Diploma in Mechanical Engineering/Manufacturing Technology

Course Code :3023

Course Title: Machine Tools

 MILLING MACHINE
Milling is a process of removing metal by feeding the work against a rotating multipoint
cutter. The machine tool intended for this purpose is known as milling machine. Milling
machine is used for machining flat surfaces, contoured surfaces, surfaces of revolution,
external and internal threads, and helical surfaces of various cross-sections. The surface
obtained by this machine tool is superior in quality and more accurate and precise. The
metal removal rate is higher very high as the cutter has a high speed and many cutting
edges.
TYPES OF MILLING MACHINE

The milling machines are classified according to the general design of the machine.

1. Column and knee type

a) Plain milling machine

b) Universal milling machine

c) Omniversal milling machine

d) Vertical milling machine

2. Table type milling machine

3. Planer type milling machine

4. Special type milling machine

Parts of Milling Machine

Following are the different parts of milling machine:

1. Base
2. Column
3. Saddle
4. Table
5. Overhanging arm
6. Front brace
7. Spindle
8. Arbor
1. Base
The base is the part upon which the whole machine parts are being mounted. It is
made of cast iron and a vertical column is mounted upon the base.
2. Column:

 The column is the main supporting frame mounted on the base.

 It is box-shaped and houses all the driving mechanism for the spindle and feed table.
 The front vertical face of the column is precisely machined and is equipped with
dovetail guide ways for supporting the knee.
 The top of the column is finished to hold an over arm that extends beyond the front
of the machine.
 The knee is a fixed grey iron casting that slides up and down on the vertical ways of
the column face.
 The adjustment of height is affected by an elevating screw mounted on the base that
also supports the knee.
 The knee houses the feed mechanism of the table and controls to operate it.
 The top face of the knee forms a slide way for the saddle that gives cross travel to
the table.
Saddle

 On the top of the knee is placed the saddle, which slides on guide ways set exactly at
90 degrees to the column face.
 A cross feed screw near the top of the knee engages a nut on the bottom of the
saddle to move it horizontally, by hand or power, to apply cross-feed.
 The top of the saddle is precisely machined to provide guide ways for the table.
Table

 It rests on guide ways on the saddle and travels longitudinally.

 The top of the table is finished accurately and T-slots are provided for clamping the
work and other fixtures.
 A lead-screw is provided under the table that engages with a nut on the saddle, it
helps to move the table horizontally by hand or power.
 The longitudinal travel of the table possibly limited by fixing trip dogs on the side of
the table.
 In universal machines, the table may also be swivelled horizontally. For this
purpose, the table is mounted on a circular base, which in its turn is mounted on the
saddle.
 The circular base is graduated in degrees.

Overhanging arm

 Overhanging arm act as a support for the arbor.

 It is mounted on the top of the column extends outwards the column face and works
as bearing support for the other end of the arbor.
 The Overhanging arm is adjustable so that the bearing support may be provided
nearest to the cutter.
 More than one bearing support can be provided for the arbor.
Front brace

 It is extra support, which provides rigidly to the arbor and the knee.
 The front base is fitted between the knee and overarm.
 The front brace is slotted to allow for the adjustment of the height of the knee
relative to the overarm.
Spindle

 The spindle of the machine is located in the upper part of the column and receives
power from the motor through belts, gears, and clutches and transmit it to the
arbor.
  The front end of the spindle just projects from the column face and is provided with
a tapered hole into which various cutting tools and arbor may be inserted.
 The accuracy in metal machining by the cutter depends on the strength, accuracy
and rigidity of the spindle.
Arbor

 Arbor is an extension of the machine spindle on which milling cutters are securely
mounted and rotated.
 These are made with taper shanks for proper alignment with the machine spindles
having taper holes at their nose.
 The taper shank of the arbor match to the Morse taper or self-release taper whose
value is 7:24.
 The arbor may be supported at the farthest end from the overhanging arm or maybe
of cantilever type which is called stub arbor.

PLAIN MILLING MACHINE:

It is rigid and sturdy. Heavy work pieces are mounted and machined on the
machine. The work mounted on the table is moved vertically, longitudinally and crosswise
against the rotating cutter. The table cannot be rotated. It is also called as horizontal milling
machine because the cutter rotates in horizontal plane.

