MORPHOSYNTAX AND SEMANTICS OF THE VERB PHRASE

MORPHEMES - smallest meaningful units in the composition of words

 abstract units that are realized by MORPHs

There are several criteria for distinguishing the types of morphemes:

1) FREE MORPHEMES ( can stand alone as own word )

 LEXICAL MORPHEMES - words that have meaning by themselves ( boy, food )
 GRAMMATICAL MORPHEMES – change the form of a word but do not have „real word“
meaning

2) BOND MORPHEMES ( incorporated into a word as a dependent part, cannot

stand alone, must be connected to another morpheme )
  DERIVATIONAL MORPHEMES – they derive new words ( added to produce new words
which are derived from the „parent word“ ( root ), for example happy – happiness )
 INFLECTIONAL MORPHEMES – suffixes that provide grammatical information (about
number, gender,person, degree…)
MORPHOSYNTAX – a study of grammatical categories or properties for
whose definitions criteria of morphology and syntax both apply

I learned english when I went to school. (verb)

He was a very learned man. ( adjective)

9 PARTS OF SPEECH:

1. verbs
2. nouns
3. pronouns
4. articles
5. adjectives
6. adverbs ( prilozi )
7. prepositions ( prijedlozi )
8. conjunctions ( veznici )
9. interjections ( usklici )

VERBS AS A WORD CLASS – DEFINING CRITERIA

MORPHOLOGICAL OR FORMAL CRITERION
we can check all the forms assumed to be verbs for the range of
morphological processes that they may undergo:
 with respect to derivational / word formation processes
 with respect to inflectional processes
 VERBS

SINGLE-WORD MULTI-WORD
VERBS VERBS

SIMPLE
PHRASAL VERBS
be, fly, ride

COMPLEX PREPOSITIONAL
VERBS

COMPOUND-LIKE AFFIXATIONS PHRASAL-

VERBS hyphenate, amplify, PREPOSITIONAL
typewrite, blow-dry popularize, belittle VERBS

1. MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO WORD

FORMATION STRUCTURE:

AFFIXATION
 word class maintaining ( e.g. reconstruct )
 word class changing ( e.g. quicken )

THE MOST IMPORTANT VERB FORMING SUFFIXES:

-ate [eΙt], -en, -ify/-fy, -ize/-ise
a. hyphenate, orchestrate,
b. deafen, sadden, blacken, widen, quicken, ripen
c. amplify, diversify, electrify,
d. hospitalize, legalize, modernize, terrorize,

All verb forming suffixes in English are word class changing.

PREFIXES ARE NORMALLY WORD-CLASS MAINTAINING

 be-, de-, dis-, em-/en-, inter-, mis-, pre-, re-, un-

MULTI-WORD VERBS
The most important classes of multi-word verbs are combinations of verbs and
particles (adverbs or prepositions).

Three main subtypes:

 PHRASAL VERBS - units consisting of a basic verb followed by adverbs
 He looked up a word in a dictionary. (idiomatic meaning)
(bring about, call off, take off)

 PREPOSITIONAL VERBS - complex verbs consisting of the basic verb

followed by a preposition
He looked up and saw the moon. (compositional meaning)
(rely on, hear of, listen to, refer to)

 PHRASAL-PREPOSITIONAL VERBS - consist of a basic verb followed by an

adverb and a preposition
He looks up to his father. (a phrasal verb followed by a prepositional
phrase)
(put up with)

MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO INFLECTIONAL

PROCESSES
 4 verbal inflectional affixes:
-S, ED, -EN, ING
 5 verb forms:
base form, S-form, -ED form, -EN form,
 -ING form
 regular vs. irregular verbs
 defective verbs (modals)
 strong vs. weak verbs (give, gave, given)

Verbs can be classified according to whether they will take these suffixes into:
 Regular vs irregular verbs
 Strong vs. weak verbs (give, gave, given)
 Defective verbs (modals)

BASE FORM
A) PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE, EXCEPT 3RD PERSON SINGULAR;
Ex. Old bones break easily.
B) IMPERATIVE
Ex. Break the cauliflower into florets…
C) SUBJUNCTIVE ( PRESENT )
Ex. The teacher suggested we break into groups.
D) INFINITIVE (BARE INFINITIVE AND TO-INFINITIVE)
Ex. He never let his jailers break him.

-S FORM
 3rd person singular of the present simple tense
 Ex. The open door testifies to the fact that she has left in a hurry

-EN FORM (PAST PARTICIPLE)

A. PERFECTIVE ASPECT
Our party has defeated our opponents!
B. PASSIVE VOICE
The proposal was defeated by just one vote.
PARTICIPIAL CLAUSES
Defeated by her arguments, he decided to go.

