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Binary Co-Gelator Strategy: Toward Highly Deformable Ionic

Conductors for Wearable Ionoskins
Jin Han Kwon, Yong Min Kim, and Hong Chul Moon*
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ABSTRACT: Stretchable ionic conductors have been actively

developed due to the increasing demand for wearable electro-
Downloaded via NATL CHENG KUNG UNIV on October 27, 2023 at 21:33:33 (UTC).

chemical platforms. Herein, we propose a convenient and effective

strategy for tailoring the mechanical deformability of ionic
conductors. The mixing of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA,
polymer gelator) and 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bis-
(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide ([BMI][TFSI], ionic liquid) pro-
duces mechanically stiff ionic conductors. To reduce the chain
entanglement of polymer gelators and induce effective dissipation
of applied stresses, flexible poly(butyl acrylate) (PBA) with a low
glass-transition temperature is additionally doped into the ionic
conductor. An extremely stretchable (∼1500%) homogeneous ternary ionic conductor is obtained without a notable change in
electrochemical characteristics, unless the content of PBA exceeds the macrophase separation limit of 3 wt %. In addition, the
mechanical elasticity (1.8 × 105 Pa) and durability (e.g., recovery ratio of ∼86.3% after 1000 stretching/releasing cycles) of the
conductor further support its suitability as a strain sensory platform. In contrast to conventional ionoskins that have to fit the area of
target body parts, even a small piece of the ternary ionic conductor successfully monitors human motion over large areas by taking
advantage of its superior deformability.
KEYWORDS: deformable ionic conductors, binary co-gelators, soft electronics, ionoskins, functional electrochemical systems

■ INTRODUCTION
Stretchable electronics, including electronic skins (E-skins),
soft robotics,4,5 artificial muscles,6,7 and human motion
monitoring systems,8−10 have attracted enormous attention
as next-generation wearable device platforms. Conventional
stretchable systems are composed of elastomers (e.g., Ecoflex,
poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS)) and electronically conduct-
ing fillers (e.g., carbon materials,11,12 metal nanowires,13,14 and
conducting polymers15−17). The fillers provide an electrical
path through the connection, and the system utilizes its strain-
dependent electrical properties. However, the conducting
fillers are usually rigid, so their percolation network is broken
and the electrical characteristics are saturated even at a
relatively low strain limit.18,19 Moreover, there is no favorable
interaction between fillers and elastomers without specific
surface modification, which hinders the uniform dispersion of
the fillers over the entire elastomer matrix.20,21 As an
alternative, ionic conductors, where ions serve as charge
carriers, were proposed for deformable platforms.22−24 For
example, highly conductive ionic conductors, referred to as ion
gels, can be readily prepared by blending room-temperature
ionic liquids (RTILs) and polymer gelators. Their advantages
include high optical transparency with homogeneity, novola-
tility without encapsulation, and solution processibility.25−27
1−3
One challenge to improving practical feasibility for
deformable systems is the on-demand tailoring mechanical
properties of ionic conductors. Thus, simultaneous chemical
cross-linking and physical cross-linking of polymer gelators
were used to obtain high-toughness ion gels.28−30 It is noted
that no decrease in ionic conductivity was detected because the
domains serving as mechanical supports for the gel were cross-
linked selectively. The careful molecular design of polymer
gelators is another straightforward way to adjust the elasticity
of the gels.31−33 For example, when six-arm star-shaped block
copolymers of (poly(methyl methacrylate)-b-polystyrene)6
((MS)6) were employed as gelators, mechanical elasticity
was significantly improved compared to the system based on
linear polystyrene-b-poly(methyl methacrylate)-b-polystyrene
(SMS) with similar molecular characteristics.33 This result is
attributed to more physical cross-linking points per gelator
molecule (namely, 6 for (MS)6 star copolymers versus 2 for
linear SMS triblock copolymers). On the other hand, there
Received: April 26, 2022
Accepted: June 7, 2022
Published: June 16, 2022

© 2022 American Chemical Society https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.2c07334

32533 ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2022, 14, 32533−32540
ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces
were efforts to adjust the deformability of ionic conductors by
exploiting the synergistic effect of copolymerization of ionic
liquid (IL)-soluble polymers with a high glass-transition
temperature (Tg) and IL-insoluble low-Tg polymers.34 For
example, ionic conductors containing poly(methyl methacry-
late-ran-butyl acrylate) (PMMA-r-PBA) showed remarkable
stretchability (∼850%) as applied stresses were effectively
released through easy deformation of IL-insoluble PBA
moieties.