UNIVERSAL MILLING MACHINE

The table of a universal milling machine can be swivelled by 45º on either side and
so helical milling works can be performed. It is named so because it can be adapted for a
very wide range of milling operations. Various milling attachments like index head, vertical
milling head, slot milling head and rotary table can be mounted. It can machine drills,
reamers, gears, milling cutters with a very high degree of accuracy and so it finds an
important place in a workshop. As with Vertical Milling Machine, the Spindle is vertical or
perpendicular to the Table. The Table consists of Machine Wise, where the work piece can
be fixed and feed against the tool for operation. Furthermore, the Universal Miller can
perform Bevel Gear, Spiral Gear, Spur Gear Cuttings, Twist, and Reamer cuttings by using
different attachments and fixtures.
VERTICAL MILLING MACHINE
A spindle of a vertical milling machine is positioned at right angles to the table. The cutter
is moved vertically or at an angle by swivelling the vertical head of the machine. The
machine is adapted for machining slots and flat surfaces by moving the table. By mounting
end mills and face milling cutters on the spindle, vertical milling and internal milling are
preformed
Specifications:
a. Type; ordinary or swiveling bed type
b. Size of the work table
c. Range of travels of the table in X-Y-Z directions
d. Arbour size (diameter)
e. Power of the main drive
f. Range of spindle speed
g. Range of table feeds in X-Y-Z directions
h. Floor space occupied
Milling Operation - Peripheral milling
The machining is performed by the cutting edges on the periphery of the milling
cutter. It is classified under two headings
1. Up milling 2. Down milling

UP MILLING

In this method, the work piece mounted on the table is fed against the direction of rotation
of the milling cutter. The cutting force is minimum during the beginning of the cut and
maximum at the end of cut. The thickness of chip is more at the end of the cut. As the
cutting force is directed upwards, it tends to lift the work piece from the fixtures. A
difficulty is felt in pouring coolant on the cutting edge. Due to these reasons the quality of
the surface obtained by this method is wavy. This processes being safer is commonly used
and sometimes called conventional milling.
DOWN MILLING

The work piece mounted on the table is moved in the same direction as that of the rotation
of the milling cutter. The cutting force is maximum at the beginning and minimum at the
end of cut. The chip thickness is more at the beginning of the cut. The work piece is not
disturbed because of the bite of the cutter on the work. The coolant directly reaches to the
cutting point. So the quality of surface finish obtained is high. Because of the backlash error
between the feed screw of the table and the nut, vibration is setup on the work piece.

MILLING CUTTERS

There are different types of milling cutters used in a milling machine. A suitable milling
cutter is selected according to the need. They are

1. Plain milling cutter

2. Side milling cutter

3. Metal slitting saw

4. Angle milling cutter

5. End milling cutter

6. ‘T’ – Slot milling cutter

7. Fly cutter

8. Formed cutter
MILLING MACHINE OPERATIONS

The following operations are performed using suitable milling cutters.

1. Plain milling 9. Flute milling

2. Face milling 10. Keyway milling

3. Side milling 11. Drilling & reaming .

4. Straddle milling 12. Boring

5. Angular milling 13. Gear cutting

6. Gang milling 14. Thread milling

7. Form milling 15. Cam milling

8. End milling
 Milling Machine Operations

Milling Machine
This full article is about milling machine operations. If you haven’t read our complete article on types
of milling machine you can read now by clicking here. Let's starts with some little introduction about
milling machine and milling machine operations.

A milling machine is a machine tool that cuts metal as the workpiece is fed against a rotating
multipoint cutter. The milling cutter rotates at a very high speed because of the multiple cutting
edges, it cuts the metal at a very fast rate. This machine can also hold single or multiple cutters at
the same time.
Types of Milling Machine Operations
Plain Milling

 The plain milling is the most common types of milling machine operations.
 Plain milling is performed to produce a plain, flat, horizontal surface parallel to the axis of
rotation of a plain milling cutter.
 The operation is also known as slab milling.
 To perform the operation, the work and the cutter are secured properly on the machine.
 The depth of cut is set by rotating the vertical feed screw of the table. And the machine is
started after selecting the right speed and feed.

Face Milling

 The face milling is the simplest milling machine operations.

 This operation is performed by a face milling cutter rotated about an axis perpendicular to
the work surface.
 The operation is carried in plain milling, and the cutter is mounted on a stub arbor to design
a flat surface.
 The depth of cut is adjusted by rotating the crossfeed screw of the table.
Side Milling

 The side milling is the operation of producing a flat vertical surface on the side of a
workpiece by using a side milling cutter.
 The depth of cut is set by rotating the vertical feed screw of the table.

Straddle Milling

 The straddle milling is the operation of producing a flat vertical surface on both sides of a
workpiece by using two side milling cutters mounted on the same arbor.
 Distance between the two cutters is adjusted by using suitable spacing collars.
 The straddle milling is commonly used to design a square or hexagonal surfaces.

Angular Milling

 The angular milling is the operation of producing an angular surface on a workpiece other
than at right angles of the axis of the milling machine spindle.
 The angular groove may be single or double angle and may be of varying included angle
according to the type and contour of the angular cutter used.
 One simple example of angular milling is the production of V-blocks.
Gang Milling

 The gang milling is the operation of machining several surfaces of a workpiece

simultaneously by feeding the table against a number of cutters having the same or different
diameters mounted on the arbor of the machine.
 The method saves much of machining time and is widely used in repetitive work.
 Cutting speed of a gang of cutters is calculated from the cutter of the largest diameter.

