Please read this disclaimer before

proceeding:
This document is confidential and intended solely for the educational purpose
of RMK Group of Educational Institutions. If you have received this document
through email in error, please notify the system manager. This document
contains proprietary information and is intended only to the respective group /
learning community as intended. If you are not the addressee you should not
disseminate, distribute or copy through e-mail. Please notify the sender
immediately by e-mail if you have received this document by mistake and
delete this document from your system. If you are not the intended recipient
you are notified that disclosing, copying, distributing or taking any action in
reliance on the contents of this information is strictly prohibited.
 PHYSICS FOR ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING
22PH102

UNIT III

SEMICONDUCTING MATERIALS

Department : FIRST SEMESTER – ECE & EEE

Batch/Year : 2022-2023 / I

Created by : DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, RMKEC

Date : 15-11-2022
 COURSE OBJECTIVES

1. To learn the fundamental concepts of physics and apply this knowledge

to scientific, engineering and technological problems.

2. To make the students enrich basic knowledge in electronics and

quantum concepts and apply the same in computing fields.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.1 SEMICONDUCTORS - INTRODUCTION

3.2 PROPERTIES OF SEMICONDUCTORS

3.3 CLASSIFICATION OF SEMICONDUCTORS

3.3.1 Composition

3.3.2 Purity

3.4 E-k DIAGRAM

3.5 DIRECT AND INDIRECT BANDGAP SEMICONDUCTORS
3.6 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
3.6.1 Carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductor

3.6.2 Carrier concentration of electrons in the conduction band

3.6.3 Carrier concentration of holes in the valence band

3.6.4 Fermi Level in an Intrinsic Semiconductor

3.6.5 Intrinsic Carrier Concentration
3.6.6 Electrical Conductivity

3.6.7 Bandgap Energy

3.7 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

3.7.1 Carrier Concentrations in Extrinsic Semiconductors

3.7.2 Carrier concentration in n – type semiconductor

3.7.3 Carrier concentration in p – type semiconductor

3.7.4 Variation of Fermi level with temperature and impurity

concentration

3.8 Hall Effect and its applications

 TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.A Key Points to Remember
3.B Formulae to remember
3.C Solved Problems
3.D Activity
3.E Video Links
3.F Online Certification Courses
3.G Comprehensive Quiz
3.H Assignment
3.I PART A: Questions With Answers
3.J PART B: Questions
3.K References
3.L Real Time Applications
3.M Mini Projects
3.N Content Beyond Syllabus
3.1 Semiconductors - Introduction

Today, computers and computer chips are everywhere. The key to this
technological revolution is semiconductors. These are materials with the ability to conduct
a current somewhere between good conductors (metals) and insulators. Semiconductors
are very sensitive to impurities. By adding just small amounts of certain materials to them
in a process known as "doping," their ability to conduct electricity is greatly changed.

By combining differently doped areas of a semiconductor, the flow of current

through its different parts may be guided. It is also possible to control the current using
external control voltages, like in a transistor. Today, engineers are able to construct
incredibly advanced structures, such as microprocessors, on tiny pieces of semiconductor
material. In the early days of the semiconductor industry, the material germanium was
most common. However, silicon has proven to be much more effective.

Silicon is very easy to find in nature. However, silicon in its pure form which is
suitable for the production of computer chips has to be purified in a carefully monitored
process. One of the main reasons for the popularity of silicon is that it is stable and can
be heated to a rather high degree without losing its material characteristics. This means
that engineers can be sure it will perform even under quite extreme conditions.

A semiconductor material is one whose electrical properties lie between that of

insulators and good conductors. By adding impurities or by thermal excitation, the
electrical conductivity in semiconductors can be increased.

3.2 Properties of Semiconductors

i. Their resistivity ranges between 10-4to 103 Ωm.

ii. Their forbidden bandgap is small and Ge and Si are examples with forbidden energy
gap 0.7eV and 1.1eV respectively.

iii. They are insulators at T = 0 K.

iv. An increase in temperature or impurity addition, increases the conductivity.

v. They have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.

vi. Both the charge carriers are electrons and holes, take part in the conduction process.
3.3 Classification of Semiconductors
Semiconductors can be broadly classified into two categories based on
1. Composition
2. Purity

3.3.1 Composition
There are two types of semiconductors based on the composition namely,
i. Elemental semiconductors
ii. Compound semiconductors

Elemental semiconductors are semiconductors where each atom is of the same type
such as Ge, Si. These semiconductors are from the group IV elements in the periodic
table and have four valence electrons in their outermost shell. These atoms are bound
together by covalent bonds, so that each atom shares an electron with its nearest
neighbour, forming strong bonds. These are also named as indirect bandgap
semiconductors since recombination of electrons and holes takes place through traps.
Phonons are emitted as a result and the crystal lattice is heated.

Compound semiconductors are made of two or more elements. Common examples

are GaAs or InP. These compound semiconductors belong to the III-V semiconductors
so called because first and second elements are found in group III and group V of the
periodic table respectively. They also belong to II – VI semiconductors. In compound
semiconductors, the difference in electro-negativity leads to a combination of covalent
and ionic bonding. Ternary semiconductors are formed by the addition of a small
quantity of a third element to the mixture. Alloying semiconductors in this way allows
the energy gap and lattice spacing of the crystal to be chosen to suit the application.
These are also named as direct bandgap semiconductors since recombination of
electrons and holes takes place directly leading to the emission of photons.

3.3.2 Purity
Based on the purity of the semiconductor material used, there two types of
semiconductors,
i. Intrinsic semiconductor
ii. Extrinsic semiconductor
Intrinsic semiconductor is a pure semiconductor free from any impurity. Here
charge carriers (electrons and holes) are created by thermal excitation. Si and Ge are
examples. Both Si and Ge are tetravalent. I.e. each has four valence electrons in the
outermost shell. Consider the case of Ge. It has a total of 32 electrons. Out of these 32
electrons, 28 are tightly bound to the nucleus, while the remaining 4 electrons (valence
electrons) revolve in the outermost orbit. In a solid, each atom shares its 4 valence
electrons with its nearest neighbors to form covalent bonds.

The energy needed to liberate an electron from Si atom is very small, of the order of
1.1 eV. Thus even at room temperature, a few electrons can detach from its bonds by
thermal excitation. When the electron escapes from the covalent bond, an empty space
or a hole is created. The number of free electrons is always equal to the number of
holes.

Extrinsic semiconductors are formed by adding suitable impurities to the intrinsic

semiconductor. This process of adding impurities is called doping. Doping increases the
electrical conductivity in semiconductors. The added impurity is very small, of the order
of one atom per million atoms of the pure semiconductor. The added impurity may be
pentavalent or trivalent. Depending on the type of impurity added, the extrinsic
semiconductors can be divided into two classes: n-type and p-type.
(i) n-type semiconductor

When pentavalent impurity is added to pure semiconductor, it results in n-type

semiconductor. Consider the case when pentavalent Phosphorus is added to pure Si
crystal. As shown in Fig. 2.2, four electrons of P atom form covalent bonds with the
four valence electrons of neighbouring Si atoms.
The fifth electron of P atom is not covalently bonded, but it is loosely bound to the P
atom. Now by increasing the thermal energy or by applying electric field, this electron
can be easily excited from the valence band to the conduction band.

Thus, every P atom contributes one conduction electron without creating a

positive hole. Hence P is called donor element since it donates free electrons. Since
current carriers are negatively charged particles, this type of semiconductor is called n-
type semiconductor.

(ii) p-type semiconductor

When trivalent impurity is added to pure semiconductor, it results in p-type

semiconductor. Consider the case when trivalent Boron is added to pure Si crystal. As
shown in the figure, three valence electrons of Boron atom form covalent bonds with
the three neighbouring Si atoms. There is a deficiency of one electron (hole) in the
bonding with the fourth Si atom. The Si atom will steal an electron from the
neighbouring Si atom to form a covalent bond.
Recombination in indirect band gap semiconductors occurs through some defect
states within the band gap, and the energy is released in the form of heat given to
the lattice.

