ELANG 100 – INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS

Overview of Linguistics

Introduction of the Lesson

In the captivating realm of linguistics, we embark on a voyage to decode the intricate tapestry of
human language. Language, the cornerstone of communication, culture, and identity, holds within it the
power to shape our perceptions of the world. In this overview of linguistics, we will embark on a journey
to understand the essence of language, exploring its fundamental nature, the fascinating diversity of
world languages, the reasons behind linguistic evolution, and the methods by which linguists unravel its
mysteries. We will also delve into the various branches of linguistics, from syntax to sociolinguistics, and
examine the phenomenon of World Englishes, which showcases the ever-evolving global landscape of
language. So, prepare to embark on this linguistic odyssey, where words are our compass and languages
our guides, as we embark on a quest to uncover the profound significance of linguistics in our lives and
the world around us.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to have:

1. exhibited an understanding of the interplay between language and language education;

2. explained the nature, characteristics and reasons of studying a language;
3. discussed the methods of language study and branches of linguistics; and
4. described the world Englishes and the Philippine English.

Warm Up Activity

This activity will help you activate your prior knowledge, and set the stage for the main
discussion. This is titled Language Snapshots with the objective of igniting your interest and arousing
your curiosity about language and linguistics while encouraging you to think critically about linguistic
diversity.

Your professor will take you to a visual journey around the world to explore linguistic diversity.
Series of images or brief video clips that depict linguistic diversity will be projected on the board and the
professor will describe the context or location of each image or clip. After each snapshot, the professor
will ask open-ended questions to stimulate discussion like:

"What languages do you think people are speaking in this image?"

"Can you identify any signs or written text?
“What languages are they in?"
"Do you think language plays a role in the cultural identity of the people in this picture?"
"How might linguistic diversity impact communication in this multilingual environment?"
 After viewing several snapshots and discussing them individually, you will share your
observations, insights, and questions about linguistic diversity based on what you've seen.

This part of the lesson does not only spark interest in the topic but also helps you realize the
relevance of linguistics in understanding the world's linguistic diversity. It sets a positive tone for the
main discussion and encourages your active participation from the start.

Content and Activities

A. Language, Linguistics and Language Education

Language is a complex and dynamic system of communication used by humans to convey

thoughts, ideas, emotions, and information. It serves as the primary medium through which individuals
interact with one another and with the world around them. Language is not only a means of
communication but also a reflection of culture, identity, and cognitive abilities (Crystal, 2006).

Linguistics is the scientific study of language, encompassing its structure, use, acquisition, and
evolution. Linguists examine language from various perspectives, including phonetics, syntax, semantics,
and sociolinguistics, to gain insights into its intricacies and variations (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2013).

Language education involves teaching and learning a language, with the aim of developing
proficiency in communication. It encompasses both native and foreign language instruction and plays a
crucial role in promoting cross-cultural understanding and global communication (Richards & Rodgers,
2001).

B. Nature of Language:

Language is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that has been studied and theorized by
scholars from various fields, including linguistics, anthropology, psychology, and cognitive science. While
there are different theories and perspectives on the nature of language, many scholars agree on several
key aspects of language and its evolution:

1. Language as a System of Communication: Scholars generally view language as a system of

communication that allows humans to convey information, thoughts, emotions, and intentions to one
another. It is a means of encoding and decoding messages.

2. Language as a Symbolic System: Language is considered symbolic because it relies on

arbitrary symbols (words, signs, gestures) to represent meanings. The relationship between the symbols
and their meanings is conventional and learned within a linguistic community.

3. Language as Rule-Governed: Linguists like Noam Chomsky have emphasized that language is
governed by a set of rules and structures. These rules determine how words and elements can be
combined to create meaningful expressions. This aspect of language is often referred to as grammar.

4. Language as Productive: One of the defining features of language is its productivity or

generativity. Human languages can generate an infinite number of novel sentences, allowing for
creativity in communication.
 5. Language as Species-Specific: Language is a uniquely human trait. While some animals exhibit
forms of communication, human language is considered qualitatively different due to its complexity,
symbolic nature, and ability to express abstract concepts.