Form Milling

 The form milling is the operation of producing the irregular contour by using form cutters.
 The irregular shape may be convex, concave, or of any other shape. After machining, the
formed surface is inspected by a template gauge.
 Cutting rate for form milling is 20% to 30% less than that of the plain milling.

Profile Milling
  The profile milling is the operation of reproduction an outline of a template or complex
shape of a master dies on a workpiece.
 Different cutters are used for profile milling. An end mill is one of the widely used milling
cutters in profile milling work.

End Milling

 The end milling is the operation of producing a flat surface which may be vertical, horizontal
or at an angle in reference to the table surface.
 The cutter used is an end mill. The end milling cutters are also used for the production of
slots, grooves or keyways.
 A vertical milling machine is more suitable for end milling operation.

Saw Milling

 Saw-milling is the operation of producing narrow slots or grooves on a workpiece by using a

saw-milling cutter.
 The saw-milling also performed for complete parting-off operation.
 The cutter and the workpiece are set in a manner so that the cutter is directly placed over
one of the T-slots of the table.
Milling Keyways, Grooves and Slots

 The operation of producing of keyways, grooves and slots of varying shapes and sizes can be
performed in a milling machine.
 It is done by using a plain milling cutter, a metal slitting saw, an end mill or by a side milling
cutter.
 The open slots can be cut by a plain milling cutter, a metal slitting saw, or by a side milling
cutter. The closed slots are produced by using endmills.

 A dovetail slot or T-slot is manufactured by using special types of cutters designed to give
the required shape on the workpiece.
 The second slot is cut at right angles to the first slot by feeding the work past the cutter.
 A woodruff key is designed by using a woodruff key slot cutter.
 Standard keyways are cut on the shaft by using side milling cutters or end mills.
 The cutter is set exactly at the centre line of the workpiece and then the cut is taken.
Gear Cutting

 The gear cutting operation is performed in a milling machine by using a form-relieved cutter.
The cutter may be a cylindrical type or end mill type.
 The cutter profile fits exactly with the tooth space of the gear.
 Equally spaced gear teeth are cut on a gear blank by holding the work on a universal diving
head and then indexing it.

Helical Milling

 The helical milling is the operation of producing helical flutes or grooves around the
periphery of a cylindrical or conical workpiece.
 The operation is performed by rotating the table to the required helix angle. And then by
rotating and feeding the workpiece against rotary cutting edges of a milling cutter.
 Production of the helical milling cutter, helical gears, cutting helical grooves or flutes on a
drill blank or a reamer.

Cam Milling

The cam milling is the operation of producing cams in a milling machine by the use of universal
dividing head and a vertical milling attachment. The cam blank is mounted at the end of the dividing
head spindle and an end mill is held in the vertical milling attachment.

The axis of the cam blank and the end mill spindle should always remain parallel to each other when
setting for cam milling. The dividing head is geared to the table feed screw so that the cam is rotated
about its axis while it is fed against the end mill. The axis of the cam can be set from 0 to 90° in
reference to the surface of the table for obtaining a different rise of the cam.

Thread Milling

The thread milling machine operations are used to produce threads by using a single or multiple
thread milling cutter. Thread milling operation is performed in special thread milling machines to
produce accurate threads in small or large quantities.

The operation requires three driving motions in the machine. One for the cutter, one for the work
and the third for the longitudinal movement of the cutter.

When the operation is performed by a single thread milling cutter, the cutter head is swivelled to the
exact helix angle of the thread. The cutter is rotated on the spindle and the workpiece is revolved
slowly about its axis. The thread is completed in one cut by setting the cutter to the full depth of the
thread and then feeding it along the entire length of the workpiece.

When the thread is cut by multiple thread milling cutter, the cutter axis and the work spindle are set
parallel to each other after adjusting the depth of cut equal to the full depth of the thread. The
thread is completed by simply feeding the revolving cutter longitudinal through a distance equal to
the pitch length of the thread while the work is rotated through one complete revolution.
Indexing:
The operation of rotating the job through a required angle between two successive cuts is
termed as indexing. This is accomplished with the help of a milling attachment known as
dividing head, which is an accessory to the milling machine. It helps to divide the job
periphery into a number of equal divisions, i.e., square, hexagonal octagonal, etc.

SIMPLE INDEXING
Dividing Head:
To rotate a job through required angle, one needs:
(i) A device to rotate the job and
(ii) A source which can ensure that the job has been rotated through the desired angle.