3.6 Intrinsic Semiconductors

Elemental and compound semiconductors can be intrinsic semiconductors.
At room temperature, the thermal energy of the atoms may allow a small number of
the electrons to participate in the conduction process. Unlike metals, the resistance
of semiconductor material decreases with temperature. For semiconductors, as the
temperature increases, the thermal energy of the valence electrons increases,
allowing more of them to cross the energy gap into the conduction band. When an
electron gains enough energy to escape the electrostatic attraction of its parent
atom, it leaves behind a vacancy which may be filled be another electron. The
vacancy produced can be thought of as a second carrier of positive charge. It is
known as a hole. As electrons flow through the semiconductor, holes flow in the
opposite direction as shown in Fig. 3.6. If there are n free electrons in an intrinsic
semiconductor, then there must also be n holes. Holes and electrons created in this
way are known as intrinsic charge carriers.
 The carrier concentration or charge density defines the number of charge
carriers per unit volume. This relationship can be expressed as n=p where n is the
number of electrons and p the number of holes per unit volume. The variation in the
energy gap between different semiconductor materials means that the intrinsic
carrier concentration at a given temperature also varies.

2.6.1 Carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductor

An intrinsic semiconductor at about 0 K, has completely filled valence
band and completely empty conduction band and therefore behaves as an insulator.

At room temperature, the valence electrons are raised into the conduction
band and are available to conduct electricity.

Therefore, in order to calculate the number of electrons and holes in unit

volume, the density of energy states or levels between the energy levels E and E +
dE is to be found out. The density of states in metals, where electrons start filling up
from the lowest ground state is given by,

3ൗ
𝜋 8𝑚 2
1ൗ
𝑍(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = 𝐸−0 2 𝑑𝐸
2 ℎ2

For an intrinsic semiconductor, the first level for an electron to occupy is EC. Thus,
the above equation transforms to
 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑐
𝑛 = 𝑁𝑐 exp
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
 𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸𝐹
𝑝 = 𝑁𝑣 exp
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
 Conduction Band
E
EC
𝑬𝒈
𝟐 (b)
EF
(a)

EV
Valence Band
T
Fig. 3.9 A sketch of the temperature dependence of the Fermi level in
an intrinsic semiconductor (a) at T = 0 K (b) at T > 0 K
3.7 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
An extrinsic semiconductor can be formed from an intrinsic semiconductor
by adding impurity atoms to the crystal in a process known as doping. This is the
most common technique for varying the conductivity of semiconductors. By doping,
the crystal can be made to have predominantly electrons (n-type) or holes (p-type).
When a crystal is doped such that the equilibrium concentrations of electrons (n)
and holes (p) are different from the intrinsic carrier concentration (ni), the material
is said to be extrinsic. Doping creates additional levels within the band gap as seen
in Fig. 3.12 for the p – type and n – type semiconductors.

Consider Silicon which belongs to group IV of the periodic table and has
four valence electrons. In the crystal form, each atom shares an electron with a
neighboring atom. In this state it is an intrinsic semiconductor. B, Al, In and Ga have
three electrons in the valence band. When a small proportion of these atoms, (less
than 1 in 106), is incorporated into the crystal the dopant atom has an insufficient
number of bonds to share bonds with the surrounding Silicon atoms.
Dopants that create holes in this manner are known as acceptors. This type of
extrinsic semiconductor is known as p-type as it creates positive charge carriers.
Elements that belong to group V of the periodic table such as As, P, Sb have an
extra electron in the valence band. When added as a dopant to intrinsic Silicon, the
dopant atom contributes an additional electron to the crystal. Dopants that add
electrons to the crystal are known as donors and the semiconductor material is said
to be n-type.

In Si, column V elements of the periodic table (e.g., P, As, Sb) introduce
energy levels very near (typically 0.03-0.06 eV) the conduction band. At 0 K, these
levels are filled with electrons, and very little thermal energy (50 K to 100 K) is
required for these electrons to get excited to the conduction band. Since these levels
donate electrons to the conduction band, they are referred to as the donor levels
which are present just below the conduction band as seen in Fig. 3.13. These
impurity atoms have five valence electrons of which four electrons occupy the
regular lattice site and form covalent bonds. One excess electron is loosely bound to
the parent atom. Thus, Si doped with donor impurities can have a significant
number of electrons in the conduction band even when the temperature is not
sufficiently high enough for the intrinsic carriers to dominate, i.e., n >> ni, p it
is called as n-type material, with electrons as majority carriers and holes as minority
carriers.
 In Si, column III elements of the periodic table (e.g., B, Al, Ga, In)
introduce energy levels very near (typically 0.01-0.04 eV) the valence band. At 0 K,
these levels are empty, and very little thermal energy (50 K to 100 K) is required for
electrons in the valence band to get excited to these levels, and leave behind holes
in the valence band as shown in Fig. 3.14. Since these levels accept electrons from
the valence band, they are referred to as the acceptor levels which lie just above the
valence band. These trivalent impurity atoms occupy the regular site of a Si atom.
All the three electrons are shared by three different Si atoms. A covalent bond is not
completed, due to the trivalent impurity having only three electrons. Thus, a hole is
created due to trivalent impurity doping. This hole is free to move within the crystal.
Thus, Si doped with acceptor impurities can have a significant number of holes in
the valence band even at a very low temperature, i.e.,p >> ni, n it is called as p-
type material, with holes as majority carriers and electrons as minority carriers.

The extra electron for column V elements is loosely bound and it can be liberated
very easily due to ionization; thus, it is free to participate in current conduction.
Similarly, column III elements create holes in the valence band, and they can also
participate in current conduction.

3.7.1 Carrier Concentrations in Extrinsic Semiconductors

For the calculation of semiconductor electrical properties and analyzing device
behavior, it is necessary to know the number of charge carriers/m3 in the material.
The majority carrier concentration in a heavily doped material is obvious, since for
each impurity atom, one majority carrier is obtained.
Electron Concentration
Three different ranges are seen, namely
a. The impurity range
b. The exhaustion range
c. The intrinsic range
The Fermi level lies between the donor level Ed and the bottom of the
conduction band Ec at very low temperatures (close to 0 K). An increase in
temperature, leads to ionization of the donors resulting in the electrons moving to
the conduction band. An increase in carrier concentration due to the (impure) donor
atoms is observed as an increase in the quantity log n. This region is called as the
impurity range.
The Fermi level travels towards the donor level Ed as the temperature
increases. At room temperature all donor atoms are ionised and the electron
concentration remains constant over a certain temperature range called the
exhaustion range and in this region the Fermi level crosses the donor level Ed.
A further increase in temperature leads to the thermal ionization of the
atoms in the valence band. Thus the electrons in the valence band cross over the
forbidden energy gap Eg and increase the electron concentration in the conduction
band. The valence band being an inexhaustible source of electrons, large number of
electrons reach the conduction band and are more in number than the donor
electrons. The Fermi level moves downward to the middle of the forbidden energy
gap Eg. Thus, the n – type semiconductor practically becomes intrinsic and is called
as the intrinsic range.
The various ranges are shown in Fig. 3.20.
Hole Concentration
The hole concentration follows the dotted curve as the temperature is
increased. At 0 K, the conduction band is void of electrons. An increase in
temperature, leads to the shifting of the electrons from the donor level to the
conduction band. At higher temperatures, valence electrons move to the conduction
band leading to the creation of holes in the valence band. Thus, over the intrinsic
range, the hole and electron concentrations overlap and they become equal in
number.
If Nd is small enough, the exhaustion range can be seen and with a large
value of Nd the low temperature impurity region passes to the intrinsic region
without passing the exhaustion region.
All semiconductor devices are therefore operated in the impurity or
exhaustion range to utilize the advantages due to the introduction of impurities.
Thus, Germanium has an operating temperature of 100 °C while for Silicon it is
about 200 °C.

3.7.5 Variation of conductivity with temperature in an n – type

semiconductor
At low temperatures near 0 K, only a few impurity atoms are ionized and
hence the conductivity is low. A large number of impurity atoms are ionized as
temperature increases leading to a rise in the conductivity. The scattering due to
impurities and small amount of carriers is the reason for the slow increase in
conductivity. A slight decrease in the conductivity is seen in Fig.3.21 due to the
decrease in mobility caused by the predominance of lattice scattering, when all the
impurity atoms are ionized. At higher temperatures, a steep and rapid increase in
the carrier concentration due to thermal generation increases the conductivity. But
mobility decreases due to lattice scattering with a rise in temperature. This is
overcome by the increase in the carriers due to thermal generation.
At very high temperatures, the semiconductor is practically intrinsic.
3.8 Hall Effect
When a current carrying electrical specimen is placed in a magnetic field,
a voltage sometimes develops between one side of the conductor and the other. In
order for the effect to occur, the magnetic lines of force must be perpendicular, to
the line containing the conductor. The voltage then appears at right angles to the
magnetic lines of force. If the conductor is a strip, and the magnetic lines are
perpendicular to the strip, then the voltage will appear between the opposite edges
of the strip. This is called Hall Effect.

