine dioxide concentrations from 0 mg/l to
52.78 mg/1 and contact times from 2 up to 24 h, half of the experimental samples were crushed (by
Ultra-Turax) and tested for survival of indicator microorganisms. The crushing process revealed that a
certain fraction of indicator microorganisms were left intact as a result of chlorine dioxide disinfection.
This fraction was found to be able to regrow as was shown for all bacterial indicators, such as coliforms,
fecal coliforms, enterococci and heterotrophic count, despite high disinfectant concentrations. The study
results indicate that some microorganisms fraction entrapped into suspended floes can survive disinfection
with chlorine dioxide, depending also on indicator type, therefore their prior removal by coagulation,
sedimentation and filtration is a major prerequisite for successful disinfection.

Key words--disinfection, chlorine dioxide, wastewater, effluents,suspended solids, indicator microorgan-

isms

INTRODUCTION sludge effluents contain a relatively high concen-

tration of soluble organics and suspended solids
Wastewater reuse is a major issue in countries with
which potentially interfere with the disinfectant
scarce water resources. Effluents from municipal
efficiency. Provided effluents have high suspended
sewage treatment plants are used for restricted crop
solids concentration, microorganisms entrapped
irrigation after disinfection. The effluent's bacterio-
within floes, would not be properly attacked by
logical standards were defined to meet the public
disinfectants. In the present study, in order to get a
health risk assessment (State of California, 1978;
closer insight on the presence effect of suspended
WHO report, 1981; Israel Ministry of Health, 1979).
solids on disinfection efficiency, 400 mg/l suspended
The most common disinfectant used today is chlor-
solids were supplemented to activated sludge effluents
ine, which reacts with organic constituents, found in
to form an enriched effluent suspension (EES), and
polluted waters, to form harmful by-products, such
exposed to various doses of chlorine dioxide. After
as halogenated organic compounds including the
each specific contact time, the residual disinfectant
THMs. In addition, chlorine reacts with ammonium
was destroyed and the surviving indicator microor-
ion and amino compounds to form inorganic and
ganisms in solution and those entrapped in floes were
organic chloramines which are considered as less
enumerated. The entrapped microorganisms were
effective disinfectants (White, 1986). For these
released by crushing the suspended solids by Ultra-
reasons chlorine dioxide prompted increased interest
Turax, rapid speed mixer with 10,000 rpm. The inac-
as an alternative disinfectant to chlorine. Only re-
tivation, survival and regrowth of the various
cently chlorine dioxide was introduced as a potential
indicator microorganisms occurring in effluents and
effluents' disinfectant and showed good results with
inside the suspended solids following chlorine dioxide
much less production of harmful organic by-products
disinfection are discussed.
(Weinberg and Narkis, 1992). The available infor-
mation on chlorine dioxide disinfection of effluents is
limited (Narkis et al., 1990, 1992). Various studies MATERIALSAND METHODS
showed that suspended solids found in untreated Enriched effluent suspension
drinking water can protect bacteria and viruses from Activated sludge effluents from the secondary settling
being destroyed by disinfectants (LeChevallier et al., ponds in Haifa Municipal Sewage Treatment Plant, Israel,
1988a, b). In comparison to drinking water, activated were used in the disinfectionstudies by chlorine dioxide. The
chemical characteristics of these effluentsare summarized in
Table I. To 35 1 of the original activated sludge effluents,
*To whom all correspondence should be addressed. which contained 26mg/l suspended solids, supplemental

