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Premid
Premid
1 2
TYPES OF REASONING
Argument vs non-argument
Humans are biological organisms. To understand our behavior and Reasoning
mental processes, we need to understand their biological
underpinnings, starting with the cellular level, the neuron. How we feel,
learn, remember, and think all stem from neuronal activity. So, how a
neuron works and how neurons communicate are crucial pieces of Deductive Inductive
information in solving the puzzle of human behavior and mental
processing.
1) Argument; conclusion: To understand our behavior ... the neuron.
Propositional A, B, therefore C
2) Argument; conclusion: Humans are biological organisms. Logic
3) Argument; conclusion: How a neuron works ... mental processing.
4) Nonargument. All A are B, All B
Predicate are C, therefore All
Logic A are C
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REASONING SECTION 1 2023 22/09/2023
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7 8
REASONING SECTION 1 2023 22/09/2023
Unconditionally Conditionally
Valid Valid
Valid Invalid
conditionally Valid unconditionally invalid
9 10
ENTHYMEME
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM Rules of finding the missing proposition
CONCLUSION W EG CHECKING
.
BOTH THEORY .
Some foods that contain iron are toxic substances,C for all fish containing mercury
4)
(in syllogism)
are foods that contain iron, and all fish containing mercury are toxic substances. (2)
1 .
BoolAN
STAND POINT
-
INVALID 1. If the conclusion is affirmative, all two premises must be affirmative.
2 .
ARISTOTCE-VALID 2. If the conclusion is negative, a premise must be negative, but all
↳ CONDITIONALLY VALID the premises cannot be negative.
2
foods that contain 3. If conclusion is particular, a premise must be particular, but all the
fish containing X
-
... X
premises cannot be particular.
mercury
1 4! 2 x()
iron
4. If conclusion is universal, all the premises must be universal.
O
5 7 6
X
3 toxic substances
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REASONING SECTION 1 2023 22/09/2023
ENTHYMEME • [PREMISE1] No enthymemes are complete. (All enthymemes are not complete)
No enthymemes are complete, so this argument is incomplete. • [PREMISE2]
• [CONCLUSION] This argument is not complete.
• [PREMISE1] No enthymemes are complete. (All enthymemes
u
are not complete) His
enthymemes
~
All ARCUMENTS ARE ENTHYMEMES Complete things
• [PREMISE2] All ENTHYMEMES ARE ARGUMENTS
THIS
• [CONCLUSION] This argument is not complete. n
INVALID (2)
1 4 2
5 7 6
I
universal All
RULE
,
VALID (1)
MISSING
3
ME
ENTHYMEMES .
This argument
13 14
inrangerous
creatures to be feared.
BORING mort ener
INSIGHTFUL
This syllogism is: This syllogism is:
an
11/
ame
/
(A) Unconditionally Valid (A)
- Unconditionally Valid
(B) Conditionally Valid (B) Conditionally Valid
4x 2
-
1 4
Nigrom
2 1
/
*
(C) Invalid from Aristotelian standpoint v (C) Invalid from Aristotelian standpoint
5⑧7 6
"ill5 7 6
(D) Unconditionally Invalid V (D) Unconditionally Invalid
3 3
BOOLEAN ->INVALID ,
NO X
POETS
!Y
ARISTORLEAN-
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REASONING SECTION 1 2023 22/09/2023
↑wi (B) All human action is conditioned by circumstances. All human action involves morality.
-
This syllogism is:
Therefore, all that involves morality is conditioned by circumstances
(A) Unconditionally Valid
A D (C) All socialists favor higher taxes. Some Liberals favor higher taxes. Therefore, some Liberals
(B) Conditionally Valid are Socialists.
"lkt
(C) Invalid from Aristotelian standpoint
~
(D) No man is perfect. Some men are presidents. Therefore, some presidents are not perfect.
1 4 2
***
(D) Unconditionally Invalid
I00 0
W
W
⑧
C
11
'IIII
5 7 6x
0
↑
..
3 s d
which is
S
a
IV
valid PER
m
higher
socialist
N0
0
i xqxe
17 18 I
Deri
WW
X---
X
run
↑
IV
knowing An D
sei .
know-
wor
for H M
reason
" x
X
"
**
-
x
-
.
x
x X
a -comic S
et ho
true
S
TO SE GIVEN POS
,
NEC ,
THE CONCLUSION
MUST BE NEG .
Given the following syllogism: MAKE SIMPLE Given the following enthymeme:
Some harmful things are not respectful comments, since some Kathy reads only short novels, so she must not read Tolstoy.
appropriate assertions are harmless things, and all disrespectful The statement needed to convert the enthymeme into a valid syllogism
comments are inappropriate assertions. ↳all
is: short Novels are 800 k KATHY REAOs
C
After reducing the number of terms in Syllogism, the argument is: not hormful thing (A) Kathy is not a good reader. (Conclusion)
-
1 .