Herein, we propose an extremely straightforward and
effective route to obtain highly deformable ionic conductors
for strain sensory applications, in which the main strategy is
using binary polymer blends as the co-gelators. To validate this
concept, ionic conductors based on high-Tg glassy poly(methyl
methacrylate) (PMMA) and 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium
bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide ([BMI][TFSI], ionic liquid)
were set as a model system. As the low-Tg rubbery PBA was
doped into the relatively hard PMMA-based conductors, their
rheological relaxation time decreased, implying a less entangled
status of polymer gelators. Therefore, the applied stresses were
expected to dissipate effectively through easier shape
deformation. Indeed, the maximum stretchability of the
conductor was enhanced at a higher portion of PBA. However,
when the poly(butyl acrylate) (PBA) content exceeded 3 wt %,
the deformability of the conductor was reduced due to
macrophase separation between PMMA and PBA domains.
The optimized ternary ionic conductors exhibited outstanding
stretchability (∼1500%), mechanical elasticity (elastic modulus
of ∼1.8 × 105 Pa), and durability (e.g., the recovery ratio of
∼86.3% after 1000 stretching/releasing cycles), indicating high
feasibility for strain sensory systems. A linear response of
relative resistance over the entire strain range remained
∼1500% with a gauge factor (GF) of ∼1.32, which was highly
stable without encapsulation during repeated stretching/
releasing cyclic operations. A small piece of the ternary ionic
conductor was sufficient to monitor human movements as an
ionoskin, irrespective of the target body part area. For example,
the movements of small-area joints, such as a finger and wrist,
were successfully tracked in real time through the change in
relative resistance of the attached ionic conductor. To record
large-area motions (e.g., elbow), a piece of the conductor was
stretched and directly transferred onto the target area. Its
superior stretchability (∼1500%) allowed additional shape
deformation and tracking of corresponding variations in
physical characteristics. This function has not been demon-
strated with the previous conventional ionoskins that have to
fit the size of the target body part.
■ EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
Materials. All chemicals were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich
unless noted otherwise. [Li][TFSI] was obtained from 3M company.
Inhibitors contained in monomers (MMA and BA) were removed by
passing through a basic alumina column before polymerization. An
acetone solution of azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN) (12 wt % in 100
mL) was dried using a rotary evaporator, followed by recrystallization
in a methanol solution for purification. [BMI][TFSI] was synthesized
via an anion exchange reaction between 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium
bromide ([BMI][Br]) and excess lithium bis-
(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide ([Li][TFSI]) in deionized water.
Preparation of Homopolymers for Ternary Blended
Systems. Homopolymers of PMMA and PBA were prepared via
one-pot reversible addition−fragmentation chain-transfer (RAFT)
polymerization using ethyl 2-(phenylcarbonothioylthio)-2-phenyl-
acetate as a RAFT agent. MMA (29.19 g, 291.5 mmol), ethyl 2-
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(phenylcarbonothioylthio)-2-phenylacetate (6.7 mg, 0.212 mmol),
AIBN (0.7 mg, 0.0426 mmol), and dimethylformamide (30 mL) were
introduced into a dried two-neck flask. The reaction mixture was
degassed by purging with argon (Ar) gas at room temperature for 1 h,
followed by polymerization at 80°C for 16 h. Then, the mixture was
quenched in liquid nitrogen and poured into an excess of methanol
for precipitation. The product was vacuum-dried at 60 °C overnight.
PBA homopolymer was synthesized similarly (Figure S1 in the
Supporting Information).