227
228 NAVAN^RKIS et al.
Table I. Characteristics of raw and suspended solids enriched
activated sludge effluent
Concentration (ms/I)
Raw activated Enriched effluent
Parameters sludge effluent suspension
Total suspended solids mg/I 26.1 422.7
Volatile suspended solids mg/I 22.7 346.1
Total COD mg/l 02 119.9 615.2
Soluble COD mg/I 02 98.3 96.7
Nitrites NOf-N mg/I 0.0 0.0
NH4+ -N mg/l 43.9 44.33
Temperature ("C) 26 8.1
pH 8.0 8.1
suspended solids, taken directly from the activated sludge
reactor, were added to from an enriched effluent suspension
(EES) of 422.7 mg/l total suspended solids.
Chlorine dioxide production
Chlorine dioxide was produced from sodium chlorite
activated by 10% HCI solution (APHA, 1989). The chlorine
dioxide gas formed was driven off by air bubbling and then
absorbed into distilled water, cooled in an ice bath.
Experimental procedure
The effect of chlorine dioxide was studied on survival of
indicator microorganisms distributed freely in the liquid, or
attached to the external surface and entrapped inside the
suspended solids.
The enriched effluent suspension was divided into a series
of I 1 Erlenmeyer flasks. Various doses of chlorine dioxide
were added to form the following initial concentrations: 0,
28.54, 35.53, 44.20 and 52.58 rag/1. The flasks were mixed by
magnetic stirrers and sealed in the dark for periods of 2 h
and 24 h contact time, at room temperature. At the end of
contact time, aliquot of each disinfected sample was with-
drawn from each flask and immediately transferred for
chemical analysis, to determine the residual CIO2, C10~- and
combined chlorine concentrations. To the remaining disin-
fected effluents, granular sodium thiosulfate (NTS) was
added, in order to stop the action of the residual disinfec-
tant.
Chemical analyses
The chlorine dioxide stock solution always contains in
addition to chlorine dioxide, small amounts of chlorite ions
and free chlorine. Their concentration prior and after the
addition to the enriched effluent suspension (EES) were
measured by amperometric titration using PAO, for deter-
mination at pH 7.0 and above and thiosulfate for determi-
nation at pH 2.5 and below (Palin, 1974; Aieta and Roberts,
1981; Aieta et al., 1984; APHA, 1989). Table 2 shows the
composition of chlorine dioxide stock solution used in the
reported experiments.
The chlorine dioxide, ClOy, combined chlorine and 1£C1,
the sum total of the oxygenated chlorine compounds and
chlorine residuals were determined immediately, at the end
of each contact time, as shown in Figs 1 and 2. The
experimental procedures were as follows (Flow Chart 1): (a)
first set of effluent samples containing 422 mg/l activated
sludge suspended solids, were disinfected with chlorine
dioxide for 2h contact time. Chlorine dioxide and its
accompanying chlorine compounds residuals were deter-
mined immediately, in a sample, while in the remaining
Table 2. Composition of chlorine dioxide stock solution
CIO2
CIO2-
HOCI
~CI = ~"CIO2 + CIO2- + HOCI = 5255.46 mg/I as CI2
volume, and the reaction was stopped by the addition of
NTS. Then half of the experimental volume was crushed by
Ultra-Turax rapid mixer for 2min at 10,000rpm; (b) a
second experimental set under similar conditions was left to
stir for 24 h without NTS addition. At the end of 24 h half
of the experimental volume was subjected to crushing
as above; (c) in the third experimental set the reaction was
stopped after 2 h contact time with NTS, and left under
continuous stirring for 24 h, and indicator microorganisms
were enumerated before and after crushing suspended
solids; (d) and (e) were used as controls without any
addition of chlorine dioxide for 2 and 24 h respectively. All
experimental sets were anlaysed for microbiological indi-
cators.
Microbiological assays
Enumeration of bacteria in enriched effluent suspension,
prior to and after disinfection, were performed for coil-
forms, fecal coliforms, enterococci and total count. Mul-
tiple-tube fermentation technique (MPN) was used for
enumeration of coliforms, fecal coliforms and enterococci
(Standard Methods, 1989). Total heterotrophic count was
performed on plate count agar as already described (Stan-
dard Methods, 1989).
Coliphages as virus indicator were enumerated by MPN
method (Kott, 1966) and verified on agar double layer
method with E. Scherichia coil CNt3 as host (E. Scherichia
coli C, nalidixic resistant, from our collection) as already
described (Adams, 1959; Armon et al., 1988).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Suspended solids together with soluble organic
compounds play a major role in disinfection
efficiency. As already shown by LeChevallier et al.
(1988a, b), suspended solids protect microorganisms
form the toxic effect of disinfectants. Various disin-
fectants have to penetrate into suspended solids in
order to inactivate the entrapped bacteria or viruses
(LeChevallier et al., 1988b). The aim of this research
was to study the effect of suspended solids present in
activated sludge effluent, on the chlorine dioxide
disinfection efficiency. For this purpose activated
sludge effluent from Haifa Municipal Sewage Treat-
ment Plant was enriched with supplementary sus-
pended solids, by addition of mixed liquor from the
acitvated sludge reactor, to reach a final concen-
tration of 422.7mg/1. Various doses of chlorine
dioxide, such as 0, 28.54, 35.53, 44.20 and 52.78 mg/l
were added to the enriched effluent suspension (EES)
for 2 and 24h contact time. At the end of each
contact time, 100ml of the disinfected sample was
withdrawn from each flask and was chemically
analysed to determine the residual CIO2, CIO2-,
combined chlorine and ZCI = ECIO2 + CIO~ +
HOC1 concentrations.
Figures 1 and 2 show the residual concentrations
of CIO 2, C102-, combined chlorine and
~£C1 = EC102 + C102- + HOCI as a function of ap-
plied various doses of C102. The initial chlorine
1812.27 mg/l as CIO2 = 4762.41 mg/I as CI.,
203.47 mg/I as CIO2 = 427.75 mg/I as CI~
65.3 mg/I as Cl.,
 Suspended solids effects on CIO2 disinfection 229
7 -- 0 160
6 - t:2 CI2 t= 24h / 140
0 CIO2 t = 24 h /
2 120
5 - • Cl 2 t=O / 100
4 - + CI2 t=2h
3 ~-- O CIO2 t --- 2 h / 80
/ , - ,~- 60
r¢ "~ 40
20 h
025 ~-'~"--'z----~-
30 35 40
+'~~l
45 50 55
o
25 30 35 40 45 50
I
55
Dose CIO 2 (mg/L) Applied C10 2 dose (mg/L)
Fig. I. Residual chlorine dioxide and chlorine concen- Fig. 2. Residual chlorite ion and Z CI concentration as a
trations as a function of chlorine dioxide applied dose on function of chlorine dioxide applied dose to enriched efflu-
enriched effluent suspension (422 mg l-~ suspended solids). ent suspension.