If a specimen carrying a current I is placed in a transverse magnetic field

B, an electric field E is induced perpendicular to both I and B. This phenomenon is
known as Hall Effect.

3.8.1 Theory
If I is in the positive x-direction and B is in the positive z-direction, a force
will be exerted in the negative y-direction on the charge carriers. The current I may
be due to holes moving from left to right or electrons moving from right to left in the
semiconductor specimen. They will be forced to move downwards to surface 1.
 3.A Key Points to Remember
✓ Semiconductor is one whose electrical properties lie between that of insulators
and good conductors.
✓ Impurity addition or thermal excitation increases the electrical conductivity in
semiconductors.
✓ Semiconductor classified based on Composition are (i)Elemental semiconductors
(ii) Compound semiconductors
✓ Semiconductor classified based on Purity are (i) Intrinsic semiconductor (ii)
Extrinsic semiconductor
✓ Extrinsic semiconductors are formed by adding suitable impurities (dopants) to
the intrinsic semiconductor. This process of adding impurities is called doping
✓ Depending on the type of impurity added, the extrinsic semiconductors can be
divided into two classes: n-type and p-type.
✓ When the conduction-band minimum also occurs at k =0, the semiconductor is
said to be a direct bandgap semiconductor. At non-zero k, the semiconductor is an
indirect-bandgap semiconductor.
✓ Electron and hole concentrations are equal in an intrinsic semiconductor and are
called as the intrinsic carrier concentration.
✓ Mobility is the velocity acquired by the electron or hole under unit potential
gradient.
✓ Electrical conductivity depends on the negative exponential of the forbidden
energy gap Eg and the mobilities of both holes and electrons.
✓ Variation of electron concentration with temperature has three different ranges,
namely (i) impurity range (ii) exhaustion range (iii) intrinsic range
✓ When a current carrying electrical specimen is placed in a magnetic field, a
voltage sometimes develops between one side of the conductor and the other –
Hall effect.
✓ Hall effect is significant due to its ability to determine the (i) sign of charge
carriers (ii) number of charge carriers (iii) conductivity σ and mobility µ
simultaneously (iv) distinguish between metals, semiconductors and insulators (v)
magnetic field.
✓ The metal-semiconductor junction can be either non-rectifying or rectifying. The
non-rectifying metal-semiconductor junction is called ohmic contact. The rectifying
metal-semiconductor junction is called non-ohmic contact.
✓ Ohmic Contact is a low-resistance electrical contact to semiconductors in which
there is an unimpeded transfer of majority carriers from one material to another
 3.B Formulae to remember
Fermi function
1
𝑓 𝐸 =
𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹
1 + exp
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
Intrinsic Semiconductor
Concentration of electrons
3ൗ
2𝜋𝑚𝑒 ∗ 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 2 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝐶
𝑛𝑒 = 2 exp
ℎ2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
Concentration of holes
3ൗ
2𝜋𝑚ℎ ∗ 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 2 𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸𝐹
𝑛ℎ = 2 exp
ℎ2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
Intrinsic Carrier Concentration
3ൗ
2𝜋𝑘𝐵 𝑇 2 −𝐸𝑔
3ൗ
𝑛𝑖 = 2 𝑚ℎ ∗ 𝑚𝑒 ∗ 4 exp
ℎ2 2𝑘𝐵 𝑇
Fermi Level
𝐸𝑉 + 𝐸𝐶 3 𝑚ℎ ∗
𝐸𝐹 = + 𝑘𝐵 𝑇log 𝑒
2 4 𝑚𝑒 ∗
Law of mass action
𝑛𝑖 2 = 𝑛𝑒 × 𝑛ℎ
Resistivity
𝑅𝑖 𝐴
𝜌𝑖 =
𝑙

Extrinsic Semiconductor
Concentration of electrons
3ൗ
2𝜋𝑚𝑒 ∗ 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 4 𝐸𝑑 − 𝐸𝐶
𝑛𝑒 = 2𝑁𝑑 exp
ℎ2 2𝑘𝐵 𝑇
Concentration of electrons
3ൗ
2𝜋𝑚𝑒 ∗ 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 4 −𝛥𝐸
𝑛𝑒 = 2𝑁𝑑 exp
ℎ2 2𝑘𝐵 𝑇
Fermi level (n – type)
𝐸𝐶 + 𝐸𝑑 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑁𝑑
𝐸𝐹 = + log 𝑒 3ൗ
2 2 2𝜋𝑚𝑒 ∗ 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 2
2
ℎ2
Concentration of holes
3ൗ
2𝜋𝑚ℎ ∗ 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 4 𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸𝑎
𝑛ℎ = 2𝑁𝑎 exp
ℎ2 2𝑘𝐵 𝑇
 3.C Solved Problems
1. Find the resistance of intrinsic Germanium rod 1 cm long, 1mm wide
and 1 mm thick at 300 K.
Given Data:
For Ge, ni= 2.5 x 1019 /m3
e = 0.39 m-2V-1s-1
h = 0.19 m-2V-1s-1 at 300 K
Solution:
Conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is 𝜎 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒 𝜇𝑒 + 𝜇ℎ
Therefore,
𝜎 = 2.5 × 1019 × 1.6 × 1019 0.39 + 0.19 = 2.32 𝛺𝑚 −1

Resistance
𝜌𝑙 𝑙
𝑅= =
𝐴 𝜎𝐴
1 × 10−2
∴𝑅=
2.32 × 1 × 10−3 × 1 × 10−3
Resistance R=4310 Ω

2. A Semiconducting crystal 12mm long, 5 mm wide and 1 mm thick has a

magnetic flux density of 0.5 Wb/m2 applied from front to back
perpendicular to largest faces. When a current of 20 mA flows length wise
through the specimen, the voltage measured across its width is found to
be 37 μV. What is the Hall coefficient of this semiconductor.
Given Data:
𝑏 = 1 𝑚𝑚; 𝐼𝐻 = 20 𝑚𝐴; 𝑉𝐻
= 37 𝜇𝑉; 𝐵 = 0.5 𝑊𝑏/𝑚2
Solution:
Hall coefficient

𝑉𝐻 𝑏
𝑅𝐻 =
𝐼𝐻 𝐵
37 × 10−6 × 1 × 10−3
𝑅𝐻 =
20 × 10−3 × 0.5
𝑅𝐻 = 3.7 × 10−6 𝐶 −1 𝑚3
3. The energy gap of Si is 1.1 eV. Its electron and hole mobilities at room
temperatures are 0.48 and 0.013m2V-1s-1. Evaluate its conductivity.
Given Data:
Eg = 1.1 eV; e = 0.48 m-2V-1s-1; h = 0.013 m-2V-1s-1 at T = 300 K
Solution:
We know
3Τ2
2𝜋𝐾𝐵 𝑇𝑚𝑒
𝑛𝑖 = 2 𝑒 −𝐸𝑔 /2𝐾𝐵 𝑇
ℎ2
3Τ2
2 × 3.14 × 1.38 × 10−23 × 300 × 9.109 × 10−31
𝑛𝑖 = 2
(6.26 × 10−34 )2
−1.1
exp
2[1.38 × 10−23 × (300/1.6 × 10−19 )]
3Τ2
2.36826 × 10−50 −1.1
𝑛𝑖 = 2 exp
4.39038 × 10−67 0.05175
𝑛𝑖 = 1.4707 × 1016 /𝑚3
∴ 𝜎i =𝑛𝑖 𝑒(𝜇𝑒 + 𝜇ℎ )
= 1.4707 × 10 × 1.6 × 10−19 × (0.48 + 0.013)
16