Characterizations. The number-average molecular weight (Mn)
and polydispersity index (Đ) of the homopolymers were measured by
size exclusion chromatography (SEC) (LC-20AT, Shimadzu) using
high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-grade tetrahydro-
furan (THF) at 30 °C, equipped with two PLgel 5 μm mixed-C 300 ×
7.5 mm2 columns (Agilent Technologies) and a refractive index
detector (RID-20A, Shimadzu). The calibration was carried out with a
polystyrene standard mixture. The molecular characteristics of
employed homopolymers are as follows: PMMA (Mn ∼ 250 kg/
mol, Đ ∼ 1.30) and PBA (Mn ∼ 75 kg/mol, Đ ∼ 1.23) (Figure S2 in
the Supporting Information). Rheological properties of ionic
conductors were recorded on a rheometer (MCR 92, Anton Paar)
equipped with a parallel plate of diameter 25 mm. For time−
temperature superposition (tTS), frequency sweeps from 0.1 and 100
rad/s were conducted at 0−160 °C with strain fixed at 1%. Master
curves were obtained using shift factors. The reference temperature
was 20 °C. Tensile stress−strain curves were obtained using a force
gauge (M5-10, Mark-10) equipped with a motorized z-axis stage
(ESM303, Mark-10). The ionic conductivity of the ternary ionic
conductors (thickness: 2 mm, diameter: 4 mm) was determined using
an electrochemical impedance spectrometer (IM6, ZAHNER). The
employed AC voltage and frequency range were 10 mV and 10−1−106
Hz, respectively. Phase separation of the ionic conductors was
observed using an optical microscope (BX43, Olympus).
Fabrication and Characterization of Strain Sensors/Ion-
oskins Based on Ternary Ionic Conductors. To fabricate ternary
ionic conductors, PMMA, PBA, and [BMI][TFSI] in a 28.8:1.2:70
weight ratio were completely dissolved in THF. The homogeneous
conductor solution was cast on the rectangular-shaped mold
(thickness: 3 mm, width: 10 mm, and length: 30 mm), followed by
drying under 60 °C in a vacuum. The change in ΔR/R0 of ionic
conductors was recorded on a source meter (2400, Keithley) as a
function of applied strains under a DC bias of 1 V. The human
motion monitoring was performed using ionoskins attached to the
body under the same experimental conditions.
■ RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
To validate the effectiveness of the co-gelator strategy for
tuning the stretchability of ionic conductors, we selected high-
Tg (∼122.1 °C) PMMA and low-Tg (∼−49.2 °C) PBA for the
binary blend gelator (Figure S3 in the Supporting Informa-
tion). When glassy PMMA alone served as a gelator, the
resulting conductor exhibited solid-like rheological behaviors.
Namely, storage modulus (G′) values remained higher than
those of loss modulus (G″) irrespective of applied frequencies
(Figure S4 in the Supporting Information), indicating effective
gelation with PMMA and a mechanically stable network
structure. On the other hand, a highly viscid liquid was
obtained with rubbery PBA due to its low Tg (Figure S5 in the
Supporting Information). The appearance of both conductors
was also quite different, which can be observed even by the
naked eye (Figure S6 in the Supporting Information).
Accordingly, we conclude that none of the conductors is
suitable for wearable strain sensors because of the relatively
limited stretchability and poor film-forming ability of the ionic
conductors based on PMMA and PBA, respectively.
Therefore, we additionally introduced highly flexible PBA
into the ionic conductor consisting of PMMA and [BMI]-
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Figure 1. (a) Optical microscopy images of the ternary ionic conductors at various PBA weight ratios relative to PMMA content. All ionic
conductors are composed of 70 wt % [BMI][TFSI] and 30 wt % polymer blend gelators. Schematic illustrations of three representative regimes:
homogeneous phase with (b) PMMA homopolymer and (c) PMMA/PBA blend, and (d) macrophase-separated heterogeneous phase.

[TFSI] to adjust the chain flexibility of the polymer gelators
and dissipate the applied stress effectively. Figure 1a displays
optical microscopy images of the PMMA/PBA ionic
conductors at different PBA contents. The PMMA-only ionic
conductor (0 wt % PBA) shows featureless morphology
corresponding to a homogeneous phase film. It is anticipated
that PMMA chains are uniformly dispersed throughout the
ionic conductor and swollen with [BMI][TFSI] (Figure 1b).
There is no notable morphology change in the homogeneous
mixtures until the PBA content reaches 3 wt % (Figure 1a,c).
Thus, adding PBA is expected to improve the chain flexibility
of the overall polymer blend gelators. When the PBA content
exceeds 3 wt %, the incompatibility between PBA and PMMA
results in macrophase separation (Figure 1a,d). This means
that PBA domains become separated from the PBA + PMMA
domains and thus the stiffness of the PMMA domains is
restored.