dioxide doses applied in this study were much higher,
as compared to 8-9 mg/l chlorine dioxide required for
effective disinfection of regular activated sludge efflu-
ents (Narkis et aL, 1992), due to the presence of the
supplemented suspended solids.
At all applied disinfectant doses, residual C102 was
found after 2 h contact time, while after 24 h contact
time, the residual C10 2 was found only at doese of
44.20 mg/l and above. For example, at a dose of
44.20mg/1 C102, a residual of 3.12mg/1 C102 was
found after 2 h contact time and 0.11 mg/1 after 24 h.
The CIO 2 residual increased with an increasing C102
dose and decreased with contact time.
In order to evaluate the disinfection efficiency of
chlorine dioxide on the entrapped indicator microor-
ganisms inside the suspended solids at the end of each
contact time, 0.3 g sodium thiosulfate was added, to
stop the disinfection process. The sample was then
tested for "free and attached to the external surfaces
of the suspended solids" (FATES) viable microor-
ganisms, before and after the suspended solids crush-
ing.

I Activated Sludge Effluents

TSS = 26.1 m g / L I I
l

Mixed Liquor
~,w TSS = 396.6 mg/L

Enriched Effluent Suspension 35 L I

I CIO2
Control TSS = 422.7 mg/L | 28.54 mg/L
CIO2=0mg/L ~ ~

CIO2 ~ contact time

28.54 mg/L 28.54"-'~g/L NTS

24h J2h
contact time 24 h . I
contact time ]
~-----N'rS 24h

(e)