In dividing head, the first requirement is met by an index-crank and the second by
the index plate. The index-plate has a number of holes arranged concentrically, so that each
circle has a number of holes equally spaced.
The crank has an arrangement in connection with the plunger-pin, which can slide through
the slot and the crank is pivoted at the centre of a disc. This crank can be rotated about the
axis and the plunger can be fixed at any desired hole.
The rotation of crank is transmitted through a gear to the job, so that the number of
complete revolutions will result in certain revolutions of the job. The ratio of crank and the
shaft on which job is mounted is 40 : 1, i.e., when the index plate makes 40 revolutions, the
job makes one revolution.

SIMPLE INDEXING
The following relation is used for simple indexing: T = 40/N, where T gives the number of
turns or parts of a turn through which the index crank must be rotated to obtain the
required number of divisions (N) on the job periphery.
Let us take an example of a gear blank on which 64 teeth are to be cut.

Compound Indexing:

The principle of operation of compound indexing is the same as that of simple indexing, but the
only difference is that compound indexing uses two different circles of one plate and hence also
sometimes referred to as hit and trial method.

The principle of compound indexing is to obtain the required division in two stages:
i) By rotating the crank or handle in usual way keeping the index plate fixed.
(ii) By releasing the back pin and then rotating the index plate with the handle.
For example, if a 27 teeth gear is to be cut, then T = 40/27 i.e., the rotation required for one
tooth spacing is 40/27 which may be written as 2/3 + 22/27 or 12/18 + 22/27.
So for each tooth, the worm will be rotated by 12 holes of 18 hole circle with the help of the
crank and then the index plate is rotated by 22 holes of the 27 hole circle.
.Differential Indexing:
Available number of index plates with different hole circles, sometimes confine the range of
plain indexing. In such cases, differential indexing is found to be more suitable. Between
the indexing plate and spindle of dividing head, a certain set of the gears is incorporated
extra. Dividing heads are provided with such standard set of gears.
During the differential indexing, the index-plate is unlocked and connected to a train of
gears which receive their motion from the worm gear spindle. As the handle is turned, the
index plate also turns, but at a different rate and perhaps in the opposite direction.
Differential indexing makes it possible to rotate the work by any fraction of revolution with
the usual index plates furnished with the equipment.
 ELEMENTS OF PLAIN MILLING CUTTER AND NOMENCLATURE OF TEETH
(Tool signature of milling cutter)

Body of cutter: It is the main frame of milling cutter, on which the teeth rest.

Cutting edge: It is the portion that touches the work piece during cutting action. It is the
intersection of teeth face and tooth flank.

Fillet: Rounded portion at the bottom of gash where one teeth joins the face of another
tooth. It is a reinforcement to cutting tooth.

Face of teeth: it is the surface upon the chip is formed while cutting. It may be curved or
flat.

Back of tooth: it is the created by fillet and the secondary clearance angle.
Gash : The gap among the back of one tooth and face of another. It is required for clearing
chip off work piece.

Land: Portion of back of tooth adjacent to cutting edge which is relieved to shun intrusion
among the surface being machined and the cutter.

Root Diameter :Diameter of the round passing through the bottom of fillet.

Outside Diameter :Diameter of cutter by way of centre and joining two ends of edge.

Cutter Angles

Similar to single point cutting tool, milling cutter is too give by rake, clearance with other
angles to eliminate metal powerfully.

1. Relief Angle : it is the angle between the tangent to the outside diameter of the cutter at
cutting edge and the land of the tooth. The function relief angle is to avoid the interference
between the land of the tooth and the work surface. The relief angle varies with the type of
material to be machined.
2. Clearance Angle : It is the angle between the back of the tooth and the tangent to the
outside diameter at the cutting edge of the tooth. It is divided into two according to the
clearance surface. (primary clearance angle and secondary clearance angle).

a. Primary Clearance Angle: It is angle among the surface of land with a tangent to border
at the cutting edge.

b. Secondary Clearance Angle: It is angle created by secondary clearance surface of tooth

with the tangent to the border at the cutting edge.

3. Rake Angle (radial): Angle calculated in diametrical plane among face of tooth with a
radial line by way of the cutting edge. It can be positive, negative and zero.

4. Lip Angle: t is the angle between the face of the teeth and the land of the teeth. Land is a
narrow surface on the back of teeth.

MILLING CUTTER TEATH MATERILS

The function of the milling cutter must be able to remove metal efficiently and
satisfactorily. Considering the wide range of materials that must he machined, the ideal
milling cutter should have:

1. High Abrasion Resistance 2. Red Hardness 3. Edge Toughness

Cutting tool materials may be grouped as follows:

1. Tool steels : Carbon Tool Steel and High Speed Steel.

2. Cast Tool Materials-Cast High-Speed Steel and Cast nonferrous Tool Materials.

3. Sintered or Cemented Carbide Tool Materials.

1. Tool Steels:

The name tool steel has been given to all cutting materials which have iron as chief
constituent. They consist of a mixture of various elements. When carbon is the only major
element added to iron, the resulting product is called steel or carbon steel. The names alloy
carbon tool steel and alloy tool steel, or high speed steel, are applied to those steels in
which other elements, such as tungsten, cobalt, chromium, vanadium, etc. are present, in
addition to carbon.