-ING FORM
A. PROGRESSIVE ASPECT
Ex. After waiting for half an hour,she was beginning to get angry.
B. PARTICIPIAL CLAUSES
Ex. Beginning to understand, he said nothing and left.

SYNTACTIC (OR FUNCTIONAL) CRITERION

 Some verbs can also be identified as the central part of the predicate of a
sentence.
 The predicate of a sentence may be simple, i.e. consist of just one word, or
be quite complex and comprise a verb form and a noun, two verb forms
that can in turn be followed by a noun, etc.
In all these cases, regardless how simple or complex the predicate, we can
speak of a VERB PHRASE (VP)
 would have given

Lexical or main verbs may be further subclassified according to the syntactic

environment in which they may appear:
 1) INTENSIVE VERBS (copular, copulative or linking verbs) are obligatorily
followed by predicative structures (called subject complements) such as
noun phrases, adjective phrases, clauses, etc. that complete their meaning.
 be, seem, appear, prove, look, sound…
She is a teacher. It looks suspicious.

All other verbs are:

2) EXTENSIVE VERBS: TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS

INTRANSITIVE VERBS are not obligatorily followed by any constituents.

The boy yawned. They didn’t sleep at all.

TRANSITIVE VERBS are followed by one object (monotransitive) or two

objects (ditransitive), prepositional complements, by a combination of
these, or by a direct object and an object complement (complex transitive).
 MONOTRANSITIVE VERB
Sheila cut the bread. The girl wrote a story. We relied on our friends.

 DITRANSITIVE VERB
Mary gave John the book. Peter sent her a letter. We warned him of the danger.

 COMPLEX-TRANSITIVE VERB
Everybody considers him bright.

VERBS AS A WORD CLASS – DEFINING CRITERIA

 semantic or notional criterion
reign…force…rule?

 morphological or formal criterion

was…to force

 syntactic or functional criterion

...the oil companies felt the heat...
S V O

MULTI-WORD VERBS
 PHRASAL VERBS - units consisting of a basic verb followed by adverbs
He looked up a word in a dictionary. (idiomatic meaning

 PREPOSITIONAL VERBS - complex verbs consisting of the basic verb

followed by a preposition
He looked up and saw the moon. (compositional meaning)

 PHRASAL-PREPOSITIONAL VERBS - consist of a basic verb followed by an

adverb and a preposition
He looks up to his father. (a phrasal verb followed by a prepositional
phrase)

MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO INFLECTIONAL

PROCESSES

 4 verbal inflectional affixes: -S, ED, -EN, ING

  5 verb forms: base form, S-form, -ED form, -EN form, -ING form
 regular vs. irregular verbs
 defective verbs (modals)
 strong vs. weak verbs (give, gave, given)

STRONG VERBS - generally characterized by the internal change of the vowel in the
formation of the past tense, and by the addition of a suffix (-en, -n, or –ne) in the
formation of the past participle, which may be accompanied by a change of the inside
vowel but need not.

WEAK VERBS (more commonly called regular verbs) form the past tense by adding -ed, -
d, or -t to the base form—or present tense—of the verb, such as call, called and walk,
walked.
* The class of weak verbs comprises all the regular verbs and some irregular verbs. Verbs of the weak
conjugation add a dental suffix for the past tense, which may be accompanied by various changes of the
inside vowel (e.g. shortening a long vowel). The past participle is identical to the past tense. There is also a
mixed class strong-weak verbs The dental suffix may be phonologically realized as [t], [d] or [Id]. The suffix
may be “invisible”.

SYNTACTIC (OR FUNCTIONAL) CRITERION - some verbs can also be identified as the central part
of the predicate of a sentence

In: would have given

we have three verb forms within one VP ( verb phrase ): would, have, and given.
would, have – auxiliary verbs
given – main verb

LEXICAL ( MAIN VERBS )

1. INTENSIVE VERBS – copular, copulative or linking verbs, obligatorily
followed by predicative structures (subject complements) such as noun
phrases, adjective phrases, clauses, etc. that complete their meaning
All other verbs are EXTENSIVE
EXTENSIVE VERBS - can be further subclassified into:
 INTRANSITIVE VERBS are not obligatory followed by any constituents
 The boy yawned.

 COMPLEX TRANSITIVE VERBS - followed by an object and an object complement

 TRANSITIVE VERBS

MONOTRANSITIVE DITRANSITIVE
-followed by one object - followed by two objects

The girl wrote a story. Mary gave John the book.

2. AUXILIARIES
A SURVEY OF INFLECTED VERB FORMS

MORPHEMES - abstract units that may be realized in various ways by means of

morphs
ALLOMORPHS - members of a family of morphs realizing a single morpheme, e.g.
[s], [z], [iz] are realizations of –s in speaks, mugs and buzzes respectively

Morpheme vs allomorphs

-S FORM
 phonologically realized as [s], [z], [iz], depending on the sounds that
precede the 3rd Pers Sg Present Simple morpheme -

-ED FORM
 phonologically realized as [id], [t], [d], depending on the sound the verb
base ends in

PHONOLOGICAL REALIZATIONS
 3 phonologically conditioned allomorphs that precede the 3rd Sg. Pres.
Simple morpheme.