Conductivity 𝜎𝑖 = 1.160 × 10−3 𝛺 −1 𝑚−1

4. In a p-type germanium, 𝒏𝒊 = 𝟐. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗 𝒎−𝟑 , density of boron = 4.5 1023

atoms m-3. The electron and hole mobility are 0.4 and 0.2 m2/Vs
respectively. What is its conductivity before and after the addition of boron
atoms?
Given Data:
m2 m2
𝑛𝑖 = 2.1 × 1019 𝑚−3 ; 𝑝 = 4.5 × 1023 𝑚−3 ; 𝜇𝑒 = 0.4 ; 𝜇ℎ = 0.2
Vs Vs
Solution:
(i) Before including Boron atoms - the semiconductor is an intrinsic semiconductor
Conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is 𝜎 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒 𝜇𝑒 + 𝜇ℎ
𝜎 = 2.1 × 1019 × 1.6 × 1019 0.4 + 0.2
𝜎 = 2.016 𝛺 −1 𝑚−1
(ii) After inclusion of Boron atoms - each Boron atom is ready to accept one electron
Conductivity of p - type semiconductor after Boron atoms are included
𝜎𝑝 = 𝑝𝑒𝜇ℎ
𝜎𝑝 = 4.5 × 1023 × 1.6 × 1019 × 0.2
𝜎𝑝 = 1.44 × 104 𝛺−1 𝑚−1
5. A n - type semiconductor has Hall coefficient as 4.16 x 10-4 m3C-1. The
conductivity is 108 𝜴−𝟏 𝒎−𝟏 . Calculate its charge carrier density ne and
electron mobility at room temperature.
Given Data:
𝑅𝐻 = 4.16 × 10−4 𝑚3 𝐶 −1 ; 𝜎 = 108 𝛺 −1 𝑚−1
Solution:
For n - type semiconductor, the charge carrier density
−1
𝑛𝑒 =
𝑒𝑅𝐻
The negative sign indicates the field direction alone.
Therefore,
3𝜋 1 3 × 3.14 1
𝑛𝑒 = = × = 1.769 × 1022 𝑚3
8 𝑒𝑅𝐻 8 1.6 × 10 4.16 × 10−4
19

Electron mobility
𝜎𝑒 108
𝜇𝑒 = = = 0.03816 𝑚2 𝑉 −1 𝑠 −1
𝑛𝑒 𝑒 1.769 × 10 × 1.6 × 10−19
22

6. Silicon contains 5 x 1028 atoms/m3. In an n - type Si sample the donor

concentration is 1 atom per 2.5 x 107 Si atoms. Find out the position of the
Fermi level at 300 K. Assume that effective mass of the electron is equal to
the free electron mass.
Given Data:
Eg = 1.1 eV; No. of Si atoms = 5 x 1028 m-3; T = 300 K
Solution:
Let Nd be the number of donor atoms in 5 x 1028 Si atoms
If one donor atom is added to 2.5 x 107 Si atoms,
= 2 × 1021 atoms/m3
5×1028
Number of donor atoms 𝑁 = 𝑑 2.5×107
Fermi energy of an n - type semiconductor at any temperature T is given by,
𝐸𝑔 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑁𝑑
𝐸𝐹 = + log 𝑒 3ൗ Joules
2 2 2𝜋𝑚𝑒 ∗ 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 2
2
ℎ2
We know for Silicon Eg = 1.1 eV = 1.1 x 1.6 x 10-19 J = 1.76 x 10-19J
𝐸𝐹
1.76 × 10−19
=
2

1.38 × 10−23 × 300 2 × 1021

+ log 𝑒 3ൗ
2 2 × 3.14 × 9.1 × 10−31 × 1.38 × 10−23 × 300 2
2
6.626 × 10−34 2
 2 × 1021
𝐸𝐹 = 8.8 × 10−20 + 2.07 × 10−21 log 𝑒
2 × 1.2536 × 1025
= 8.8 × 10−20 + 2.07 × 10−21 log 𝑒 7.9778.8 × 10−5
= 8.8 × 10−20 + 2.07 × 10−21 × −9.4364
= 6.8467 × 10−20 Joules = 0.4279 eV

7. The conductivity of a semiconductor at 20oC is 250 Ω-1m-1 and at 100oC

is 1100 Ω-1m-1. What is its bandgap Eg?
Given Data:
𝑇1 = 293 𝐾; 𝑇2 = 373 𝐾; 𝜎1 = 250 𝛺 −1 𝑚−1 ; 𝜎2 = 1100 𝛺 −1 𝑚−1
Solution:
The conductivity of a semiconductor for temperatures T1 and T2 are
𝐸𝑔 Τ2𝑘𝐵 𝑇1 𝐸𝑔 Τ2𝑘𝐵 𝑇2
𝜎1 = 𝐶𝑒 − and 𝜎2 = 𝐶𝑒 − respectively.
1 𝐸𝑔 𝐸𝑔
− +
𝜎1 + 𝜎2 = 𝐶𝑒 𝐵 𝑇1 𝑇2
2𝑘

Solving we get
𝑇1 𝑇2
𝐸𝑔 = 2𝑘𝐵 log 𝜎1 + 𝜎2
𝑇1 + 𝑇2
293 × 373
𝐸𝑔 = 2 × 1.38 × 10−23 × log 𝑒 250 + 1100 = 3.264 × 10−20 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
293 + 373
3.264 × 10−20
𝐸𝑔 = = 0.204 𝑒𝑉
1.602 × 10−19

8. The resistivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is 4.5 Ωm at 20oC and 2 Ωm

at 32oC. Find the energy band gap in eV. (Boltzmann constant = 8.617 x
10-5eV/K)
Given Data:
𝑇1 = 293 𝐾; 𝑇2 = 305 𝐾; 𝜎1 = 4.5𝛺𝑚; 𝜎2 = 2𝛺𝑚
Solution:
𝐸𝑔 Τ2𝑘𝐵 𝑇1 𝐸𝑔 Τ2𝑘𝐵 𝑇2
The resistivities at T1 and T2 are given by 𝜌1 = 𝐶𝑒 and 𝜌2 = 𝐶𝑒
respectively.

𝜌1 𝐶𝑒 𝐸𝑔 Τ2𝑘𝐵𝑇1
=
𝜌2 𝐶𝑒 𝐸𝑔 Τ2𝑘𝐵𝑇2
𝜌1 𝐸𝑔 1 1
= exp −
𝜌2 2𝑘𝐵 𝑇1 𝑇2
𝜌1 𝐸𝑔 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
log 𝑒 =
𝜌2 2𝑘𝐵 𝑇2 𝑇1
 𝑇2 𝑇1 𝜌1
𝐸𝑔 = 2𝑘𝐵 log 𝑒
𝑇2 − 𝑇1 𝜌2
293 × 305 4.5
𝐸𝑔 = × 2 × 8.617 × 10−5 × log 𝑒 𝑒𝑉 = 1.04077 𝑒𝑉
305 − 293 2

9. The donor density of an n - type germanium sample is 1021/m3. The sample is

arranged in a Hall experiment having a magnetic field of –.5 Tesla and the
current density is 500 A/m2. Find the Hall voltage if the sample is 3 mm wide.
Given Data:
𝑛 = 1021 𝑚−3 ; 𝐵 = 0.5 𝑇; 𝐽𝑥 = 500 𝐴𝑚−2 ; 𝑡 = 3 𝑚𝑚
Solution:
1 1
𝑅𝐻 = = = 6.25 × 10−3
𝑛𝑒 10 × 1.6 × 10−19
21
Hall Voltage 𝑉𝐻 = 𝑅𝐻 𝐽𝑥 𝐵𝑡 = 6.25 × 10−3 × 500 × 0.5 × 3 × 10−3
𝑉𝐻 = 4.6875 × 10−3 V
𝑉𝐻 = 4.6875 𝑚𝑉

10. Hole mobility in Ge at room temperature is 1900 cm2V−1s−1. Find the diffusion
coefficient.
Given Data:
𝑇 = 300 𝐾; 𝜇 = 1900 𝑐𝑚2 𝑉 −1 𝑠 −1
Solution:
𝜇𝑘𝑇 1900 × 1.38 × 10−23 × 300
𝐷= = = 49.101 𝑐𝑚2 /𝑠
𝑒 1.602 × 10−19

11. Which of the following semiconductors are transparent, partially

transparent, nontransparent for visible light (λ = 0.4–0.7 µm): Si, GaAs,
GaP, and GaN?
Given Data:
Eg for Si = 1.12 eV; Egfor GaAs = 1.42 eV
Eg for GaP= 2.26 eV; Egfor GaN= 3.44 eV
Solution:

ℎ𝑐 6.626 × 10−34 × 3 × 108

λ= =
𝐸𝑔 𝐸𝑔 × 1.602 × 10−19
For Si, λ = 1.108 𝜇𝑚
For GaAs, λ = 0.874 𝜇𝑚
For GaP, λ = 0.549𝜇𝑚
For GaN, λ = 0.361μ𝑚
Si and GaAs are not transparent, GaP is partially transparent, and GaN is transparent
for the visible light.
12. Find a concentration of electrons in the conduction band of intrinsic
(undoped) Si at T = 77 K if at 300 K ni= 1.05 × 1010 cm−3 .
Given Data:
𝐸𝑔 = 1.12 𝑒𝑉; 𝑇1 = 300 𝐾; 𝑇2 = 77 𝐾; 𝑛𝑖 = 1.05 × 1010 𝑐𝑚−3
Solution:
2 −𝐸𝑔 −𝐸𝑔
𝑛𝑖 = 𝑁𝐶 𝑁𝑉 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ~𝑇 3 𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇
Taking square root,
3ൗ −𝐸𝑔
𝑛𝑖 = 𝑇 2 𝑒𝑥𝑝
2𝑘𝑇
At T2 = 77K,
3ൗ
𝑇2 2 −𝐸𝑔 𝑇2 𝐸𝑔 𝑇1
𝑛𝑖 𝑇2 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑇1 𝑒𝑥𝑝 +
𝑇1 2𝑘𝑇2 2𝑘𝑇1
3ൗ
10
77 2 −1.12 × 1.602 × 10−19 1 1
𝑛𝑖 𝑇2 = 1.05 × 10 × 𝑒𝑥𝑝 × −
300 2 × 1.38 × 10−23 77 300

𝑛𝑖 = 7.587 × 10−19 𝑐𝑚−3

13. Electron mobility in Si is 1400 cm2V−1s−1 . Calculate the mean free time
𝒎𝒆 ∗
in scattering electrons. Effective mass is = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑.
𝒎𝟎
Given Data:
𝒎𝒆 ∗
= 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑; 𝝁 = 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝒄𝒎𝟐 𝑽−𝟏 𝒔−𝟏
𝒎𝟎
Solution:
𝒆𝝉
𝝁=
𝒎𝒆 ∗
𝒎𝒆 ∗ 𝝁 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑 × 𝟗. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏 × 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒
𝝉= = = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟐𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟑 𝒔
𝒆 𝟏. 𝟔𝟎𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗
 3.D Activity
Activity Objective: Examine the interrelated nature of culture and materials
engineering.

Explaining and Predicting the Properties of Materials Using Quantum Theory

How does Silicon a natural semiconductor turn out to be a superconductor? Discuss in
your group and validate.

Inorganic materials for transient electronics in biomedical applications - John Rogers

Give a two page write up on the various biomedical applications where different forms
of Silicon are used after listening to the above video lecture. Also predict about the
scope of Silicon in the near future.

2-D Materials

Turkle, Sherry. (2011) Alone Together: Why We Expect More from Technology and
Less from Each Other. “Always On” (pgs 151-170) and “The Nostalgia of the Young”
(pgs 265-277)

Kuang, Cliff (2013) “Why a New Golden Age for UI Design Is Around the Corner”.
Wired Magazine, September: 142-147. http://www.wired.com/design/2013/08/design-
and-the-digital-world/

After you watch and read, do the following:

Part 1: Schedule and conduct a 15-minute interview with someone you know
(a friend, roommate, relative, neighbour, etc.). The exact interview questions are up
to you, but we suggest that you discuss how people feel about the digital
technologies that they use in their everyday lives. Some questions could be:
a. What are their personal relationships to these materials and artifacts?
b. How do these artifacts mediate their relationships with other people?
c. What do people wish they could do with smaller, more embedded devices, and
what concerns do they have?
d. How do they use them to develop their own self-identities?
e. What were the most significant desires and concerns that emerged in your
interview about his or her relationship to digital devices?
f. Do you feel that a move to 2D materials will address these desires and concerns
or not?
Using your interview data, discuss ways to design more experience-centered digital
technologies using graphene. What are the main themes in how your interviewees
spoke about delegation and digital technologies in their daily lives? What do people
wish they could do with their digital technologies? What concerns do people have
about their use of digital technologies?

Take notes during the interview (about 1 page, hand-written or typed). You will
submit these notes with the homework below.
Please do not include any identifying details about the person that you interviewed
(e.g., name, address, job location/title).

Part 2: Watch the Video

Before the video reflect on the lessons of this unit by considering the questions
below. As you watch the video, think about how each question is answered.
a. Is the current use of semiconductors being driven by any social needs?
b. Why is MoS2 being considered for transistors more than graphene?
c. How could using MoS2 instead of silicon affect the speed, weight, and other
aspects of semiconductor technologies?
d. What are nanomaterials and what are some of the requirements for studying
these materials?

Please answer your chosen question in either bullet points or full sentences. Your
response will probably take 1½ to 2 pages.

Part 3 – Experience-centered design. Combine your discussions from Part 1 and

Part 2 to choose one potential use of MoS2 that would address a social need that
emerged from your interviews. What is this application? Making sure to address your
findings in Part 2, discuss what kinds of features your product would have, and what
kinds of features your product would avoid.

Assignment will be graded on effort, use of the lecture, video, and reading materials,
and thoughtful reflection. We’ll build on your responses with the in-class group
activity.
 3.E Video Links
1. What Is A Semiconductor?

2. Semiconductor: What is Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductor ? p-

Type and n-Type Semiconductor

3. Doping in Semiconductors

4. Doping in Semiconductors and mobility

5. Hall Effect

6. Hall Effect – Virtual Lab

3.F Online Certification Courses
NPTEL

1. Fundamental Concepts of Semiconductors

2. Fundamentals of Semiconductor Devices

3. Semiconductor Devices

Coursera

1. Semiconductor Physics

2. Semiconductor Devices Specialisation

edX

1. Semiconductor Fundamentals

2. Semiconductors for Beginners

 3.G Comprehensive Quiz
COMPREHENSIVE QUIZ 5.1

https://forms.gle/AMjKkxfwJiEizqbr8

COMPREHENSIVE QUIZ 5.2

https://forms.gle/amHecbF81z1JGXvG9
 3.H Assignment
1. The band gap of an alloy semiconductor GaAsP is 1.98 eV. Calculate the
wavelength of radiation that is emitted when electrons and holes recombine
directly.
2. The electrical conductivity of Germanium at 25 oC is 2 Ω-1m-1. What is the
conductivity of germanium at 50oC? Band gap of Germanium is 0.72 eV.
3. The intrinsic carrier density at room temperature in Ge is 2.37 x 1019 m-3. If the
electron and hole mobilities are 0.38 and 0.18 m2/V/s respectively. Calculate the
resistivity.
4. Calculate the conductivity of Ge at 200oC. Given that at 300K, ne=23 x 1018 m-3,
μe=0.364 m2/V/s and μh=0.19 m2/V/s.
5. Calculate the wavelength of emission from GaAs whose bandgap is 1.44 eV.
6. The electron and hole mobilities are 0.17m2/V/s and 0.035m2/V/s respectively at
room temperature. If the carrier concentration is 1.1 x 10-16m-3, calculate the
resistivity of Si at room temperature.
7. In an intrinsic semiconductor, the energy gap is 1.2eV. What is the ratio between
its conductivity at 600K and that of 300K?
8. A sample of Si doped with 1016 Phosphorus atoms/cm3. Find the Hall voltage in a
sample of thickness 100μm, area of cross section 2.5 x 10-3cm-2, current 1Amp
and magnetic field along the z direction 10 Wb/cm2.
9. The intrinsic carrier density is 1.5 x 1016/m3. If the electron and hole mobilities
are 0.13m2/V/s and 0.05m2/V/s, calculate the conductivity.
10. For an intrinsic semiconductor with a band gap of 0.7eV, determine the position
of EF at 300K if mh*=6me*.
11. Calculate the bandgap of GaAs if its wavelength of emission is at 8628Å.
12. In n-type semiconductor, the concentration of electrons is 2 x 1022 /m3. Its
electrical conductivity is 112Ω-1m-1. Calculate the mobility of electrons.
13. The density of silver is 10.5 x 103 kg/m3. The atomic weight of silver is 107.9.
Assuming that each silver atom provides one conduction electron, calculate the
density of electrons. The conductivity of silver at 20 °C is 6.8 x 107 Ω-1m-1.
Calculate the mobility of electrons in silver.
14. The Hall coefficient of a semiconductor was obtained as -3.68 x 10-5 m3/C. What
is the type of charge carrier? Calculate the carrier concentration also.
15. Calculate the number of states lying in the energy interval 0.01eV above the
Fermi level for a crystal of unit volume with Fermi energy EF=3.0eV.
16. Hall coefficient of a semiconductor is 8 x 10-5m3/C and its conductivity is 250 Ω-
1m-1. Obtain the nature, concentration of charge carriers and also the mobility of
the material.
17. The Hall coefficient of a certain Si specimen was found to be -7.35 x 10-5 m3/C
from 100 to 400K. Determine the nature of the semiconductor. If the conductivity
was found to be 200 Ω-1m-1, calculate the density and mobility of the charge
carriers.
3.I PART A: Questions With Answers
1. What is drift current in a semiconductor and give its relation using
mobility of electrons and holes? (K1, CO3)
Drift is, charged particle motion in response to an applied electric field. When an
electric field is applied across a semiconductor, the carriers start moving, producing
a current. The positively charged holes move with the electric field, whereas the
negatively charged electrons move against the electric field. The motion of each
carrier can be described as a constant drift velocity, vd. This constant takes into
consideration the collisions and setbacks each carrier has while moving from one
place to another. It is considered a constant, because the carriers will eventually go
the direction they are supposed to go regardless of any setbacks. Drift current in a
semiconductor is the resultant of carrier drift.