Plain Carbon Tool Steel

It is not widely used for milling cutters because of the rapid loss of hardness at
temperatures above 400° F. Milling cutters made of this type of steel arc used for screw
slotting and slitting, and for light work. This is especially true for those carbon tool steels of
low carbon content, known as low-carbon steel. Plain carbon tool steel, with higher carbon
content, when used in making milling cutters, is better material than the low-carbon steel.

Carbon steels having a carbon content of 1.10 to 1.30 per cent are known as the high
carbon steels. They are uses, as a rule," for finishing cuts and for accurate form tools.

Alloy Tool Steels or High Speed Steels

Alloy tool steels form one of the most important and widely used groups of cutting tool
materials..They are commonly known as high speed steels, since they can he operated at
speeds of 2 72 times those of carbon tool steels. These steels when used as cutting tools
may be operated to temperatures up to approximately 1100 F. High-speed steels consist of
iron with various amounts of carbon, chromium, tungsten, molybdenum, and vanadium.
Alloy steels have been named usually after the major alloying element; for example
tungsten high-speed steel is so called because tungsten is the chief alloying element.

2. Cast-Tool Materials

Cast high-speed steels and cast nonferrous materials belong to the group of cast-tool
materials because the tools made are usually shaped by the use of a mould. Cast High-Speec
Steels Cutters made of these steels can be operated at high cutting speeds and are used for
machining such materials as armor plate and aluminum. Cast Nonferrous Tool Materials
They are cast to the desired shape, are fully hardened after cooling to room temperature,
anc are finished to size by grinding. They are used for marching cast and malleable iron,
semi-steel, cast and forged steel, stainless, and other alloy steels. Since cast nonferrous tool
materials are brittle and cannot withstand shock, the cutter must not he stopped in the cut.

3. Cemented Carbides

Tungsten Carbide is a cutting tool material composed of tungsten, carbon and cobalt. it is
very expensive and enerally is used in the form of tips brazed to steel shanks which become
the teeth of inserted tooth face milling cutters. Tungsten Carbide is used, for tipping the
teeth ol certain types of solid cutters where the diameter of the cutter makes inserted tooth
design impractical. As it is comparatively brittle, the cutting edges of cutters must be
backed up in the best possible manner. Cutters with Tungsten Carbide tips are used mostly
on cast iron and or non-ferrous materials, in general these cutters can be operated at three
to ten times faster than high speed steels cutters. Cemented Carbide cutters are excellent
for long production runs and for milling materials with a scale like surface (cast iron,
bronze, etc.).

4. Stellite Stellite

It is a non-ferrous alloy of varying percentages of chromium, cobalt and either

molybdenum or tungsten. It cannot be forged or machined except by grinding, but can be
cast readily. Cutters with cutting edges of this material retain their cutting quality at high
temperature and can be used at higher peripheral speeds than cutters of high speed steels.
Small cutters made of Stellite, are usually solid, while on larger cutters the teeth are
clamped to a steel disk. Cutters with Stellite teeth are used satisfactorily for mass
production such as for milling automobile engine castings and similar parts.
WORK HOLDING DEVICES USED FOR MILLING MACHINES :
Various types of work holding devices are used for milling machine operations they are
explained as follows :

 T-bolts and clamps

 Angle Plates
 V – Block
 Machine Vices
 Dividing Head
 Special Fixture
 Circular Table or Indexing Table
 Parallels
 Magnetic chuck / Vacuum chuck / Collet chuck
T- Bolts and clamps –

Bulky work pieces of irregular shapes are clamped directly on the milling machine table
by using T- bolts and clamps. Different types of clamps are used for different patterns of
work. All these clamps carry a long hole, through which clamping bolt passes. This hole
permits the bolts for adjustment according to the size and shape of the job.

Angle plates –

 When work surfaces are to be milled at right angles to another face, angle plates are
used for supporting the work.
 The angle plate is made from high-quality material (generally spheroidal cast iron) that
has been stabilized to prevent further movement or distortion.
 Slotted holes or “T” bolt slots are machined into the surfaces to enable the secure
attachment or clamping of work pieces to the plate, and also of the plate to the
worktable.
 Angle plates also may be used to hold the work piece square to the table during
marking-out operations.
 Adjustable angle plates are also available for work pieces that need to be inclined,
usually towards a milling cutter.
V block The V blocks are used for holding shafts on a milling machine table in which
keyways and slots are to be milled.