To clarify the aforementioned hypothesis, we measured the
rheological and mechanical characteristics of the ternary ionic
32535
conductors. First, isothermal frequency sweeps at various
temperatures (0−160 °C) were conducted for three
representative ionic conductors containing 0, 3, and 4 wt %
PBA in ternary blends (Figure S7 in the Supporting
Information). Then, we constructed the master curve
according to the time−temperature superposition (tTS)
principle based on a reference temperature of 20 °C (Figure
2a). The crossover frequency (aTω) of bTG′ and bTG″ implies
the polymer chain relaxation time (τ) defined as τ = 1/aTω.
The τ of the PMMA homopolymer-based ionic conductor was
estimated to be ∼1292 s, indicating the densely entangled
nature of the polymer chains. The addition of flexible PBA to
the PMMA-based ionic conductors effectively attenuated the
overall polymer chain interaction unless it induced macrophase
separation. For example, for the 3 wt % PBA-containing
ternary ionic conductor, τ was ∼323 s (Figure 2a). On the
other hand, with the PBA content higher than 3 wt %, the
relaxation behavior of the ionic conductor was delayed again
(e.g., τ ∼1196 s for the ionic conductor with 4 wt % PBA)
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Figure 2. (a) Frequency-dependent tTS master curves of storage (G′) and loss moduli (G″) for ternary ionic conductors including 0, 3, and 4 wt %
PBA. Horizontal (aT) and vertical (bT) shift factors were applied with a reference temperature of 20 °C. (b) Correlation between polymer chain
relaxation time (τ) and PBA content in the ternary ionic conductors. (c) Stress−strain curves of the ternary ionic conductors at various PBA
contents.

Figure 3. (a) Stress−strain curves at different [BMI][TFSI] contents, in which the PMMA/PBA blend gelator contains 3 wt % PBA. (b) Plots of
relative resistance versus applied strain for the ternary ionic conductor including 70 wt % [BMI][TFSI]. The slope of the linear fit corresponds to a
gauge factor (GF) of ∼1.32. Variations in (c) stress−strain curves and (d) recovery ratio and residual strain as a function of stretching/releasing
cycles.

(Figure 2b). This is because PBA and PMMA domains were
macroscopically separated so that flexible PBA could not
effectively reduce the stiffness of PMMA in the ionic conductor
(see also Figure 1a).
Similar to the change in relaxation motion, the stretchability
of the ternary ionic conductors can be improved by adding
PBA. Figure 2c shows stress−strain curves for five ionic
conductors with different PBA contents. The opposite effect
32536
was observed with 3 wt % PBA corresponding to the
macrophase separation boundary. As long as the ionic
conductor maintained a homogeneous phase, the improved
chain flexibility arising from added PBA contributed to the
higher stretchability of the ionic conductor. For example, the
ternary conductor with 3 wt % PBA was elongated up to
∼1500%, whereas that of the PMMA homopolymer-based
ionic conductor was only ∼625%. Macrophase separation
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between PBA and PMMA domains reduced the effectiveness
of PBA. The overall stretchability of the 4 wt % PBA-
containing ternary ionic conductor was mainly determined by
the majority of stiff PMMA and decreased to ∼827% despite
the higher PBA content (Figure 2c). In general, the applied
stress is concentrated at the interface when the elastic
mismatch between two phases is large.35,36 In this context,
the reduced stretchability after macrophase separation can be
rationalized with a large mechanical difference between PMMA
and PBA domains. In contrast, the ionic conductivity of the
ionic conductor did not depend significantly on the PBA
content (Figure S8 in the Supporting Information). For
example, it was 0.17 mS/cm with the PMMA homopolymer-
based conductor (namely, 0 wt % PBA-containing ionic
conductor). When the 4 wt % low-Tg PBA was added, the
conductivity minutely increased to 0.19 mS/cm. The weak
dependence of ionic conductivity on PBA composition is
because both PBA and PMMA can form ion-conductive
channels with [BMI][TFSI].
Another crucial parameter to determine the characteristics of
ionic conductors is the blending ratio of the polymer gelator
(PBA/PMMA blend) and the plasticizer ([BMI][TFSI]).
