2.

7 Logarithmic Decrement 49
 
− n t1 2π n
= e exp − [ C1 cos p1 t1 + C2 sin p1 t1 ]
p2 − n 2

In all the above equations of displacement, p1 = p 2 − n 2

Substituting the values of xt 1 , x( t1 +T /2) and x( t1 +T ) from the above equations into
Eq. (a) gives

e − n t 1 [ C1 cos p1 t1 + C2 sin p1 t1 ] 1 + exp √− 2nπ 2
A1 p −n
=  
A2
e − n t 1 [ C1 cos p1 t1 + C2 sin p1 t1 ] exp √ 2 2 + exp √− 2nπ
− 2πn
p −n p −n 2

or
 
A1 nπ
= exp
A2 p2 − n 2

or
A1 πn πζ
ln = =
A2 p2 − n2 1 − ζ2

where ζ = np and ζ being small 1 − ζ2 = 1

Therefore,

1 A1
ζ = ln
π A2

Exercise 2
2.1 A massless beam with a concentrated mass m is shown in the figure. Determine
the natural frequency of the system.
2.2 Determine the natural frequency and the time period of the uniform cantilever
beam. The beam is considered as massless.

Prob. 2.1

@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
50 2 Free Vibration of Single Degree of Freedom System

Prob. 2.2

2.3 Find the natural frequency of the system shown in the figure. The weight of
the pulley is neglected.

Prob. 2.3

2.4 The member BC of the portal frame of Fig. 2.8 is displaced horizontally by
10 mm at t = 0. Determine an expression for the resultant displacement of BC.
2.5 A mass m is suspended from a beam as shown in the figure. The beam is
of negligible mass and has a uniform flexural rigidity EI. Find the natural
frequency of the system.

Prob. 2.5

2.6 A disc is connected to a shaft as shown in the figure. Determine the natural
frequency of the system for torsional vibration.

@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
2.7 Logarithmic Decrement 51

Prob. 2.6

2.7 For a SDF system, if m = 10 kg, k = 10 N/m and c = 4 Ns/m, find the damping
factor ζ, the logarithmic decrement and ratio of any two successive amplitudes.
2.8 A SDF system has an undamped natural frequency of 7 rad/s and a damping
factor of 10%. The initial conditions are x0 = 0 and ẋ = 0.5 m/s. Determine
the damped natural frequency and the equation of motion for the system.
2.9 A machine mounted on springs and having a damper is shown in the figure.
Find the equation of motion in terms of initial displacements x0 and initial
velocity ẋ0 .

Prob. 2.9

2.10 In Prob. 2.4, it is found that for the horizontal vibration of BC, the maximum
displacement in the positive direction is 0.8 of the preceding maximum
displacement in that direction. Determine the coefficient of viscous damping,
damping ratio and the logarithmic decrement.
2.11 A 0.02 N force produces a constant velocity of 3 cm/s. Find the damping
factor ζ used in a system having a mass 1 kg and spring stiffness 700 N/m.
2.12 Determine effective stiffness of the springs of the figure.

@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
52 2 Free Vibration of Single Degree of Freedom System

Prob. 2.12

Prob. 2.13

2.13 A device for recording ship vibration is shown in the figure. Determine the
natural frequency of the vertical vibration of the weight W, if the moment
of inertia I of this weight along with that of bar BD about the fulcrum B is
known.
2.14 Determine the natural frequency of the cantilever beam of negligible mass
having two weights attached as shown in the figure by Rayleigh’s method.

Prob. 2.14

2.15 Determine the natural frequency in torsion for the shaft carrying two discs as
shown.

Prob. 2.15

@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
2.7 Logarithmic Decrement 53

2.16 In 5 cycles, the amplitude of a motion is observed to decay from 30 to 0.15 mm.
Calculate the damping ratio ζ.
2.17 The instrument of the figure has mass m = 50 kg and is meant for impact on
a surface. The impact velocity is 10 m/s. Inside mountings have k =5 N/m
and c =1 Ns/mm. Determine the maximum deceleration of the instrument, if
it is assumed that it will not bounce.