6. Language Acquisition: Scholars have studied how humans acquire language, especially during
early childhood. The process of language acquisition involves exposure to linguistic input, the
development of language skills, and the internalization of linguistic structures.

7. Evolution of Language: The evolution of language is a topic of great interest and debate
among scholars. Several theories and hypotheses have been proposed to explain how language may
have evolved over the course of human evolution:

a. Social Interaction Hypothesis: Some scholars suggest that language may have evolved as a
tool for social bonding and cooperation among early humans. Effective communication would
have been crucial for group survival and coordination.

b. Gestural Theory: The gestural theory posits that language may have initially evolved as a
system of gestures and body language before transitioning to spoken language. This theory
emphasizes the importance of manual and facial gestures in early communication.

c. Protolanguage Hypothesis: This hypothesis proposes that early forms of language may have
been less complex than modern languages and lacked fully developed grammar. It suggests a
gradual and incremental evolution of language.

d. Biological Basis: Some scholars investigate the neurological and genetic foundations of
language. The discovery of the FOXP2 gene, which is associated with language processing, has
led to investigations into the genetic aspects of language evolution.

It's important to note that the evolution of language is a topic with ongoing research and
debate.

The exact origins and processes of language evolution remain subjects of active inquiry, and
scholars continue to explore various theories and evidence from linguistics, anthropology, paleontology,
and cognitive science to gain a better understanding of this complex phenomenon.

Human Communication using Language

Human communication is a complex and highly developed process that primarily relies on
language. Language is a system of symbols and rules that allows individuals to convey thoughts,
emotions, ideas, and information to others. Here are some key characteristics of human communication
using language:

1. Symbolic Representation: Language uses symbols, such as words, gestures, and written
characters, to represent concepts and ideas. These symbols have meanings that are shared
within a particular linguistic community.

2. Grammar and Syntax: Human languages have intricate grammatical and syntactical rules that
govern the structure of sentences and the arrangement of words. This enables precise and
nuanced communication.
 3. Infinite Generativity: Human languages are capable of generating an infinite number of novel
sentences, allowing for the expression of new ideas and concepts. This property of language is
known as infinite generativity.

4. Abstract Thinking: Language enables humans to discuss abstract and complex concepts,
including philosophy, mathematics, and emotions. It allows for the expression of thoughts that
go beyond immediate sensory experiences.

5. Cultural and Social Context: Language is deeply intertwined with culture and society. Different
languages reflect the values, beliefs, and social norms of the communities that use them.

6. Pragmatics: Pragmatics is the study of how language is used in context. It involves understanding
implied meanings, indirect communication, and the social aspects of language, such as
politeness and humor.

7. Metacommunication: Humans can discuss and reflect on language itself, known as

metacommunication. This ability to talk about language and its rules is a unique feature of
human communication.

8. Learning and Acquisition: Humans acquire language through a complex process of learning
during childhood. Language acquisition involves exposure to linguistic input and the
development of language skills.

9. Expressive and Receptive Skills: Language communication encompasses both expressive

(speaking and writing) and receptive (listening and reading) skills, allowing for two-way
communication.

Animal Communication

Animal communication refers to the ways in which non-human animals convey information to
one another. While animal communication lacks the complexity and depth of human language, it
involves various codes and signals. Here are some characteristics of animal communication:

1. Instinctive and Limited: Animal communication is often instinctual and genetically encoded.
Animals typically have a limited set of signals or codes that are specific to certain situations or
behaviors.

2. Limited Symbolism: Animal signals are usually tied to immediate needs or circumstances, such
as mating, food, danger, or territory. These signals are not symbolic in the way human words are;
they directly represent specific actions or states.

3. Lack of Grammar: Animal communication lacks the complex grammatical rules and syntax found
in human languages. It is typically straightforward and does not allow for the formation of novel
messages.

4. Species-Specific: Different animal species have their own unique communication systems. These
systems are adapted to the ecological and social needs of each species.
 5. Contextual: Animal communication is highly contextual. The same signal or code may have
different meanings in different situations. For example, a particular vocalization from a bird could
indicate either a mating call or a warning call, depending on the context.

6. Limited Ability to Convey Abstract Concepts: Animal communication is generally not capable of
conveying abstract or symbolic concepts beyond basic survival and reproduction needs.