[iz] is found after bases ending in:

a. voiced sibilant sounds [z], [ʒ], [dʒ] :
 a. buzz - he buzzes; sneeze – he sneezes
b. dodge - he dodges; bulge – it bulges
garage - he garages the car

b. voiceless sibilant sounds [s], [∫], [t∫]:

a. hiss - he hisses; dress – she dresses

b. push - he pushes; wash – he washes
catch – it’s the early bird catches the worm; watch – he watches a match

[z] after bases ending in voiced sounds other than voiced sibilants (These sounds
include not only voiced consonants but all vowels too):
a. call - he calls
b. see - he sees
c. drive - he drives

[s] after bases ending in voiceless sounds other than sibilants:

a. kick - he kicks
b. cut - he cuts
c. cook - he cooks

-ED forms (past forms) and -EN forms of regular verbs are identical and may be
phonologically realized as:
  [Id], [t], or [d]

The allomorph [Id] occurs after bases ending in [d] or [t]:

guard – guarded
hunt – hunted

The allomorph [d] is found after bases in voiced sounds other than [d]:
call - called
clean - cleaned

The allomorph [t] is selected after bases that end in voiceless sounds other than
[t]:
kiss - kissed
work – worked

SPELLING CONVENTIONS 3. PS. SG. PRESENT SIMPLE

 1. -es is added to verbs ending in –ss, -ch, -sh, -x, -z or to the verbs ending
in -o:
a. pass - he passes; watch - he watches; crush – he crushes; buzz – he
buzzes; xerox – he xeroxes
b. go - he goes; do - he does; lasso - he lassoes

 2. Final –s may be doubled in a few verbs before –es:

bus – he busses/buses; gas – he gasses/gases; focus – he focuses/focuses
  3. Final -y preceded by a vowel letter remains unchanged, otherwise it
becomes –ie (the same applies to –ed forms), but it does not change in –
ing forms:
a. play - plays – played; stay – stays – stayed
b. buy - buys
c. cry - cries – cried – crying d. fly - flies - flying

 4. Final –ie remains before –s (but changes before –ing):

die – dies – dying tie – ties - tying

SPELLING CONVENTIONS ED – FORM AND EN – FORM OF REGULAR

VERBS

The final consonant letter is doubled before the suffixes -ed (and –ing) in:

a. monosyllabic verbs, i.e. verbs consisting of only one syllable, spelled with a
single vowel letter immediately followed by a single consonant letter:

plan - planned – planning stop - stopped – stopping hit - hitting

b. disyllabic verbs (consisting of two syllables) with the stress on the second
syllable ending in a single consonant letter immediately preceded by a single
vowel letter:
infer - inferred – inferring commit - committed - committing

c. final l is doubled even in unstressed syllable in British English

 (but not in American English):
travel - travelled – travelling signal - signalled – signalling
quarrel – quarrelled – quarrelling

d. with some verbs as exceptions in BrE (but not in AmE, except handicap):
traffic - trafficked – trafficking humbug - humbugged – humbugging
program – programmed – programming worship – worshipped – worshipping
kidnap – kidnapped – kidnapping hiccup – hiccupped – hiccupping
handicap – handicapped – handicapping

Verbs ending in silent -e drop it before the suffix -ed:

force – forced shape – shaped

Final –ie drops –e before –ed (but changes before –ing):

tie – tied – tying lie – lied – lying

SPELLING CONVENTIONS –ING FORM

 Verbs ending in silent -e drop it before the suffix -ing (except those ending
in -ee, e.g. agree, agreeing, see, seeing):
force - forcing
shape – shaping
  Final -e is retained before -ing in words like singe, singeing [sin d  ŋ] in
order to distinguish it from sing, singing. Also in the -ing forms of:
canoe, dye, eye, hoe, shoe
a. dye - dyed - dyeing
b. die - died - dying

Verbs ending in -ie generally drop the -e and change the i to y when before -
ing, so as to prevent two i's coming together:
die – dying tie – tying
 AUXILIARY VERBS

main lexical verbs (an open class) vs auxiliary verbs (a closed class)

AUXILIARY VERBS contribute towards expressing oppositions in basic verbal

categories such as mood, aspect, voice, and tense (when combined with the
former three categories)

TYPES AND PROPERTIES OF AUXILIARIES

STRUCTURAL OR PRIMARY AUXILIARIES ( be, have, do )

MODAL AUXILIARIES ( can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must,
ought to; need, dare, used to )

DEFINING PROPERTIES OF AUXILIARIES

Auxiliaries vs. main verbs
 morphological properties
 semantic properties
 syntactic properties

Morphological properties of auxiliaries

 -do, does, did, done, doing
 -have, has, had, having
 -be, is, am, are, being, been, was, were
 -central modals have only one form which is considered to be finite
SUPPLETIVE FORMS (is, am, are, was, were) are morphologically unrelated to the
base (be), i.e. they are not derived from the base form by the addition of the
relevant suffix.