(c)
Flow chart 1. Flow diagram of enriched effluents suspension treated with constant chlorine dioxide dose
(28.54 mg/l), and assay procedure for indicator microorganisms enumeration. FATES, Free and attached
to the external surface indicators.
230 NAVANARKISet al.
The EES's coliforms reduction by disinfection with
various doses of chlorine dioxide, before and after
crushing, is shown in Fig. 3. After 2 h contact time
[Fig. 3(a)], a 4-5 log reduction in coliforms numbers
was observed at all C102 doses examined. Neverthe-
less after the suspended solids crushing, 1-2 logs of
coliforms numbers were recovered from the EES. At
24 h contact time of EES with various doses of C102,
a smaller reduction of total coliforms was observed
[Fig. 3(b)]. These results were expected due to a
decrease in active C10: concentration as a function of
contact time, affecting disinfection efficiency. Higher
coliform numbers found in this experimental set,
can also indicate possible regrowth of the surviving
fraction after 24 h contact time. The EES crushed
fraction was equal or higher in surviving coliform
numbers at all 0 0 2 doses. The lowest coliform
reduction was obtained after 2 h of C102 contact
time, a reaction ended by sodium thiosulfate ad-
dition, and left for an additional time of 24 h before
assay [Fig. 3(c)]. Under these conditions the coliforms
were reduced by only 1-2 order of magnitude without
any difference between the crushed and uncrushed
fraction.
A similar behaviour was observed with fecal coli-
forms, expected to be equally affected by C102
(Fig. 4). Indeed, fecal coliforms reduction was almost
identical to total coliforms after 2 h contact time at
all C102 doses [Fig. 4(a)]. A more efficient reduction
in fecal coliforms was achieved after 24 h contact
time, with similar regrowth pattern as total coliforms
[Fig. 4(b)]. As expected the crushed fraction showed
higher fecal coliforms number. The 2 h contact time
and count at 24 h time interval, did not show any
difference between the two physical treatments, only
regrowth of the indicators, following disinfection
termination [Fig. 4(c)].
A remarkable reduction was achieved with entero-
cocci (Fig. 5). After 2 h of chlorine dioxide contact
time, enterococci were reduced by five logs starting
with 28.54 mg/1 chlorine dioxide and completely inac-
tivated above this concentration [Fig. 5(a)]. The
crushed fraction conferred some enterococci numbers
at all chlorine dioxide doses. Enterococci reduction
after 24 h contact time showed a similar inactivation
behaviour, reaching complete inactivation at
44.20 mg/l C102. In this experiment, crushed fraction
was only higher at 35.53 to 44.2mg/1 [Fig. 5(b)].
Addition of sodium thiosulfate, after chlorine dioxide
2 h contact time and then let to stay for 24 h, resulted
in higher numbers of surviving enterococci, either
released or regrown [Fig. 5(c)]. The crushed fraction
showed slightly higher numbers at 28.54mg/1 to
52.78 mg/1 of C102 doses.
In general, bacteriophages are more susceptible to
to chlorine dioxide inactivation compared to chlor-
ine, which is ineffective against viruses (Narkis et al.,
1992). In addition bacteriophages do not regrow
following inactivation by chlorine dioxide. The re-
sults shown in Fig. 6 corroborate these previous
observations (Narkis et al., 1992). After 2 h contact
time, coliphages were completely inactivated at CIO 2
doses of 35.53 and above. Suspended solids crushing
resulted in coliphages release or regrowth of E. coli
host survivors (Fig. 4) of 1-2 orders of magnitude
[Fig. 6(a)]. After contact time os 24 h, coliphages were
completely inactivated at all C102 doses [Fig. 6(b)]. A
small number of bacteriophages survived after 24 h at
28.54mg/I C102 due to insufficient disinfectant re-
sidual. After 2 h contact time of chlorine dioxide,
sodium thiosulfate was added, and the suspension left
to stay for 24 h in the absence of the disinfectant.
Complete reduction in bacteriophage numbers was
observed [Fig. 6(c)]. Even the crushed fraction did not
reveal any surviving bacteriophages despite the pres-
ence of possible E. coli hosts as shown in Fig. 4.
Heterotrophic bacteria (as total count) was ex-
pected to be more resistant to chlorine dioxide disin-
fection. As shown in Fig. 7, after 2 h contact time the
heterotrophic count was reduced by 4-6 orders of
magnitude, depending on chlorine dioxide concen-
tration. Crushing the suspension revealed hetero-
trophic bacteria I-2 orders of magnitude entrapped
inside the suspended solids [Fig. 7(a)]. After 24 h
contact time, increasing doses of C102 showed
increasing inactivation of total count [Fig. 7(b)].
Crushing the suspended solids proved again that
heterotrophic bacteria is entrapped inside the sus-
pended solids and were much less affected at 28.54
and 35.53 mg/1 C102.
Addition of sodium thiosulfate after 2 h contact
with chlorine dioxide and the suspension let to stay
for additional 24 h, showed that chlorine dioxide did
not affect the total count of the free, attached and
entrapped heterotrophic bacteria [Fig. 5(c)]. The re-
growth of the heterotrophic population was close to
the initial numbers at the start of the experiment,
showing an excellent recovery potential. The hetero-
trophic count was similar with slightly higher num-
bers for the crushed fraction at 28.54mg/1 and
52.78 mg/l [Fig. 5(c)].
It is known that suspended solids in solution have
a protective role in microorganism inactivation by
disinfectants. As shown by others (LeChevallier et al.,
1988a, b), suspended solids play a role as a surface to
which microorganisms may adhere. In addition it
should be mentioned that suspended solids are not a
rigid matrix, but a sponge-like matrix, in which
liquids can penetrate. In such matrixes bacteria are
adsorbed on surface or entrapped inside.
On one hand this entrapment offers a better protec-
tion to microorganisms against disinfectants, and on
the other hand the sponge-like structure of the flocs
enable disinfectant penetration. Crushing the sus-
pended solids revealed either the surviving fraction of
the microorganisms, or the regrown one. Studying
various indicator microorganisms reaction towards
chlorine dioxide disinfectant showed that each indi-
cator group was affected differently, except for the
related coliforms and fecal coliforms. Among the
 Pme L"! (ClO2) ) mg L"1 (C102) 24 h contact time
~! 2 h coMact time
- I 2 h contact time, and crush - ] 24 h contact time, and crush
lx10z lx10s
Oh(co~r~) (contr.)