7. Innate or Learned: Some aspects of animal communication are innate and hardwired, while
others may be learned through observation and experience.

8. Nonverbal Signals: Animal communication often involves nonverbal signals such as body
language, vocalizations, chemical signals (pheromones), and visual displays.

Human communication using language is highly sophisticated, symbolic, and capable of

conveying a wide range of complex ideas and emotions. In contrast, animal communication relies on
more limited codes and signals tied to immediate needs and contexts, with less flexibility and depth
compared to human language. Both forms of communication are adapted to the needs and capabilities
of their respective species.

The concepts of 1st language (L1), 2nd language (L2), and foreign language refer to different levels of
proficiency and familiarity with languages, particularly in the context of bilingualism or multilingualism.
Each of these terms describes a distinct relationship an individual or community has with a language:

1. First Language (L1):

 Definition: The first language, often referred to as the native language or mother tongue, is the
language a person learns as their initial and primary means of communication. It is typically
acquired during early childhood and is the language of the individual's family, community, and
culture.

 Usage: An individual's first language is the language they use most comfortably and proficiently.
It is the language they think, dream, and express their emotions in naturally.

 Development: L1 is acquired naturally through exposure to caregivers, family, and the local
community. It forms the foundation of an individual's linguistic and cognitive development.

 Example: If someone is born and raised in Spain, their first language is likely to be Spanish.

2. Second Language (L2):

 Definition: A second language is a language that an individual learns in addition to their first
language. It is not the native language but is acquired later in life, often in an educational or
social setting.

 Usage: L2 is used for specific purposes, such as education, work, or social interaction with
speakers of that language. Proficiency in an L2 can vary widely, from basic conversational skills to
fluency.

 Development: Learning a second language is typically a conscious and intentional process. It

may involve formal language instruction or immersion in an environment where the L2 is spoken.
  Example: A native Spanish speaker who learns English in school or as part of a job requirement
has English as their second language (L2).

3. Foreign Language:

 Definition: A foreign language is a language that is not commonly spoken in an individual's

region, community, or country. It is a language that is learned for specific purposes, such as
travel, business, academic study, or personal interest, but it is not typically used as a primary
means of communication in the learner's environment.

 Usage: Foreign languages are often acquired for specific, situational purposes, such as
communicating with people from different linguistic backgrounds or for international travel.
Proficiency in a foreign language may vary from basic phrases to advanced communication skills.

 Development: Learning a foreign language often takes place in formal educational settings,
language courses, or self-study programs. It may not involve regular or immersive language use.

 Example: A person from Japan learning French to travel to France for tourism would consider
French a foreign language.

The distinctions between L1, L2, and foreign languages are based on the individual's relationship
with the language and their level of proficiency. L1 is the native language learned in early childhood, L2 is
a language acquired later in life, and foreign languages are learned for specific purposes, often in non-
native contexts.

C. Characteristics of Language

Language is a complex and multifaceted system of communication that humans use to convey
thoughts, emotions, ideas, and information. It possesses several key characteristics that distinguish it
from other forms of communication and make it a uniquely human phenomenon. Here are the main
characteristics of language:

1. Arbitrariness: The relationship between linguistic signs (words or symbols) and their meanings is
arbitrary. There is generally no inherent connection between the sound of a word and its
meaning. For example, there is no inherent reason why the word "dog" must refer to the furry,
four-legged animal; it's simply a convention established within a particular linguistic community.

2. Symbolic: Language is symbolic in nature. It uses symbols, which can be spoken words, written
characters, or gestures, to represent concepts, objects, actions, and ideas. These symbols have
agreed-upon meanings within a linguistic community.

3. Productivity: One of the most remarkable features of language is its productivity or generativity.
With a finite set of words and rules, humans can generate an infinite number of novel and
meaningful utterances. This property allows for creativity in communication.

4. Structured and Rule-Governed: Language follows a set of rules and structures that determine
how words and elements can be combined to form meaningful sentences. These rules include
grammar, syntax, and morphology, which govern sentence formation, word order, and word
endings.
 5. Duality of Patterning: Language has a hierarchical structure with multiple levels. Sounds
(phonemes) combine to form words, words combine to form phrases and sentences, and
sentences combine to convey complex ideas. This hierarchical structure allows for both small
and large units of meaning.