Prob. 2.17

2.18 Applying energy principle, determine the natural frequency of the beam of
the figure.

Prob. 2.18

2.19 For a SDF damped system, plot three curves of damping factor versus number
of cycles for amplitude reduction of 25, 50 and 75%.
2.20 Determine the natural frequency of the horizontal vibration of the frame by
Rayleigh’s method, assuming the deflection of the column given by

x = xmax ( 1 − cos π y/L)

@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
54 2 Free Vibration of Single Degree of Freedom System

Prob. 2.20

2.21 In a spring–mass system, the parameters associated with vibration are m, c,

k and x. What are the corresponding quantities for torsional vibration?
2.22 What is the effect of increase of stiffness in the natural frequency?
2.23 How is the concept of logarithmic decrement utilised?
2.24 What is the importance of critical damping?
2.25 A spring–mass has a natural frequency of 12 Hz. If the spring stiffness is
reduced by 1000 N/m, the frequency is altered by 50%. For the original
system, determine the mass and the spring stiffness.
2.26 A spring–mass system has maximum velocity 20 cm/s and time period 1 s.
If the initial displacement is 1 cm, determine (a) the amplitude, (b) the initial
velocity, (c) the maximum acceleration and (d) the phase angle.
2.27 Find the natural frequency of the system in the figure. The bar AB is massless
and rigid.

Prob. 2.27

2.28 For the system shown in the figure, the bar AB makes oscillations in the
horizontal plane about XY. Determine the angular frequency of the system.

@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
2.7 Logarithmic Decrement 55

Prob. 2.28

2.29 A one-storey building is idealised as a rigid girder having total weight W

and weighless columns. During the jacking operation while carrying out a
free vibration test, a horizontal force of 100 kN displaces the girder later-
ally by 0.5 cm. After the instantaneous release of this initial displacement,
the maximum displacement at the end of the first cycle is 0.4 cm. and the
time period is 1.4 s. Determine (a) the effective weight W of the girder, (b)
undamped frequency of vibration, (c) damping coefficient and (d) amplitude
after first 5 cycles.

Prob. 2.29

2.30 A system shown in the Fig. having k1 = k2 = 8 × 104 N/m and k3 = 3 × 105
N/m and m = 250 kg. Determine the natural frequency of the system.

@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
56 2 Free Vibration of Single Degree of Freedom System

Prob. 2.30

2.31 Determine the natural frequency of the encastered beam shown in the figure.

Prob. 2.31

2.32 A platform weighing 7 × 102 N is supported on four columns. The columns

are identical and are clamped at both ends. It has been determined experimen-
tally that a force of 1.75 × 105 N horizontally applied to the platform produces
a displacement of = 2.54 mm. Damping is 5% of critical damping. Deter-
mine from this structure the following: (a) undamped natural frequency (b)
absolute damping coefficient, (c) logarithmic decrement and (d) the number
of cycles and time required for the amplitude of motion to be reduced from
an initial value from 2.54 to 0.254 mm.
2.33 Show that for an undamped system in free vibration the logarithmic decrement
is expressed as

1 xi
δ = ln
k0 xi+k

where k 0 is the number of cycles separating two measured peak amplitudes

x i and x i + k .

2.34 Determine the effective torsional stiffness of the shaft and determine its
natural period.

@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
2.7 Logarithmic Decrement 57

Prob. 2.34

2.35 A mass of 2 kg. is connected to a spring of stiffness 15 N/cm. Determine the

critical damping constant.
2.36 A diver weighing 90 kg. stands at the end of a cantilever diving board of span
1 m. The diver oscillates at a frequency of 2 Hz. What is the flexural rigidity
EI of the diving board?
2.37 A free vibration test is conducted on an empty elevated water tank. A cable
attached to the tank applied a horizontal force of 75 kN and pulls the tank
horizontally by 5 cm. The cable is suddenly cut and the resulting free vibration
is recorded. At the end of 4 complete cycles, the time is 2 s and the amplitude
is 25 mm. From these data compute the following: (a) damping ratio, (b)
natural period of undamped vibration, (c) damping coefficient and (d) number
of cycles required for the displacement amplitude to decrease to 5 mm.