MEANING OF AUXILIARY VERBS

 express more abstract types of meaning
 primary auxiliaries have only grammatical meanings
 modals have lexico-grammatical meanings
(permission, volition, obligation, etc.)
 polysemous
He may come.

BEHAVIOURAL PROPERTIES OF AUXILIARIES

 cannot appear alone in a sentence, occur in complex verb phrases, except
when used elliptically
 be, have, and do can function as lexical verbs and then they can make up a
verb phrase on their own
 syntactic features of auxiliaries usually termed NICE properties
N negation
I interrogative inversion
C condensation/code
E emphasis

NEGATION
 do not require an operator
  not is directly attached to the auxiliary

-We can’t do it. He should not come. I haven’t done it.

-They are not too serious customers. (lexical be!)
-She’s not very patient. She isn’t very patient. (lexical be!)

INTERROGATIVE INVERSION
 yes/no interrogatives are formed by inverting the order of the subject and the (first)
auxiliary
Can I take it? Have you seen it?

OPERATOR: the first (or only auxiliary) in such complex verb phrases.

 yes/no questions from a sentence with a simple VP: introduction of the operator do in
the appropriate tense
Does she know him? Did you see him?

 Inversion also takes place in declarative sentences that begin with explicitely or
implicitly negative elements (e.g. negative adverbials):

Never have I seen such a coward.

Is he at home? (lexical be!)

CODE
 use of auxiliaries to avoid repetition of a lexical verb
She can make it and so can I.
They know it and so do we. ( the so-called do-support)
EMPHASIS
 primary and modal auxiliaries can be strongly stressed to show emphasis
I can swim.
I did swim.

Note: -do is used with be in negative and emphatic imperatives

Don’t be impatient.
Do be quiet.

FUNCTIONS OF BE, HAVE, AND DO

TO BE
as an auxiliary to form various verb phrases:
 in the progressive aspect
He is/was eating.
We are eating our dinner right now.

 in all full-fledged passive forms

He was seriously injured by his opponent.
He has been shot at.
Jackie is being examined now.

 as a semi-modal verb expressing obligation or probability:

She is to come back as soon as possible.
He is about to start now.
The meeting is/was to take place in Madrid.

 as a lexical verb, generally meaning ‘to exist’

 as a copula or linking verb to refer to the subject’s properties, physical or

mental conditions, assign the subject to a class, identify the subject, etc. :

Your mother is very patient.

I am hot/cold/furious/delighted/well/ill.
John is forty.
John is a physician.

 It is also used in impersonal constructions with it as a formal subject to

refer to meteorological conditions in general, time and date, as well as to
distance:

It is hot/cold/stuffy/windy here.
It is eleven o’clock.
It is not far to the next village.

TO HAVE
  as an auxiliary to build perfective forms:
I have worked.
You will have finished by now.

 as a semi-modal verb to express obligation:

I have to go.
I don’t have to go.
Do I have to go?
Have I to go?
We haven’t (got) to keep together..

 in the causative have construction

I had someone check my car. (active: have + agent + bare infinitive)
I had my car checked. (passive: have + object + -en form)

He had his hair cut.

Do you have your windows cleaned every month?
Did he have the central heating checked?

 in the modal construction had better + bare infinitive

I had/I’d better ring him at once.
You had better not miss that train.
Hadn’t you better ask first?
  as a lexical verb with different meanings:
possesion
Peter has a great car.
John has had his computer for 6 years.
Do you have pineapples?
We don’t have them very often.

 as a functional or delexicalized verb in the meaning of

‘take/give/experience’:

to have a drink/a good meal/a bath

We had no difficulty/troubles.
We had a party last night.
to have breakfast/lunch/dinner
to have a try/go/fun/party/an idea
Do you have coffee for breakfast?
*Have you coffee for breakfast?

TO DO
  the negative and the interrogative of the present and past simple tenses
of ordinary verbs (negative and interrogative operator)
He doesn’t work.
Did he come?

 in the affirmative for emphasis (emphatic do)

You didn’t see him. – But I DID see him.

 as a pro-form
Tom talks too much. – No, he doesn’t.
He likes football and so do I.

 as a lexical verb in the meaning ‘perform, act, make’:

I didn’t do it.
Did he do it?

 in verbo-nominal expressions:
do one's best
do a favour
do the laundry