6. Discreteness: Language is composed of discrete units, such as words and phonemes, that can be
combined in specific ways to create meaning. Each unit carries its own distinct meaning, and
small changes in these units can result in significant changes in meaning.

7. Cultural and Social Influence: Language is intimately tied to culture and society. Different
languages reflect the values, beliefs, and social norms of the communities that use them.
Variations within a language (dialects) can also reflect regional, social, or cultural differences.

8. Pragmatics: Pragmatics is the study of how language is used in context. It involves understanding
implied meanings, indirect communication, and the social aspects of language, such as
politeness, tone, and speech acts (e.g., making a request or giving a command).

9. Learnability: Humans have the innate ability to acquire and learn languages. Children exposed to
a linguistic environment naturally acquire the language spoken around them, demonstrating a
remarkable capacity for language learning.

10. Multimodality: While spoken and written language are the most common forms of language,
language can also be expressed through other modalities, such as sign language, facial
expressions, and body language. These multimodal aspects of communication enrich the
expressive capabilities of language.

These characteristics collectively make language a powerful and versatile tool for
communication, thought, culture, and social interaction. It is these features that distinguish human
language from other forms of animal communication and highlight its central role in human cognition
and society.

D. Why Language Study

Studying language offers numerous benefits:

 Improved Communication Skills: Language study enhances listening, speaking, reading, and
writing abilities, facilitating effective communication (Nation & Newton, 2009).

 Cultural Understanding: Language study fosters cultural awareness and empathy by providing
insights into the values, customs, and beliefs of different communities (Kramsch, 2009).

 Cognitive Benefits: Learning multiple languages can improve cognitive abilities such as problem-
solving, memory, and multitasking (Bialystok, 2009).

 Career Opportunities: Multilingualism is an asset in a global job market, opening up

opportunities in international business, diplomacy, and translation (Cook, 2003).

E. Areas of Language Study:

Language has several areas of study:

  Phonology: The study of the sounds of language and their organization within a particular
language system (Ladefoged, 1996).

 Morphology: The study of the structure of words, including the formation of morphemes (the
smallest units of meaning) (Aronoff & Fudeman, 2011).

 Syntax: The study of the rules governing sentence structure and word order (Radford, 2009).

 Semantics: The study of meaning in language, including word meanings and how words combine
to create meaning (Saeed, 2009).

 Pragmatics: The study of language use in context, including how speakers convey meaning
through implicature and inference (Yule, 1996).

Language study encompasses various subfields:

 Sociolinguistics: Examines how language varies and changes across social groups and contexts
(Labov, 1966).

 Psycholinguistics: Investigates the cognitive processes involved in language production,

comprehension, and acquisition (Gleitman & Papafragou, 2005).

 Applied Linguistics: Applies linguistic principles to solve real-world language-related issues, such
as language teaching and translation (Cook, 2003).

F. Methods of Language Study:

Synchronic and diachronic are two fundamental approaches or methods used in the field of
linguistics to study languages. They focus on different aspects of language, and each offers unique
insights into linguistic analysis. Here's a discussion of both approaches with examples:

1. Synchronic Linguistics:

Definition: Synchronic linguistics is the study of a language at a particular point in time, typically
without consideration of its historical development or evolution. It examines the structure,
grammar, vocabulary, and usage of a language as it exists in a specific period.

Example: Analyzing the English language as it is spoken and written today, without considering
its historical changes, is a synchronic approach. It involves examining contemporary linguistic
phenomena, such as current word meanings, sentence structures, and speech patterns.

2. Diachronic Linguistics:

Definition: Diachronic linguistics, on the other hand, is the study of a language across different
periods of time. It focuses on the historical evolution, changes, and development of a language
over time. Diachronic linguistics aims to trace how a language has evolved, how words and
grammatical structures have changed, and why these changes occurred.

Example: Investigating the history of English and how it has transformed from Old English (e.g.,
Beowulf, 8th-11th centuries) to Middle English (e.g., Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, 14th century)
to Early Modern English (e.g., Shakespearean English, 16th-17th centuries) to Modern English
 (e.g., contemporary English, 18th century to the present) is a diachronic approach. Diachronic
linguists might examine the shifts in vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar across these
historical stages.