Vices

Vices are the most common appliance for holding work on milling machine tables.
According to its quick loading and unloading arrangement. Vices are of three types,

(a) Plain Vice

The plain vice is directly bolted on the milling machine table is the most common type of
vice used on plain milling operations, which involves heavy cuts, such as in slab milling. Its
especially low construction enables the work to remain quite close to the table. This
reduces the chance of vibration to a minimum. The base carries slots to accommodate ‘T’
bolts to fix the vice on the table. Work is clamped between the fixed and movable jaw and
for holding workpieces of irregular shape special jaws are sometimes used.
(b) Swivel Vices

The swivel vice is used to mill an angular surface in relation to a straight surface without
removing the work from the vice. It has got a circular base graduated in degrees. The base
is clamped on the table by means of T- bolts.

(c) Universal Vices –

It can be swiveled in a horizontal plane similar to a swivel vice and can also be tilted in any
vertical position for an angular cut. The vice is not rigid in construction and is used mainly
in tool room work. It enables the milling of various surfaces, at an inclination to one
another, without removing the work piece.

Dividing Head –

Dividing head or indexing head used to hold the workpiece and divide the periphery into
the number of divisions required. These are of three types:

(a) Plain dividing head

(b) Universal dividing head

(c) Optical dividing head

TOOL HOLDING DEVICES

1. Arbor

It holds rotating milling cutters rigidly and mounted on the spindle. Sometimes arbor is
supported at maximum distance from support of overhanging arm like a cantilever, it is
called stub arbor. Locking provisions are provided in the arbor assembly to ensure its
reliability
2. SPRING CHUCK
A spring chuck is an adapter that can be mounted in the spindle for holding and driving
spring collets. A typical set of collets includes sizes from 3.18 to 25.4 mm (1/8 to in.)
diameter for holding drills, straight shank cutters, and end mills. The collets holder has a
ground taper shank to fit the spindle taper. Collets are held and located accurately in the
holder by a cap nut, which forces the collets taper against the inside taper of the holder,
clamping the collets tightly to the shank of the tool being held. Some other types of
collets/devices are also used for holding cutters and tools, depending upon the nature of
the work.
GRINDING
Grinding is a metal cutting operation performed by means of abrasive particles rigidly
mounted on a rotating wheel. Each of the abrasive particles act as a single point cutting tool
and grinding wheel acts as a multipoint cutting tool. The grinding operation is used to
finish the work pieces with extremely high quality of surface finish and accuracy of shape
and dimension. Grinding is one of the widely accepted finishing operations because it
removes material in very small size of chips 0.25 to 0.50 mm. It provides accuracy of the
order of 0.000025 mm. Grinding of very hard material is also possible.

Objectives

After studying this unit, you should be able to

• provide excellent quality of surface finish to the surface,

• impart high quality of accuracy of shape and dimension,

• finishing of hardened metallic surfaces,

• sharpening of cutting edges of cutting tools,

• maintaining tool geometry of cutting tools,

• flattening and forming of surfaces,

• finishing of castings by removing impressions of sprues, risers, parting lines, etc., and

• removal of scales and burrs, etc

TYPES OF GRINDING

On the basis of quality of grinding, it is classified as rough grinding and precision grinding.
Rough Grinding

It involves removal of stock without any reference to the accuracy of results. Generally,
rough grinding is followed by precision grinding.

Precision Grinding
Precision grinding removes negligible amount of metal. It is used to produce finished parts
and accurate dimensions. Depending on the geometry of work piece and the position at
which work piece is to be grind, it can be categorize as :

External grinding, Internal grinding, Surface grinding, Form grinding and Centreless
grinding.

Each of above categories can be further classified which will be explained below.

On the basis of position of mounting of a grinder it can be categorized as

Floor stand grinder (which can be installed on the ground);

Bench grinder, Hand grinder, etc.

On the basis of position of spindle, it can be categorized as horizontal spindle environment

in which the operation of grinding is done the grinding operation is classified as dry
grinding and wet grinding.

When cutting fluid is spread over the work piece, wheel face and sides, it is named as wet
grinding. The commonly used cutting fluid is soda water. Temperature of grinding zone
reaches upto 2000oC in case of grinding of hard materials. Use of cutting fluid lowers down
the temperature and so promotes wheel life. However, in case of dry grinding no coolant is
used. It is generally used when work piece material is not very hard and grinding time is
also small. Normally dry grinding produces two undesirable effects discolorations and
burring which are eliminated in case of wet grinding. Some of the grinding machines are
identified on the basis of their specific uses. Such grinders are called special purpose
grinders like crank shaft grinders; piston grinder; roll grinders; cam grinders; thread
grinders; way grinders and tool post grinders. These are nomenclature on the basis of their
specific uses.
VARIOUIS ELEMENTS OF GRINDING WHEEL

Grinding wheel is a multipoint cutting tool having abrasive particles bonded together and
so forming a structure. The various main elements of a grinding wheel are abrasive; bonds
and structure which are described below.