Figure 3a displays stress−strain curves of the ternary ionic
conductors at different compositions. It is noted that the ionic
conductor with 80 wt % [BMI][TFSI] is mechanically unstable
and cannot maintain its original shape under ambient (Figure
S9 in the Supporting Information) and dry conditions (Figure
S10 in the Supporting Information), so we employed 50, 60,
and 70 wt % [BMI][TFSI] for three representative candidates.
Consequently, despite the trade-off correlation between the
elastic modulus and stretchability, we selected the most
deformable ionic conductor containing 70 wt % [BMI][TFSI]
(i.e., stretchability of ∼1500%) as the optimal system for strain
sensors because its elasticity of ∼1.8 × 105 Pa was still high
enough to handle and apply for free-standing strain sensors. To
evaluate the sensory performance of the optimized ternary
ionic conductor, we measured the gauge factor (GF) defined as
GF = (ΔR/R0)/ε, where ΔR/R0 and ε represent the relative
resistance and applied strain, respectively. The remarkable
feature of this system includes the linear response of ΔR/R0 to
ε with GF of ∼1.32 over the entire experimental strain range
(∼1500%) (Figure 3b). Moreover, the excellent mechanical
reversibility of the ionic conductor further supports its high
feasibility as a strain sensory platform. Figure 3c displays the
mechanical response of the ionic conductors to cyclic
stretching/releasing stability assessments. The characteristics
of the initial stress−strain curve were well preserved
throughout the test. For example, the recovery ratio defined
by the ratio of hysteresis area at each cycle to the first cycle was
determined to be ∼86.3% after 1000 cycles. Under the same
conditions, the residual strain corresponding to the extension
length after removal of stress with respect to the original length
was sufficiently low (∼11.5%) (Figure 3d).
The performance of the ternary ionic conductor-based strain
sensor was further examined. Figure 4a indicates an accurate
response of ΔR/R0 upon application of various strains. A larger
increase in resistance was detected at higher strains (e.g., ΔR/
R0 ∼13.3 and 134.4% at ε ∼ 10 and 100%, respectively), which
is natural considering that the ionic conductor film elongates in
the longitudinal direction and becomes thinner. Consistent
responses to repeated stimuli were observed irrespective of the
strain amplitude. Moreover, the ionic conductor recognized
the change in frequencies of applied strains with high
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Figure 4. Relative resistance changes depending on various (a)
magnitudes and (b) frequencies of applied strains. (c) Long-term
stability sensory tests during consecutive 5000 stretching/releasing
cycles at ε ∼ 100%.
resolution. For example, although the rate of applied strain
varied from 30 to 120 mm/min, the output signals were
uniform (Figure 4b). Another notable advantage of the ternary
ionic conductor is nonvolatility under ambient conditions.
Figure 4c displays transient responsiveness of the ternary ionic
conductor during continuous 5000 stretching/releasing cyclic
operation. When we compared the initial change in ΔR/R0
with that after 43,000 s (see insets in Figure 4c), there was no
notable difference in the responsiveness and amplitude. This
result implies that the ternary ionic conductor can serve as a
highly stable sensory component with no encapsulation.
To exploit the mechanical and sensory benefits of the
ternary ionic conductors, we applied them as skin-type sensors,
ionoskins.37−43 To monitor human motions accurately,
previous conventional ionoskins had to be cut into desired
sizes depending on the target body parts. Similarly, when the
detection area was relatively small, the dimension of 10 mm ×
30 mm (width × length) was sufficient to cover it. For
example, we successfully tracked the bending motions of a
finger by measuring the ΔR/R0 change of an attached ionic
conductor piece (Figure 5a). The larger strain was induced at a
higher bending angle, leading to larger variations in ΔR/R0.
With increasing bending frequency, the response interval
proportionally decreased. The bending/releasing movement of
the wrist was also successfully monitored with the same size
ternary ionic conductor (Figure 5b). In contrast to conven-
tional ionoskins, small pieces of the ternary ionic conductors
were even successfully applicable for large-area sensing owing
to their excellent stretchability (Figure 3a) and uniform gauge
coefficients over the entire strain range (Figure 3b). First, we
stretched the ionic conductor up to 500% and then attached it
as is on a large-area body part (elbow) (Figure 5c).