10x10r I0x107
;2.78 28.54 mg I- "1
;2.71 )8.54 mg L"1

c-

fOx107 txlo8
IOxlO7 xl0 8

44.2m9 L"~ 15.53mg L"1

44.2 mg L"1 35.53 mg L "1
(a)
2 h contact time, addition of NTS,
0 mg L "1 (C102) and let to stay for 24 h
o

2 h contact time, addition of NTS,

lx10 e -1 let to stay for 24 h and crushed

~)

i2.78 r mg L"1

IOxlO7 lx10e

44.2 mg L "1 3S.53 mg L"1

(c)
~ig. 3. Total coliforms survival after disinfection of enriched effluent suspension (EES) by various doses of chlorine dioxide with and without flocs crushing. (a) After 2 h contact
time, (b) after 24 h contact time, (c) after 2 h contact time, Na-thiosulfate addition, and let to stay for 24 h.
 h.)
[ ] 2 h contact time 0 mgL"1 (CIO2)
0 mgL"1(CIOl) [ ] 2 h contacttime, and crush [ ] 24 h contact time

lx108 ~ 0 h (control) lx108 [ ] 24 h contact time, and crush

/ .f~...... ~+'l0 h (control)
f/'/~"~\
./ "x.
10X107. , ~ / & ~ " IOx107 10x107,t'~#%~_
"+~I/,~i /" ~ + ~. " ~ ....""" '" 10x107
+=.++., - / .+m,," 52.78 mgL"1~ ~ / + : : ~ : ' 28.54 mgL-1

10x107 10x107 10x107 lx108

Z
>.
44.2 mgL" (a) 35.53mgL"~ 44.2 mgL-1 (b) 35.53 mgL"1
Z
;o

0 mgL"1(CIO2) I I~ 2 h contacttime, additionof

j u NTS,and let to Mayfor 24 h
10](107 I 2 h contacttime, additionof
~- I [ ] NTS, let to stay for 24 h and

."/~\ ~ I '';~ o h (contr.)

1 0 X 1 0 7 ~ ~ 10X107

1~107 1~107
Fig. 4. Fecal coliforms survival after disinfectionof enriched effluentsuspension (EES) by various doses of chlorine dioxide with and without tlocs crushing. (a) After 2 h contact
time; (b) after 24 h contact time; (c) after 2 h contact time, Na-thiosulfate addition, and let to stay for 24 h.
 0 mgL"1(el02) [ ] 2 h contacttime 0 mgL"1 (C!02) [] 24 h contact time
[ ] 2 h contacttime, and crash [] 24 h contact time, and crush
Ix107 "'; 0 h (control) lX107 .'1 0 h (control)

1~1o't~,~. /'i\ . _~',~1=1o' 7 -///J/'/" \"x.,, .,.\ 7

52.7IllgL'l
8 ~~ / 25.SmgL
4 "1
\ /
r.,

lX107 lX107 Ix107 lx107

44.2 rngL"1 (Sl) 35.53 mgL"1 44.2 mgL"1 (b) 35.53 mgL "1

on~." (cx:)2) 2 h contact 1me, addition of NTS, and let

[ ] to stay for 24 h 0

2 h contact time, addition of NTS, let to

1)(107
[~] stay for 24 h and crushed
r~
/,-"tx'..,.,. ~'-
~ .: 0 h (control)