2. Explain the two electrical properties of In P semiconductor. (K2, CO3)

Indium phosphide (InP) is a binary semiconductor composed of indium and
phosphorus. It is used in high-power and high-frequency electronics because of its
superior electron velocity with respect to the more common semiconductors silicon
and gallium arsenide. It also has a direct bandgap, making it useful for
optoelectronics devices like laser diodes.
InP is also used as a substrate for epitaxial indium gallium arsenide based opto-
electronic devices. Indium phosphide also has one of the longest-lived optical
phonons of any compound with the zincblende crystal structure.

3. In the case of Si and Ge transistors and diodes the operating

temperature is limited. Why? (K2, CO3)
Low Temperature
Ordinary Si bipolars (Si BJTs) suffer a rapid decline in gain with cooling and are
unusable below about 100 K. This in not a result of "freeze-out" but of low emitter-
base injection efficiency. This effect can be avoided by adjusting the band gaps
through "bandgap engineering" as in heterojunction bipolar transistors (HBTs), such
as those based on SiGe. HBTs have demonstrated operation down to very low
cryogenic temperatures and show increased performance on cooling. On the other
hand, conventional homojunction Ge and GaAs bipolar transistors can also operate
at very low cryogenic temperatures.
High Temperature
Both field-effect and bipolar transistors can operate to high temperatures. For BJTs
and MOSFETs based on Si, operation has been reported to about 450°C and 500°C,
respectively.
Performance of field-effect transistors typically declines steadily with increasing
temperature, whereas the performance of bipolars (Si) shows an increase up to a
point and then declines. For both field-effect and bipolar transistors the major cause
of declining performance as temperature increases is increasing leakage in the p-n
junctions. In MOS transistors these are the isolation junctions between source or
drain and the body, in bipolar transistors it is the junctions that make up the
transistor, especially the collector-base junction.

4. Give the theory of Hall Effect. (K2, CO3)

The Hall Effect is due to the nature of the current in a conductor. Current consists of
the movement of many small charge carriers, electrons, holes, or both. Moving
charges experience a force, called the Lorentz Force, when a magnetic field is
present that is not parallel to their motion. When such a magnetic field is absent,
the charges follow an approximately straight, 'line of sight' path. However, when a
perpendicular magnetic field is applied, their path is curved so that moving charges
accumulate on one face of the material. This leaves equal and opposite charges
exposed on the other face, where there is a scarcity of mobile charges. The result is
an asymmetric distribution of charge density across the Hall element that is
perpendicular to both the 'line of sight' path and the applied magnetic field. The
separation of charge establishes an electric field that opposes the migration of
further charge, so a steady electrical potential builds up for as long as the charge is
flowing.
The Hall Effect is very useful as a means to measure either the carrier density or the
magnetic field.
One very important feature of the Hall Effect is that it differentiates between positive
charges moving in one direction and negative charges moving in the opposite. The
Hall Effect offered proof that electric currents in metals are carried by moving
electrons. The Hall Effect also showed that in p-type semiconductors, the current is
due to positive "holes" moving rather than negative electrons. For example, positive
Hall Effect was observed in evidently n-type semiconductors.

5. Write the advantages of compound semiconductors over elemental

semiconductors. (K2, CO3)
i. Light emitters (any wavelength) - Light emitting diodes, Laser diodes
ii. Mid- and far-infrared detectors (λ= 1.1 µm)
 ✓ Fiber communication wavelengths (λ = 1.3 and 1.55 µm)
✓ Atmospheric windows (λ = 3 to 5 µm and 8 to 12 µm)
✓ Infrared imaging arrays (night vision)
✓ Thermophotovoltaic cells (responding to 500 K black bodies)
iii. Ultraviolet detectors (λ = 0.5 µm) - Solar blind detectors (no response in visible)
iv. Optical modulators - Amplitude modulation of light (for fiber telecomm)
v. Very-high speed electronics - Systems operating at 40 GHz and above (for fiber
telecomm)
vi. High temperature electronics - Operable at temperatures above 200°C (process
monitoring)
vii. Cryogenic electronics - Operating at 4.2 K and below (space instrumentation)

6. State the law of mass action of semiconductors. (K2, CO3)

The product of the electron and hole density, in a non-degenerate semiconductor is
always equal to the square of the intrinsic carrier density, and not only for intrinsic
semiconductors. Multiplying the expressions for the electron and hole densities in a
non-degenerate semiconductor yields:
This property is referred to as the mass action law 1. It is a powerful relation which
enables to quickly find the hole density if the electron density is known or vice
versa.

7. Explain the p-type and n-type semiconductors. (K2, CO3)

p – type semiconductor
A p – type semiconductor is obtained by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with
trivalent (three electrons in the valence band) impurity atoms like Boron, Indium,
etc. Since, the impurity can accept the electrons; this energy level is called the
acceptor energy level (EA) and is present above the valence band. Here, the current
conduction is mainly due to holes, so majority carriers are holes and minority
carriers are electrons.
n – type semiconductor
The n – type semiconductor is obtained by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with
pentavalent (five electrons in the valence band) impurity atoms like Phosphorus,
Arsenic, Antimony, etc. Here, electrons are the majority carriers and holes are the
minority carriers. Since, electrons are donated in this type of semiconductor; the
energy level of those donated electrons is called donor energy level (ED).

8. What is Hall effect? (K1, CO3)

When a current carrying electrical specimen is placed in a magnetic field, a voltage
sometimes develops between one side of the conductor and the other. In order for
the effect to occur, the magnetic lines of force must be perpendicular, to the line
containing the conductor. The voltage then appears at right angles to the magnetic
lines of force. This is called Hall Effect.

9. What is the relation between diffusion co-efficient and mobility of the

charge carriers? (K1, CO3)
Mobility is related to the species' diffusion coefficient through an exact
(thermodynamically required) equation known as the Einstein relation:
𝑞
𝜇= 𝐷
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
where
q is the charge of the carrier
kB is the Boltzmann constant,
T is the gas temperature, and
D is a measured quantity that can be estimated

10. Explain the concept of hole in semiconductors. (K1, CO3)

A hole is the absence of an electron from the otherwise full valence band. A full (or
nearly full) valence band is present in semiconductors and insulators. The concept of
a hole is essentially a simple way to analyze the electronic transitions within the
valence band. The hole is actually not localized to a single position. Rather, the hole
is delocalized and spans an area in the crystal lattice covering many hundreds of unit
cells. Instead of analyzing the movement of an empty state in the valence band as
the movement of billions of separate electrons, physicists propose a single imaginary
particle called a "hole". In an applied electric field, all the electrons move one way,
so the hole moves the other way. If a hole associates itself with a neutral atom, that
atom loses an electron and becomes positive. In most of the semiconductors, the
effective mass of a hole is larger than that of an electron.
This results in less mobility for holes under the influence of an electric field and this
may slow down the speed of the electronic device made of that semiconductor. This
is one major reason for adopting electrons as the primary charge carriers, whenever
possible in semiconductor devices instead of holes.

11. How does the conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor vary with

temperature? (K2, CO3)
The electrical conductivity increases linearly with temperature. The expression is
2𝜋𝑘𝐵 𝑇 3Τ 𝐸𝑔 Τ2𝑘𝐵 𝑇
given by, 𝜎𝑖 = 2𝑒 𝑚ℎ ∗ 𝑚𝑒 ∗ 4 𝑒− 𝜇𝑒 + 𝜇ℎ
ℎ2
− 𝐸𝑔 Τ2𝑘𝐵 𝑇
Or 𝜎𝑖 = 𝐶𝑒 where C is a constant.
𝐸𝑔
Taking log on both sides we have log𝜎𝑖 = log𝐶 −
2𝑘𝐵 𝑇
If a plot is made is between log σi and 1 / T we get a straight line here σi increases
with temperature as shown.