Abrasives

Generally abrasive properties like hardness, toughness and resistance to fracture uniformly
abrasives are classified into two principal groups :

(a) Natural abrasives, and (b) Artificial abrasives.

Natural Abrasives
There are a few examples of natural abrasives which include
sand stone (solid quartz); emery; corundum and diamond.
Diamond is not recommended to use as abrasive due to its cost in effectiveness.
However, diamond dust which is the waste of diamond dressing operation can be
used as abrasives.
Sand stone is one of the natural abrasive used to make grinding stones. These are
relatively soft. These cannot be used for grinding of hard material and at faster
speed.
Emery is a natural aluminium oxide containing 55 to 65% alumina, rest are iron
oxide and impurities.
If percentage of aluminium oxide is more, ranging from 75 to 95% then it is called
corundum. It consists impurities as remaining amount. Both emery and corundum
are harder than quartz and can have better abrasive action.
Artificial Abrasives
Main artificial abrasive are silicon carbide and aluminium oxide. Artificial abrasive
are preferred in manufacturing of grinding wheels because of their uniformity and
purity. Artificial abrasives are described below. Silicon Carbide It is also called
carbornudum. It is manufactured from 56 parts of silica sand, 34 parts of powdered
cake, 2 pats of salt, 12 parts of saw dust in a long rectangular electric furnace of
resistance type. Sand furnishes silicon, cake furnishes carbon, saw dust makes the
charge porous, salt helps in fusing it. Aluminium oxide is tough and fracture
resistant. It is preferred for grinding of materials of higher tensile strengths like
steel; high carbon and high speed steel and tough bronze.
BONDS
A bond is an adhesive material used to held abrasive particals together; relatively
stable that constitute a grinding wheel. Different types of bonds are :
(a) Vitrified bond,
(b) Silicate bond, .
(c) Shellac bond,
(d) Resinoid bond,
(e) Rubber bond, and
(f) Oxychloride bond. These bonds are being explained here in brief.
Vitrified Bond
This bond consists of mixture of clay and water. Clay and abrasives are thoroughly
mixed with water to make a uniform mixture. This wheel posses a good strength
and porosity to allow high stock removal with coal cutting. Disadvantage of this
type of wheel are, it is sensitive for heat, water, oil and acids. This bond is denoted
by symbol ‘V’ in specification.
Silicate Bond
Silicate bonds are made by mixing abrasive particals with silicate and soda or water
glass. It is moulded to required shape, allowed to dried up and then taken out of
mould. The raw moulded wheel is baked in a furnace at more than 200 oC for several
days. These wheel exhibits water proofing properly so these can be used with
coolant. These wheels are denoted by ‘S’ in specification.

Shellac Bond

These are prepared by mixing abrasive with shellac than moulded by rolling and
pressing and then by heating upto 150oC for several hours. This bond exhibit
greater elasticity than other bonds with appreciable strength. Grinding wheels
having shellac bond are recommended for cool cutting on hardened steel and thin
 sections, finishing of chilled iron, cast iron, steel rolls, hardened steel cams and
aluminium pistons. This bond is denoted by ‘E’ in specifications.

Rubber Bond

Rubber bonded wheels are made by mixing abrasives with pure rubber and sulpher.
After that the mixture is rolled into sheet and wheels are prepared by punching
using die and punch. The wheels are vulcanized by heating then in furnace for short
time. Rubber bonded wheels are more resilient and have larger abrasive density.
These are used for precision grinding and good surface finish. Rubber bond is also
preferred for making thin wheels with good strength and toughness. The associated
disadvantage with rubber bond is, these are lesser heat resistant. A rubber wheel
bonded wheel is denoted by the letter ‘R

Bakelite;

Bakelite is a thermosetting phenol-formaldehyde resin formed by the condensation

reaction of phenol with formaldehyde. So, we can, in general, say that Bakelite is a
condensation polymer or a phenolic resin. It shows high resistance towards heat,
electricity and chemical action

FACTORS AFFECTING THE SELECTION OF GRIND WHEELS.

1. The material being ground

2. Grinding pressure
3. Required finish and form accuracy
4. Area of contact
5. Wheel speed
6. Coolant use
7. Machine/spindle horsepower
 CENTERLESS GRINDING
Centerless grinding is a machining process that uses abrasive cutting to remove material
from a work piece. Centerless grinding differs from centered grinding operations in that
no spindle or fixture is used to locate and secure the work piece; the work piece is secured
between two rotary grinding wheels, and the speed of their rotation relative to each other
determines the rate at which material is removed from the work piece.