Some appropriate assertions are
not
harmful
appropriate
things .
.
.
3 .
Some hormful things are not respectful comments .
(C) All of Tolstoy's novels are long. (Conclusion)
~
(D) Tolstoy's novels are not short. (Premise)
1 4 2
,
A ALL TOLSTOY BOOK ARE NOT BOON KATHY
x REA0
5 7 6
AA
3
TOLSTOY
21 22
MUST BE
A NEGATIVE
~missing
CONCLUSION
① negative ②
Poorly managed airlines never earn a profit, but Speedy Air does
earn a profit.
-
PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC
The statement needed to convert the enthymeme into a valid Propositional connectives
syllogism is:
(A) Speedy Air is well managed. (Premise)
P
(B) Speedy air is not poorly managed. (Conclusion) C
1. And (∧) (conjunction) ONLY T
-
T
(C) Speedy Air's investors are pleased. (Conclusion)
,
(D) Only well managed airlines earn a profit. (Premise) 2. Or (v) (disjunction)
1 4 2 3. If … then (→) (conditional) ONLY WHEN T->F
WNL
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REASONING SECTION 1 2023 22/09/2023
VALID
• If there is such situation, it implies that the argument is invalid.
T F
L
F -> INVALID
INVALI
25 26
Determine the following argument whether each is valid Determine the following argument whether each is valid
or invalid. or invalid.
A → B, B → C, ~D → A, ~C So, D A → B, C ↔ D, ~B v D So, C ↔ B A 8 CO
G
-
+
+ F
T i T I F T T
- T F +
T ~y F
F FT T
T T T
T T +
=> VALID &F T
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REASONING SECTION 1 2023 22/09/2023
Determine the following argument whether each is valid Determine the following argument whether each is valid
or invalid. or invalid.
I
W
L V
W
F
T
T T F
7
A8CO
F F T
FF F F
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FUF = F T ->
F =
T1+= T TE>T ,
F2>F =
T
Determine the following argument whether each is valid Determine the following argument whether each is valid
or invalid. or invalid.
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REASONING SECTION 1 2023 22/09/2023
Determine the following argument whether each is valid Determine the following argument whether each is valid
or invalid. or invalid.
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4. If Thailand mobilizes, then either it will protest to the UN or it will call for a
meeting of all the SEA countries.
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REASONING SECTION 1 2023 22/09/2023
PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC If the public approves of same sex marriages, then same sex marriages will
Either Phuket or Shiba is in Thailand. Phuket is in Thailand. be legalized. The public does not approve of same sex marriages.
Therefore, Shiba is not in Thailand. Therefore, same sex marriages will not be legalized.
a. Deductive, valid.
b. Deductive, invalid
37 38
If the balloon can’t float, then there is no helium in the balloon. The balloon The game is on if the sun shines. The game is on and the team is excited.
can float. So, there is helium in the balloon. So, the sun must be shining.
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REASONING SECTION 1 2023 22/09/2023
A -
B
If the boss snaps at youP
O if you make a mistake, he’s irritable. So, if he’s If the prime minister acts quickly the social security system will be saved,
B C
irritable and you make a mistake, he’ll snap at you. ⑦ and if the social security system is saved, senior citizens will be delighted. If
=
z
-
so the House of Representatives, or by senior citizens, the prime minister will
, act quickly. However, neither members of the Senate nor members of the
House will pressure the prime minister; but senior citizens will. Therefore,
F -
CilOVEVFl-A ~OvE1E S
A -
B 8
T
-
, ,
F
INVALIO
41 42
Translate the following arguments into symbolic form. Then Translate the following arguments into symbolic form. Then
determine whether each is valid or invalid determine whether each is valid or invalid
A Boeing 757 crashed into the Pentagon on 9/11 if and only if two giant If fossil fuel combustion continues at its present rate, then a greenhouse effect
engines were found outside the building. It is not the case that two giant will occur. If a greenhouse effect occurs, then world temperatures will rise.
engines were found outside the building Therefore, a Boeing 757 did not crash Therefore, if fossil fuel combustion continues at its present rate, then world
into the Pentagon on 9/11. temperatures will rise.
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REASONING SECTION 1 2023 22/09/2023
Translate the following arguments into symbolic form. Then Translate the following arguments into symbolic form. Then
determine whether each is valid or invalid determine whether each is valid or invalid
Either the dinosaurs were not cold blooded or they were not the ancestors of If coal burning continues, then heavy metals will be released into the
modern birds. The dinosaurs were the ancestors of modern birds. Therefore, atmosphere. If heavy metals are not released into the atmosphere, then
the dinosaurs were not cold blooded. nervous-system damage will decrease. Therefore, if coal burning does not
continue, then nervous-system damage will decrease.
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