12. Mention the location of Fermi energy level in intrinsic and n-type
semiconductors at 0 K. (K2, CO3)
At 0K, Fermi level lies exactly between conduction and valence bands for an intrinsic
semiconductor.
At 0K, Fermi level lies closer to conduction band in the n type semiconductor.
13. How does conductivity relation help in determining the band gap
energy? (K2, CO3)
𝐸𝑔 Τ2𝑘𝐵 𝑇
The electrical conductivity in intrinsic semiconductor σi is given by 𝜎𝑖 = 𝐶𝑒 −
1 𝐸𝑔
where C is a constant. Therefore, resistivity 𝜌𝑖 = 𝐶 exp 2𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝑅𝑖 𝑎 1 𝐸𝑔 𝐿 𝐸𝑔
i.e = 𝐶 exp or 𝑅𝑖 = 𝑎𝐶 exp
𝐿 2𝑘𝐵 𝑇 2𝑘𝐵 𝑇
where Ri is the intrinsic resistance, a is the area of cross section of intrinsic
semiconductor and L is the length of the intrinsic semiconductor.
𝐸𝑔 𝐿
The above equation is rewritten as 𝑅𝑖 = 𝐶1 exp where C1 = 𝑎𝐶 .
2𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝐸𝑔
Taking logarithm on either side,log𝑅𝑖 = log𝐶𝑖 + 2𝑘 𝑇. A graph is drawn between log
𝐵
Riand 1/T.

𝑑𝑦
𝐸𝑔 = 2𝑘𝐵
𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝑔
The slope of the graph gives 2𝑘 . Therefore, the band gap energy is found to be
𝐵

14. Mention any two applications of Hall Effect experiments in

semiconductors. (K1, CO3)
Applications
Design of magnetic field meters,since VH is proportional to HZ. A Hall probe is a
semiconductor-based detector which uses the Hall Effect to allow the strength of a
magnetic field to be measured. A Hall Probe is sensitive enough to measure the
Earth's magnetic field.
Hall Effect multiplier to give an output proportional to the product of two signals.

15. What is an intrinsic semiconductor? Give two examples. (K1, CO3)

Intrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors which do not contain impurities. They
do contain electrons as well as holes. The electron density equals the hole density
since the thermal activation of an electron from the valence band to the conduction
band yields a free electron in the conduction band as well as a free hole in the
valence band.
Eg. Silicon & Germanium
16. Name one compound semiconductor and give its application. (K1, CO3)
GaAs (Gallium Arsenide) is a compound semiconductor. It is a direct band gap
semiconductor in which electrons and holes recombine directly to produce photons.
Applications
a. The emission of photons finds applications in LEDs and laser diodes.
b. GaAs circuitry is used in mobile phones, satellite communications, microwave
point-to-point links, and some radar systems. It is used in the manufacture of
Gunn diodes for generation of microwaves and microwave frequency integrated
circuits (ie, MMICs).
c. GaAs is used for high efficiency solar cells.

17. What is a semiconductor? Give examples. (K1, CO3)

A material whose resistivity or conductivity lies in between a conductor and an
insulator is known as a semiconducting material. Resistivity is of the order of 10-4 to
0.5 ohm metre. Semiconductors have a nearly conduction band and an almost filled
valence band with a very small energy band gap (= 1eV).
Examples: Germanium (Ge), Silicon (Si), Gallium (Ga), Arsenic (As)

18. State the properties of a semiconductor. (K1, CO3)

a. Resistivity lies between 10-4 to 0.5 ohm metre.
b. At 0K they behave as insulators.
c. Conductivity of a semiconductor increases due to both temperature and
impurities.
d. Semiconductors have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
e. Holes and electrons are charge carriers in semiconductors.

19. Explain the concept of hole in semiconductor. (K1, CO3)

In intrinsic semiconductor charge carriers are created due to breaking of covalent
bonds. When a covalent bond is broken, an electron escapes to the conduction band
leaving behind an empty space in the valence band. This missing electron is called a
hole.

20. What is meant by donor energy level and acceptor energy level?
(K1, CO3)
A pentavalent impurity when doped with intrinsic semiconductor donates one
electron which produces an energy level called donor energy level.
A divalent impurity when doped with an intrinsic semiconductor accepts one electron
which produces an energy level called acceptor energy level.
21. Compare elemental and compound semiconductors. (or) What are the
differences between direct and indirect band gap semiconductors?
(K1, CO3)

S. Elemental or Indirect band Compound or Direct band gap

No. gap Semiconductor
1. Single element semiconductors.
Eg. Ge, Si, etc.
2. Electron - hole recombination
takes place through traps, which
are present in the band gap.
3. Heat is produced due to
recombination.
4. Lifetime of charge carriers is more
due to indirect recombination.
5. Current amplification is more.
6. Used in the manufacture of
diodes and transistors.
Semiconductor
They are made of compounds.
Eg. GaAs, GaP, CdS, etc.
Electron - hole recombination takes
place directly with each other.
Photons are emitted during
recombination.
Lifetime of charge carriers is less
due to direct recombination.
Current amplification is less.
Used in the manufacture of LEDs,
Laser diodes, ICs, etc.

22.Which type of semiconductor is used for the production of light?

(K1, CO3)
A direct band gap semiconductor is used in the production of light. A direct bandgap
means that the minimum energy of the conduction band lies directly above the
maximum energy of the valence band in momentum space. In a direct bandgap
semiconductor, electrons at the conduction-band minimum can combine directly with
holes at the valence band maximum, while conserving momentum. The energy of
the recombination across the bandgap will be emitted in the form of a photon of
light. This is radiative recombination, also called spontaneous emission. The prime
example of a direct bandgap semiconductor is gallium arsenide—a material
commonly used in laser diodes.

23. Draw the energy band diagram of a semiconductor. (K1, CO3)

24. What is an extrinsic semiconductor? (K1, CO3)
A semiconducting material in which the charge carriers originate from impurity
atoms, added to the material is known as an extrinsic semiconductor or impure
semiconductor. This semiconductor is obtained by doping a tetravalent
semiconductor with a trivalent or a pentavalent impurity.
Examples: Ge or Si doped with As, Sb, P, Al, B, etc.

25. What is an intrinsic semiconductor? (K1, CO3)

A semiconductor in an extremely pure form (without the addition of impurities) is
known as an intrinsic semiconductor. Electrical conductivity is entirely due to thermal
excitation.
Examples: Ge and Si.

26. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.

(K2, CO3)
S.
Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor
No.
1. Pure semiconductors are called Semiconductors doped with impurity are
intrinsic semiconductors. called extrinsic semiconductors.
2. Charge carriers are produced Charge carriers are produced due to
due to thermal agitation. impurities as well as thermal agitation.
3. They have low electrical They have high electrical conductivity.
conductivity.
4. They have low operating They have high operating temperature.
temperature.
5. At 0K, Fermi level lies exactly At 0K, Fermi level lies closer to
between conduction and conduction band in the n type
valence bands. semiconductor and closer to the valence
band in the p type semiconductor.
Examples: Ge or Si doped with As, Sb,
Examples: Ge and Si.
P, Al, B, etc.

27. Why is a semiconductor damaged by strong current? (K2, CO3)

A strong current when passed through a semiconductor, heats up the semiconductor
and covalent bonds break up. Large number of free electrons are released with the
material behaving as a conductor. The material loses its semiconducting nature and
is said to be damaged.
28. What is meant by electron-hole pair? (K1, CO3)
When the temperature of the semiconductor is increased from 0K due to the
thermal energy supplied if one electron moves from the valence band to the
conduction band it creates one hole in the valence band. This electron in the
conduction band and the hole created in the valence band is called the electron-hole
pair.

29. Define operating temperature of a semiconductor. (K1, CO3)

The operating temperature of a semiconductor is defined as the maximum
temperature upto which extrinsic behaviour or amplification exists. For example Si
has the operating temperature of 2000C so that the Si transistors or diodes can be
operated safely with the effect of doped impurities upto 2000C.