• Method of grinding cylindrical surfaces without rotating the work piece between
centres or chucks
• Three components are grinding wheel, regulating wheel and the work rest
• Both wheels rotates in same direction while the work piece rotates in the opposite
direction
• Work piece is supported on a work rest blade and is backed up by regulating wheel
• Regulating wheel controls the speed of rotation of work piece and also the rate of
feeding of work past the grinding wheel
Centerless grinding is done in one of the 3 ways
(a) Through feed: Work piece is passed completely between grinding wheel and
regulating wheel. Axial movement of work past the grinding wheel is obtained by
tilting the regulating wheel at a slight angle(0 to 8 degrees) from horizontal. Useful
for grinding long, slender shafts
(b) In feed: Similar to plunge grinding. Work piece is placed on the work rest blade
against an end support. This prevents axial movement of work. Regulating wheel
and work rest with the work piece are moved towards grinding wheel. Used for
grinding shoulders, formed surface
(c) End feed: Used on taper work. Either the grinding wheel or regulating wheel or both
are formed to a taper. Work is fed axially b/w the wheels till it reaches the end stop
at the rear end
FEEDING OF WORKPIECE

ADVANTAGES
a. Work piece is supported throughout the entire length. So there is no chatter
or deflection of fragile or slender work piece.
b. Size of the w/p can be easily controlled
 c. The process is continuous . So suitable for mass production.
d. Work holding devices not needed.
e. Less skilled worker is sufficient.
LIMITATIONS
a. In hollow work there is no certainty that outside diameter will be concentric with
inside diameter.
b. W/p with steps and multiple diameter cannot be ground easily.
c. Work with flats and keyways cannot be ground
d. Set up time is large

METAL FINISHING PROCESSES

Quality of surface is an important factor to decide the performance of a manufactured
product. Surface quality affect product performance like assembly fit, aesthetic appeal that
a potential customer might have for the product

The main objectives are described below.

(a) All smooth surfaces which are free from scratches and blemishes provide good
aesthetic appearance. This all add value to product and give a favourable impression to the
customers.

(b) Smooth surfaces free from scratches and sharp corners and edges give safety to users.
(c) Friction and wear also decided by surface conditions. In case of mating parts, the mating
surfaces should be perfectly finished to avoid wear and energy loss due to friction.

(d) Good quality surfaces improve mechanical and physical properties. Any surface flow
can act as a point of stress concentration.

(e) A slightly rough surface having uniform and constantly maintained value of surface
roughness provides anti-glazed property to the same.

(f) Smooth surfaces improve capability to make good electrical contacts.

HONING

Honing is a surface finishing operation based on abrasive action performed by a set of

bonded abrasive sticks. It is generally used to finish bores of cylinders of IC engine,
hydraulic cylinders, gas barrels, bearings, etc.

The motion of a honing tool a combination of rotation and reciprocation (linear). The
motion is managed in such a way that a given point on the abrasive stick does not trace the
same path repeatedly. The honing speed may be kept upto 10 cms per sec. Lower speeds
are recommended for better surface finish. Manufacturing defects like slight eccentricity a
way surface, light tapper, less of circulating can also be corrected by honing process. The
process of honing is always supported by flow of coolants. It flashes away the small chips
and maintains a low and uniform temperature of tool and work.

LAPPING
• A finishing process for obtaining high accuracy in size and to improve surface finish
• Process consists of charging fine abrasive particle b/w work piece and lap and are
rubbed together
• Small amount of material is removed from the work with the help of abrasive
particles which cut under the action of force and motion provided by a lap
• Lap is made of soft material like soft cast iron ,brass,bronze,copper, lead or soft steel
• Corundum, aluminium oxide , emery etc. are used as lapping abrasive
• Abrasive is carried b/w work and lap by vehicle materials like vegetable oil, mineral
oil, grease etc.
• Material removal ranges from .003 to .03 mm
• Performed either manually or by machine

SUPER FINISHING
Super finishing is an alternative process similar to honing. This also uses bonded abrasive
stick moved with a reciprocating motion and pressed against the surface to be finished. The
relative motion between the abrasive stick and the workpiece is varied so that individual
grains do not retrace the same path. Cutting fluid is used in the process for cooling of tool
workpiece interface. Coolant also washes away the tiny chips produced in the process. The
time needed for super finishing is very small. Workpiece may be super finished to a
roughness of the order of 0.075 µm within 50 seconds. Sometimes the process of super
finishing can be continued upto 3 minutes for very fine quality of finish. Super finishing can
be differentiated from honing in the following ways :
(a) Super finishing stroke length is comparatively shorter but frequency is larger. It is upto
1500 stokes/minute.
(b) It requires low pressure application as compared to honing process.
(c) During the process fed is given to workpiece, the fed rate in case of super finishing
operation is smaller than honing.
(d) Grit size of abrasive used in case of super finishing is smaller than that is used with
hones.
Major applications of super finishing are finishing of computer memory drums, sewing
machine parts, automotive cylinders, brake drums, bearing components, pistons piston
rods, pins, axles, shafts, clutch plates, guide pins, etc.

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