Comparison:

 Focus on Time: The primary difference between synchronic and diachronic linguistics is their
focus on time. Synchronic linguistics looks at language as it exists at a specific moment in time,
while diachronic linguistics studies language changes across time.

 Examples of Analysis: Synchronic linguistics may involve analyzing contemporary conversations

or written texts, while diachronic linguistics might involve tracking the evolution of words or
grammatical structures across centuries.

 Purpose: Synchronic linguistics is often used for describing and understanding the current state
of a language, while diachronic linguistics is used to uncover historical patterns, language
evolution, and the reasons behind linguistic changes.

 Interconnected: It's important to note that synchronic and diachronic linguistics are not entirely
separate; they are interconnected. Understanding the historical changes (diachronic analysis)
can enhance our comprehension of the current state of a language (synchronic analysis), and
vice versa.

 Practical Applications: Both approaches have practical applications. Synchronic linguistics is

valuable for language teaching, translation, and understanding contemporary communication.
Diachronic linguistics helps reconstruct languages that no longer have native speakers, decipher
ancient texts, and understand cultural and historical shifts through linguistic changes.

Synchronic linguistics focuses on the study of language at a specific point in time, while
diachronic linguistics examines language evolution and changes across time. Both approaches are
essential for gaining a comprehensive understanding of a language's structure, development, and usage.

G. Branches of Linguistics:

Linguistics is divided into numerous branches:

1. Theoretical Linguistics - the study and development of paradigm of language knowledge. Essential
elements of this branch are syntax, phonology, morphology and semantics. Here are specific examples:

 Cognitive Linguistics - interprets language in terms of the concepts, sometimes universal,

sometimes specific to a particular tongue, which underlie its forms.

 Generative Linguistics - the study and application of grammar in a fully explicit way, with a range
of different, overlapping meanings by different people.

 Quantitative Linguistics - deals with language learning, language change, and application as well
as structure of natural languages based on statistical methods.
2. Descriptive Linguistics - the work of objectively analyzing and describing how language is spoken (or
how it was spoken in the past) by a group of people in a speech community. Here are specific examples:

 Anthropological Linguistics - the study of the relations between language and culture and the
relations between human biology, cognition and language.

 Comparative Linguistics - concerned with comparing languages to establish their historical

relatedness.

 Historical Linguistics - the study of language change.

3. Applied Linguistics - an interdisciplinary field of study that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions
to language-related real-life problems. Here are specific examples:

 Computational Linguistics - interdisciplinary field dealing with the statistical and/or rule-based
modeling of natural language from a computational perspective.

 Forensic Linguistics - is the application of linguistic knowledge, methods and insights to the
forensic context of law, crime investigation, trial, and judicial procedure.

 Internet Linguistics - studies new language styles and forms that have arisen under the influence
of the Internet and other New Media, such as Short Message Service (SMS) text messaging.

H. World Englishes

World Englishes refers to the diverse and evolving varieties of the English language spoken and
written around the world. Unlike traditional models of English centered around native-speaking
countries like the United Kingdom and the United States, World Englishes recognize that English has
spread globally and has adapted to the linguistic, cultural, and sociopolitical contexts of different regions.

Origins: The concept of World Englishes emerged in the mid-20th century as scholars began to
recognize the global spread of English and its transformation in various non-native contexts. One of the
key figures in the early development of World Englishes was Braj Kachru, an Indian linguist who
introduced the idea of "Inner Circle," "Outer Circle," and "Expanding Circle" countries to categorize the
varieties of English spoken around the world. Kachru's work laid the foundation for understanding the
dynamics of English as a global language.

Proponents: Several scholars have contributed significantly to the study of World Englishes.
Some prominent proponents include:

1. Braj Kachru: As mentioned earlier, Kachru's influential model categorized English-speaking

countries into three circles based on their historical and sociopolitical relationships with English.
He emphasized the legitimacy of non-native varieties of English.

2. Randolph Quirk: Quirk, a British linguist, played a key role in describing and analyzing the
diversity of English dialects worldwide. His work highlighted the importance of acknowledging
local variations and the evolving nature of the language.