30. What is fermi level in a semiconductor? (K1, CO3)

Fermi level in a semiconductor is the energy level situated in the band gap of the
semiconductor. It is exactly located at the middle of the band gap in the case of an
intrinsic semiconductor. Thus it is a reference energy level from which the maximum
energy of the valence band and minimum energy of the conduction band are
referred.

31. What is meant by doping and doping agent? (K1, CO3)

The technique of adding impurities to a pure semiconductor is known as doping and
the added impurity is called doping agent.

32. Write the expression for the concentration of holes in the valence band
and the concentration of electrons in the conduction band of an
intrinsic semiconductor. (K1, CO3)
Expression for the concentration of holes in the valence band of an intrinsic
semiconductor
3ൗ
2𝜋𝑚ℎ ∗ 𝑘𝑇 2 𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸𝐹
𝑝=2 exp
ℎ2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
Expression for the concentration of electrons in the conduction band of an intrinsic
semiconductor
3ൗ
2𝜋𝑚𝑒 ∗ 𝑘𝑇 2 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝐶
𝑛=2 exp
ℎ2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
33. Define Hall effect and Hall voltage. (K1, CO3)
When a conductor (metal or semiconductor) carrying current is placed in a
transverse magnetic field, an electric field is produced inside the conductor in a
direction normal to both the current and the magnetic field. This phenomenon is
‘Hall Effect’ and the generated voltage is ‘Hall Voltage’.

34. Mention 4 applications of Hall Effect. (K1, CO3)

a. Determination of mobility of charge carriers
b. Used to find carrier concentration
c. Determination of nature of semiconductor material
d. Design of magnetic flux meters and multipliers on the basis of Hall voltage

35. Discuss the application of Hall Effect. (K1, CO3)

Analog multiplication
The output is proportional to both the applied magnetic field and the applied sensor
voltage. If the magnetic field is applied by a solenoid, the sensor output is
proportional to product of the current through the solenoid and the sensor voltage.
Current sensing
By sensing the current provided to a load and using the device's applied voltage as a
sensor voltage it is possible to determine the power dissipated by a device. This
power is (for direct current devices) the product of the current and the voltage. With
appropriate refinement the devices may be applied to alternating current
applications where they are capable of reading the true power produced or
consumed by a device.
Position and motion sensing
Hall effect devices used in motion sensing and motion limit switches can offer
enhanced reliability in extreme environments. As there are no moving parts involved
within the sensor or magnet, typical life expectancy is improved compared to
traditional electromechanical switches.

36. What do Hall effect, Hall voltage and Hall coefficient mean?
(K1, CO3)
Hall Effect – When a current carrying conductor is placed in a transverse magnetic
field, an electric field is produced inside the conductor in a direction normal to both
the current and the magnetic field.
Hall Voltage – the generated voltage is the Hall voltage.
Hall Coefficient – Hall field per unit current density per unit magnetic induction is
called Hall coefficient.

37. Why do we prefer Silicon for transistors and GaAs for laser diodes?
Silicon
a. Silicon is abundant and cheap to process. Si is highly abundant in the Earth's
crust, in the form of silicate minerals.
b. The existence of silicon dioxide—one of the best insulators. Silicon dioxide can
easily be incorporated onto silicon circuits, and such layers are adherent to the
underlying Si.
c. Silicon possesses a much higher hole mobility. This high mobility allows the
fabrication of higher-speed P-channel field effect transistors, which are required
for CMOS logic.
d. Silicon is an indirect band gap semiconductor for which the lifetime of the charge
carriers is more and the current amplification is very high, hence it is preferable
for using it in transistors.
Gallium (III) Arsenide
a. GaAs is a direct band gap semiconductor in which electrons and holes recombine
directly to produce photons and hence used in laser diodes.
b. GaAs cells are relatively insensitive to heat and have high switching speed.
c. GaAs has high absorptivity so it requires a cell only a few microns thick to absorb
sunlight.
d. It has a higher saturated electron velocity and higher electron mobility, allowing
transistors made from it to function at frequencies in excess of 250 GHz.
e. GaAs devices generate less noise than silicon devices when operated at high
frequencies.
f. They can also be operated at higher power levels than the equivalent silicon
device because they have higher breakdown voltages.
 3.J PART B: Questions
1. Obtain an expression for density of holes in the valence band of a p – type
semiconductor by assuming Fermi – Dirac distribution function.

2. Obtain an expression for density of electrons in the conduction band of a n– type

semiconductor by assuming Fermi – Dirac distribution function.

3. What are the differences between elemental and compound semiconductors? Get
an expression for the carrier concentration in an intrinsic semiconductor. Mention
the variation of Fermi energy with temperature in an intrinsic semiconductor.
Explain the method to determine the band gap of an intrinsic semiconductor.

4. Discuss the variation of Fermi level with carrier concentration and temperature in
n-type semiconductor.

5. Derive an expression for the density of holes in the valence band and also
explain how does the Fermi level vary with the concentration of impurities in the
p-type semiconductor. Suggest a method for evaluating the band gap of a
semiconductor.

6. Discuss carrier concentration, the variation of Fermi level with temperature in the
case of p-type and n-type semiconductors for high and low doping levels.

7. Show that for a p-type semiconductor the Hall coefficient RH is given by . How do
you determine the mobility of charge carriers in an n-type semiconductor using
Hall Effect? Discuss the applications of Hall Effect.

8. (a) Define Hall Effect.

(b) Explain in detail how Hall coefficient can be determined experimentally.

9. Discuss the theory of Hall Effect and explain an experimental procedure for the
study of it.

10. Explain the types of extrinsic semiconductors with diagrams.

 3.K References
1. Clifton Fonstad, "Microelectronic Devices and Circuits"

2. Donald A. Neamen, “Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles:

Third Edition”, University of New Mexico

3. Sze S. M., “Semiconductor Devices: Physics and Technology 2nd ed.”,

John Wiley and Sons, New York, 2001.

4. J. P. Colinge and Davis C. A. Colinge, “Physics of Semiconductor

Devices”, Kluwer Academic Publishers New York.

5. Umesh Mishra, Jasprit Singh, “Semiconductor Device Physics and Design”,

Springer, 2008

6. S.O. Kasap, C. Tannous, “The Pedagogy of the p-n Junction: Diffusion or

Drift?”

7. C. T. Sah, “Fundamentals of Solid-State Electronics”, World Scientific.

8. K. Leaver, “Microelectronic Devices”, Imperial College Press.

9. D. J. Roulson, “An Introduction to the Physics Semiconductor Devices’”

Oxford University Press.

10. MOS capacitors

11. Semiconductor Physics MCQs

 3.L Real Time Applications
DIY applications for everyday use

Semiconductor Device

Real World Semiconductors

New Semiconductor Technologies and Applications

Carbonized Wood for Supercapacitor Electrodes

Universal Band Gap Determination Model for Doped Semiconductor Materials

 3.M Mini Projects
1. Build a home made, low cost Geiger -Muller detector

2. Construct a humidity sensor

3. Building a 𝛄 and 𝜷 radiation detector

A research article in the form of a review can be formulated from the

below given research articles. If all goes well, it can be published in a
reputed journal !!!!

1. Charge carrier traps in organic semiconductors: a review on the

underlying physics and impact on electronic devices, Hamna F.
Haneef , Andrew M. Zeidell and Oana D. Jurchescu ,
DOI: 10.1039/C9TC05695E, J. Mater. Chem. C, 2020, 8, 759-787

2. The Power of Materials Science Tools for Gaining Insights into

Organic Semiconductors Neil D. Treat, Paul Westacott, and Natalie
Stingelin, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-matsci-070214-021113,
Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 2015. 45:15.1–15.32

3. A review of carrier thermoelectric-transport theory in organic

semiconductors, Nianduan Lu, Ling Li, and Ming Liu,
https://doi.org/10.1039/C6CP02830F, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys.,
2016,18, 19503-19525
 3.N Content Beyond Syllabus
Varactor Diode

Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

Organic Semiconductors

Organic Semiconductors Processed from Synthesis‐to‐Device in Water

 Thank you

Disclaimer:

This document is confidential and intended solely for the educational purpose of RMK Group
of Educational Institutions. If you have received this document through email in error,
please notify the system manager. This document contains proprietary information and is
intended only to the respective group / learning community as intended. If you are not the
addressee you should not disseminate, distribute or copy through e-mail. Please notify the
sender immediately by e-mail if you have received this document by mistake and delete this
document from your system. If you are not the intended recipient you are notified that
disclosing, copying, distributing or taking any action in reliance on the contents of this
information is strictly prohibited.