%,
",% 0
,.~
.. IxI07
52.78mgL "I \ ' " / ~ . N ~ L "1
/
1
\ 1. l
'4

1)(107 lX10 7

Fig. 5. Enterococci survixal after disinfection of enriched effluent suspension (EES) by various doses of chlorine dioxide with and without flocs crushing. (a) After 2 h
contact time; (b) after 24 h contact time: (c) after 2 h contact time, Na-thiosulfate addition, and let to stay for 24 h.
 0 mgL "1 (C102) [ ] 2 h contact time 0 mgL"1 (C102)
[ ] 24 h contacttime
lx107 [ ] 2 h contact time, and crush 24 h contacttime, and
lx107 [] crush
/I" ..~ oh(co.~)
f ",
f'/" L\ "',\\ /// "%,~\
lxlOr , , ~ i \ , ~ " ' ~ lxlOr lx107~ , ~ . lx10'

~ /

lx107 lx107 Ixi07 lx10r

Z
44.2 mgL"1 35.53 mgL"I 44.2 mgL"1 35.53mgL"1 >
(a) (b) Z

0 m g t "1 (C102) 2 h contacttime,additionof

[ ] NTS,and let to slay for 24 h 2
lx107 2 h contacttime,additionof
[ ] NTS,let to stay for 24 h and
. . . / "... c ~
r"~ 0 h (control)
7 ..`/ ~'~
~xlo~~ ~;).,,~ ~x~o,
~.7~mg,'l \ ~ ,.,.,.,.~- / 28.54,,..-1
\ /

lX107 Ix107

44.2mgL"1 (C) 38.53mgL"1

Fig. 6. Coliphages survival after disinfection of enriched effluent suspension (EES) by various doses of chlorine dioxide with and without flocs crushing. (a) After 2 h contact
time; (b) after 24 h contact time; (c) after 2 h contact time, Na-thiosulfate addition, and let to stay for 24 h.
 0 mgL "1 (C102) [] 2 h contact time 0 mgL "1 (C102) [] 24 h contact time

[] 2 h contact time, and crush [] 24 h contact time, and crash

lx108 [~"! Oh(control) lx'tOS i'~:] 0 h (control)

"x -, 7

\ /
'\ c~
, /

10x107 10x107 10x107 10x107

t4.2 mgL"1 (I) 35.53 mgL"1 14.2 mgL "1 Oh) 35.53 mgL "1

2 h contact time, add#ion of NTS, O

) mgL"1 (C102) I end let to stay for 24 h
2 h contact time, addition of NTS,
lx10a "] let to stay for 24 h and crushed
c~
control)