3. Peter Trudgill: Trudgill's research focused on the sociolinguistic aspects of World Englishes,
particularly how social factors influence language variation and change in non-native contexts.
 4. Jenny Cheshire: Cheshire's work explored English varieties in postcolonial settings and how
sociolinguistic factors shaped the development of these varieties.

The Model. The model of World Englishes does not propose a single standardized variety of
English but instead recognizes multiple English varieties influenced by the following circles:

1. Inner Circle: This includes countries where English is a native language, such as the United
Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. These regions have native
speakers of English.

2. Outer Circle: These are countries where English plays a significant role as a second language or
official language, such as India, Singapore, Nigeria, and Malaysia. English is used for a range of
functions, including education, government, and business.

3. Expanding Circle: In this circle, English serves primarily as a foreign language, and it is learned
for international communication. Many countries in this circle, such as China, Japan, and Brazil,
have adopted English as a tool for global interaction.

The World Englishes model recognizes that each of these circles has its unique linguistic features,
vocabulary, and pronunciation influenced by local languages and cultures. It emphasizes that all these
varieties of English are legitimate and should be studied and respected.

The World Englishes is a framework that acknowledges the global spread and adaptation of
English in diverse sociocultural contexts. It challenges the notion of a single "standard" English and
encourages the study and acceptance of the rich linguistic diversity that characterizes English as a global
language.

I. Philippine English:

Philippine English is a variety of English spoken and written in the Philippines. It has evolved
over time as a result of historical, cultural, and sociopolitical factors.

Origins:

1. Colonial Influence: The history of Philippine English is closely tied to the country's colonial
history. The Philippines was a Spanish colony for over 300 years, and during this time, Spanish
had a significant influence on the local languages. When the United States acquired the
Philippines from Spain in 1898, English was introduced as the medium of instruction in
education and government.

2. American Colonial Period: The American colonial period (1898-1946) played a crucial role in
shaping the English language in the Philippines. English was used as the language of
administration, education, and governance. It became the second official language alongside
Filipino (based on Tagalog).

Proponents. While there may not be specific individuals who can be considered proponents of
Philippine English in the same way that there are for certain models of World Englishes, the
development and acceptance of Philippine English can be attributed to various historical and
sociopolitical factors, including:
 1. Educational Institutions: Schools and universities in the Philippines have played a significant role
in shaping Philippine English. English-language education has been a priority, and many Filipinos
are proficient English speakers due to their education.

2. Media and Literature: The media, including newspapers, radio, television, and literature, have
contributed to the spread and development of Philippine English. Newspapers published in
English have been influential in disseminating the language.

Characteristics and Features

Philippine English exhibits several distinctive characteristics and features:

1. Code-Switching: Filipinos frequently code-switch between English and Filipino (Tagalog) or other
Philippine languages in everyday conversation. This is known as "Taglish" or "Englog" and is a
common linguistic practice.

2. Vocabulary: Philippine English incorporates loanwords and expressions from Philippine

languages, particularly Tagalog. For example, "barangay" (a local administrative unit) and
"jeepney" (a popular mode of public transportation) are examples of Tagalog-derived words
used in Philippine English.

3. Pronunciation: While Philippine English generally follows American English pronunciation, there
may be subtle differences in accent and pronunciation influenced by local languages and
dialects.

Model or Framework. Philippine English is typically analyzed within the broader framework of
World Englishes, particularly as a variety of English spoken in a postcolonial context. It falls under the
category of "New Englishes," which refers to varieties of English that have developed in regions where
English is not the native language. The study of Philippine English often explores how it has adapted to
the local context and interacts with other languages in the Philippines.

Examples:

1. Code-Switching: "Let's mag-mall muna (go to the mall first) before the movie starts."

2. Loanwords: "I'll meet you at the sari-sari store (convenience store) later."

3. Pronunciation: Some Filipinos may pronounce "r" sounds more lightly, so "car" might sound like
"cah."

Philippine English has evolved as a result of historical influences, including colonization and
education policies. It exhibits distinctive features such as code-switching and the incorporation of
loanwords from Philippine languages. It is typically studied within the framework of World Englishes as a
unique variety of English shaped by the sociocultural context of the Philippines.