Considering the maximum stretchability of the ionic
conductor, there is room for additional deformation. The
overall variation in ΔR/R0 is shown in Figure 5d. The first
increment of the resistance (ΔR/R0 ∼ 663%) was induced by
stretching the ionoskin up to ∼500%. Afterward, the elbow
with the ionoskin was bent and straightened at different
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Figure 5. Relative resistance changes of the ternary blend-based
ionoskins attached to small-area body parts such as (a) a finger and
(b) wrist. (c) Photographs of two representative states of the
ionoskin. The ionoskin elongated to 500% was directly transferred
onto a large-area body part, the elbow. (d) Successful real-time
monitoring of elbow motions at different frequencies after stretching
to ε = 500%.
speeds, which was precisely detected (Figure 5d). We also note
that human motion monitoring is usually conducted with a
period obviously shorter than the relaxation time of the
conductor. Therefore, the elastic behavior of the ionic
conductor can be maintained during the test.
■ CONCLUSIONS
In summary, we demonstrated the effectiveness of binary
polymer blend gelators in tailoring the mechanical properties
of the ionic conductors. When less than 3 wt % of the flexible
low-Tg PBA was doped to prevent macrophase separation, the
stretchability of stiff ionic conductors based on high-Tg PMMA
and [BMI][TFSI] was notably improved by reducing chain
entanglement of the polymer gelators and effective dissipating
of the applied stresses through deformation. As a result, the
optimized ternary ionic conductor exhibited ultrahigh
stretchability (∼1500%) with a gauge factor of ∼1.32 over
the entire strain range, suitable elasticity (1.8 × 105 Pa), and
high durability (e.g., the recovery ratio of ∼86.3% and residual
strain of ∼11.5% after 1000 stretching/releasing cycles). A tiny
piece of the ionic conductor was used as an ionoskin to track
the motions of small-area body parts, such as a finger and wrist,
in real time. A large-area body part (elbow) was also
successfully monitored with a small piece of the ternary ionic
conductor by favorably exploiting its excellent stretchability.
We note that this co-gelator strategy is not limited to the
combination of PBA/PMMA. For example, when PMMA is
fixed as the main gelator, poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) can be
another possible dopant polymer candidate considering its
high miscibility with both PMMA and [BMI][TFSI] (Figure
S11 in the Supporting Information). Overall, the results
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indicate that using the binary polymer blends as gelators is
widely applicable and effective to modulate the deformability
of ionic conductors, and the resulting ultrastretchable system is
beneficial for ionoskin applications.
■
*
ASSOCIATED CONTENT
sı Supporting Information
The Supporting Information is available free of charge at
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsami.2c07334.
Synthetic routes, SEC traces, and differential scanning
calorimetry (DSC) thermograms for homopolymers;
rheological properties of the PMMA homopolymer-
based ionic conductor; rheological characteristics of the
PBA homopolymer-based ionic conductor; appearance
difference of PMMA- and PBA-based ionic conductors;
isothermal frequency sweeps at various temperatures
(0−160 °C) for three representative ionic conductors
containing 0, 3, and 4 wt % PBA in the co-gelator; Bode
plots of the ternary ionic conductors at various PBA
weight ratios; shape retention test of the ternary blend-
based ionic conductor containing 80 wt % [BMI][TFSI]
under ambient conditions and in a glovebox filled with
an inert gas (Ar); and optical microscopy image of the
PMMA/PEO blend-based ionic conductor with a PEO
content of 3 wt % and stress−strain curves of ionic
conductors based on various gelators (PDF)
■ AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
Hong Chul Moon − Department of Chemical Engineering,
University of Seoul, Seoul 02504, Republic of Korea;
orcid.org/0000-0003-2598-0925; Email: hcmoon@
uos.ac.kr
Authors
Jin Han Kwon − Department of Chemical Engineering,
University of Seoul, Seoul 02504, Republic of Korea
Yong Min Kim − Department of Chemical Engineering,
University of Seoul, Seoul 02504, Republic of Korea
Complete contact information is available at:
https://pubs.acs.org/10.1021/acsami.2c07334
Notes
The authors declare no competing financial interest.
■ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by the National Research
Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea
government (MSIT) (NRF-2022R1A2C4001425). This work
was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea
(NRF) Grant funded by the Ministry of Science and ICT for
Original Technology Program (NRF-2020M3D1A2102869).
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