! m

lx10a lx10 a

44.2 mgL"1 (0) 35.53 mgL"1

"-ig. 7. Heterotrophic bacteria survival after disinfection of enriched effluent suspension (EES) by various doses of chlorine dioxide with and without floes crushing. (a) After 2 h contact
time; (b) after 24 h contact time; (c) after 2 h contact time, Na-thiosulfate addition, and let to stay for 24 h.
236 NAVANARKISet al.
bacterial indicators, enterococci (fecal streptococci)
were the most susceptible to chlorine dioxide inacti-
vation, followed by coliforms and fecal coliforms and
heterotrophic bacteria. Bacteriophages were also
drastically affected by chlorine dioxide as already
reported (Narkis et al., 1992), and were not able to
recover in order to infect their potential host, which
partially recovered after 22 h without chlorine diox-
ide [Figs 3(c) and 4(c)].
CONCLUSIONS
Chlorine dioxide disinfection efficiency of enriched
effluent suspension depends on:
(1) Disinfectant penetration into floc particle as
confirmed by bacteriophage inactivation.
(2) The resistance of the various indicator micro-
organisms to chlorine dioxide.
Monitoring disinfection efficiency by enumerating
free microorganisms seems to be an over simplifica-
tion of the real situation. In experiments with chlorine
dioxide for 2 h contact time, the decrease in bacterial
indicators was significantly higher, however the ex-
periment which was continued for an additional 24 h
resulted in bacterial indicator regrowth (Figs 3, 4, 5
and 7). The regrowth occurred as a result of two
factors: (i) resistant indicator microorganisms en-
trapped into suspended solids which survived the
disinfection, and (ii) oxidation of complex organics to
lower molecular weight organics, which in turn are
metabolically more accessible to the surviving bac-
teria. Crushed samples always showed higher indi-
cators surviving fraction and even regrowth following
the cessation of disinfectant activity by sodium thio-
sulfate. Bacteriophage efficient inactivation by chlor-
ine dioxide in suspended solids supports the use of
chlorine dioxide as an efficient human viruses disin-
fectant, however more studies must be performed in
order to strengthen this trend.
In summary the actual study results indicate that
good pretreatment of effluents, which includes sus-
pended solids removal, is a major prerequisite for
successful disinfection with chlorine dioxide.
REFERENCES
Adams M, H. (1959) Bacteriophages. Interscience Publish-
ers, New York.
Aieta E. M. and Roberts P. V. (1981) Chlorine dioxide:
chemistry, generation and residual analysis. In: Chemistry
in Water Reuse (Edited by Cooper W. J., Vol. 1, Chap.
20. Ann Arbor Science Publ. U.S.A.
Aieta E. M., Roberts P. V. and Hernandez H. (1984)
Determination of chlorine dioxide chlorine, chlorite and
chlorate in water. J A W W A , Res. Technol. 76, 64-69.
APHA (1989) Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater, 17th edition. American Public
Health Association, Washington, D. C.
Armon R., Arella M. and Payment P. (1988) A highly
efficient second-step concentration technique for bacterio-
phages and enteric viruses using ammonium sulfate and
Tween 80. Can. J. Microbiol. 34, 651-655.
Israel Ministry of Health (1979) "Criteria for Treatment
Processes for Wastewater Reused in irrigation" 2rid sug-
gestion.
Kott Y. (1966) Estimation of low numbers of Eseherichia
eoli bacteriophage by use of the Most Probable Number
method. Appl. Microbiol. 14, 141-143.
LeChevallier M. W., Cawthon C. D. and Lee R. G. (1988a)
Factors promoting survival of bacteria in chlorinated
water supplies. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 54, 649-654.
LeChevallier M. W., Cawthon C. D. and Lee R. G. (1988b)
Inactivation of biofilm bacteria. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.
54, 2492-2499.
Narkis N. and Kott Y. (1992) Comparison between chlorine
dioxide and chlorine for use as a disinfectant of waste-
water effluents. Wat. Sci. Technol. 26, 1483-1492.
Narkis N., Offer R., Linenberg E. and Betzer N. (1990) The
use of chlorine dioxide in disinfection of wastewater. In
Water Chlorination, Chemistry, Environmental Impact
and Health Effect (Edited by Jolly R. E.) Vol. 6. Chap. 73,
pp. 955-966. Lewis publ.
Narkis N., Kott Y., Katz A., Orshansky F., Friedland Y.,
Betzer N., Offer R. and Melamed E. (1992) Effluents'
disinfection by combinations of chlorine dioxide and
chlorine. Proc. 5th Int. Conf. on Environmental Quality
and Ecosystem Stability, Jerusalem, June 21-26, 1992.
Palin A. T. (1974) Analytical control of water disinfection
wit reference to differential DPD methods for chlorine,
chlorine dioxide, bromine, iodine and ozone. Inst. Water
Eng. 28, 139-154.
State of California (1978) Water Reclamation Criteria. Cali-
fornia Administrative Code. Title 22, Division 4 (Environ-
mental Health, Department of Health Services, 1978).
Weinberg H. and Narkis N. (1992) Oxidation by-products
resulting from the interactions of chlorine dioxide with
non-ionic surfactants. In "Chemical Oxidation Technol-
ogy of the Nineties" (Edited by Roth, A., pp. 1-23.
Technomic Publ. Co. Inc., PA, U.S.A.
White G. C. (1986) Handbook of Chlorination, 2nd ed. Van
Nostrand-Reinhold, New York.
WHO (1981) "'Health Aspects of Treated Sewage Reuse",
WHO Euro Report and Studies No. 42. Regional Office
for Europe, World Health Organization, Copenhagen,
1981.