Assessment Tasks
These assessment tasks are designed to evaluate your knowledge of the topics covered and your
ability to apply that knowledge to real-world scenarios and research.
Assessment Task 1: Essay

Task Description: Write an essay that explores the role of linguistics in language education. Discuss how
a deeper understanding of linguistics can benefit language learners and educators. Provide specific
examples and real-life applications of linguistic concepts in language teaching. Upload your essay in the
submission link provided by your professor.

Assessment Criteria:

 Clarity and organization of ideas 10 points

 Demonstration of understanding of linguistic concepts 10 points
 Use of relevant examples and evidence 10 points
 Critical analysis and insight into the relationship between linguistics
and language education 10 points
 Proper citation and referencing of sources 10 points

Assessment Task 2: Research Article

Task Description: Conduct a research article (by mentoring group) that compares two or more varieties
of World Englishes (American English and Philippine English). Start the article by introducing the topic
(background and rationale), then analyze their linguistic features, historical development, and
sociocultural context. Discuss the implications of these variations for language users and global
communication. End the research with a conclusion and recommendation, and include your
references/sources.

Assessment Criteria:

 Research design and methodology 10 points

 Depth and accuracy of linguistic analysis 20 points
 Clarity and coherence of the research article 10 points
 Proper citation and referencing of sources 10 points

Wrap Up Activity

Linguistic Reflection Journals

This activity will give you the chance to reflect on what you have learned about linguistics and
how it relates to their lives and experiences. You will be writing a brief reflection to express your
thoughts or questions. Prompts will be given to encourage your critical thinking and you can choose one
or more prompts to address. Submit your reflection in the link provided by your professor. Here are
some sample prompts:

 "What was the most interesting concept or idea you learned about linguistics today, and
why did it stand out to you?"
 "How do you think linguistic diversity and language variation impact your daily life or the
world around you?"
  "In what ways has your understanding of language and communication changed after
this discussion?"
 "Do you have any questions or areas of linguistics that you'd like to explore further in
future lessons?"
References:
1. Aronoff, M., & Fudeman, K. (2011). What is Morphology? Wiley-Blackwell.
2. Bialystok, E. (2009). Bilingualism: The Good, the Bad, and the Indifferent. Bilingualism: Language
and Cognition, 12(1), 3-11.
3. Bloomfield, L. (1933). Language. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
4. Chomsky, N. (1957). Syntactic Structures. Mouton.
5. Cook, V. (2003). Effects of the Second Language on the First. Multilingual Matters.
6. Crystal, D. (2006). Language and the Internet. Cambridge University Press.
7. Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., & Hyams, N. (2013). An Introduction to Language. Cengage Learning.
8. Gleitman, L., & Papafragou, A. (2005). Language Acquisition: The State of the Art. Handbook of
Child Psychology, 1, 371-446.
9. Halliday, M. A. K. (1973). Explorations in the Functions of Language. Arnold.
10. Hockett, C. F. (1960). The Origin of Speech. Scientific American, 203(3), 89-97.
11. Kachru, B. B. (1986). The Alchemy of English: The Spread, Functions, and Models of Non-Native
Englishes. University of Illinois Press.
12. Kramsch, C. (2009). The Multilingual Subject. Oxford University Press.
13. Labov, W. (1966). Social Stratification of English in New York City. Center for Applied Linguistics.
14. Ladefoged, P. (1996). Elements of Acoustic Phonetics. University of Chicago Press.
15. Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors We Live By. University of Chicago Press.
16. Nation, I. S. P., & Newton, J. (2009). Teaching ESL/EFL Listening and Speaking. Routledge.
17. Radford, A. (2009). Analysing English Sentences: A Minimalist Approach. Cambridge University
Press.
18. Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching.
Cambridge University Press.
19. Saussure, F. de. (1916). Course in General Linguistics. McGraw-Hill.
20. Saeed, J. I. (2009). Semantics. Wiley-Blackwell.
21. Yule, G. (1996). Pragmatics. Oxford University Press.
22. Gonzalez, A. L. (1998). Philippine English: Linguistic and Literary Perspectives. Oxford University
Press.