References

1. R.A. Anderson, Fundamentals of Vibration, McMillan Co., New York, 1967.

2. J.M. Biggs, Introduction to Structural Dynamics, McGraw-Hill Book Inc., New York, 1964.
3. R.W. Clough and J. Penzien, Dynamics of Structures, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Inc.,
New York, 1993.
4. Roy R. Craig, Jr., Structural Dynamics, John Wiley & Sons, 1981.
5. J.P. Den Hartog, Mechanical Vibrations, Fourth Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Inc., 1956.
6. D.G. Fertis, Dynamics and Vibrations of Structures, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1973.
7. L.S. Jacobean and R.S. Ayer, Engineering Vibrations, McGraw-Hill Book Inc, 1958.
8. L. Meirovitch, Elements of Vibration Analysis, McGraw-Hill Book Inc., New York, 1975.
9. W.T. Thomson, Theory of Vibration with Applications, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1972.
10. M. Paz, Structural Dynamics Theory and Computations, Second Edition, CBS Publication and
Distribution, New Delhi, 1983.

@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
64 3 Forced Vibration of Single Degree of Freedom System

Fig. 3.4 Variation of phase

angle with frequency ratio


η= 1 − 2ζ 2

ζ being a small quantity, the maximum value of μ is obtained when η ∼ = 1. It can

be seen in Fig. 3.3 that when the frequency of the external force is nearly equal to
the frequency of the system in free vibration, magnification factor increases rapidly.
The maximum value of the magnification factor is highly sensitive to the damping
of the system. The condition of maximum amplitude is known as the condition of
resonance.
The phase angle φ given by Eq. (3.11b) is rewritten as follows

2ζ η
ϕ = tan− 1 (3.20)
1 − η2

Equation (3.20) is plotted with ζ as a parameter in Fig. 3.4. For small values of
η, the phase angle is 90°. At larger values of η, φ tends to approach 180°.
The following conclusions can be drawn from the study of forced vibrations:
(1) The free vibration part is transient and vanishes, while the forced part persists.
(2) With the increase of ζ, the magnification factor μ decreases.
(3) The magnitude of the maximum value of the magnification factor is very
sensitive to the value of ζ.
(4) The magnification factor assumes significant values for 0.5 < η < 1.5, and the
maximum value is obtained when η ∼ = 1.
(5) Steady-state vibration is independent of the initial conditions in the system.

Example 3.1 A steel rigid frame of Fig. 3.5 supports a rotating machine, which
exerts a horizontal force at the girder level of 50,000 sin 11t N. Assuming 4%
critical damping, what is the steady-state amplitude of vibration? I for columns
= 1500 × 10 − 7 m4 , E = 21 × 1010 N/m2

@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
3.2 Response of Damped Systems to Harmonic Loading 65

Fig. 3.5 Example 3.1

3E I
Stiffness for each column =
L3
2 × 3 × EI
Total stiffness =
L3
2 × 3 × 21 × 10 × 1500 × 10− 7
10
= = 2,953,125 N/m
43
m = 5000 kg.

The natural frequency is given by

 
k 2,953,125
p= = = 24.3 rad/s
m 5000
ω 11
η= = = 0.453
p 24.3
ζ = 0.04
F0 = 50, 000 N

Therefore,
F0
xmax =  k
(1 − η2 ) + ( 2ηζ )2
50,000
= 
2,953,125 ( 1 − 0.4532 )2 + ( 2 × 0.04 × 0.453)2
= 2.13 × 10− 2 m = 21.3 mm

Example 3.2 Determine the magnification factor of forced vibration produced by

an oscillator, fixed at the middle of the beam at a speed of 600 rpm. The weight
concentrated at the middle of the beam is W = 5000 N and produces a static deflection
of the beam equal to δst = 0.025 cm. Neglect the weight of the beam and assume that

@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
66 3 Forced Vibration of Single Degree of Freedom System

the damping is equivalent to a force acting at the middle of the beam proportional to
the velocity and equal to 500 N at a velocity of 2.5 cm/s.

The frequency of forcing function is given by

600
ω = 2π × = 20π rad/s
60
The mass of the vibrating body is

5000
m= kg.
9.8
The static deflection is
0.025
δst = m
100
The stiffness is given by

F0 5000 × 100
k= = = 20 × 106 N/m
δst 0.025

Based on the information given, the damping constant is

100
c = 500 × = 20,000 Ns/m
2.5
The natural frequency of the system is given by

k 20 × 106 × 9.8
p2 = = = 39,200
m 5000
Therefore, p = 198 rad/s.
The damping constant is

c 20,000
n= = × 9.8 = 19.6
2m 2 × 5000
ω 20π
η= = = 0.32
p 198
n 19.6
ζ = = = 0.099
p 197

The magnification factor is

1
μ= 
(1 − η 2 )2 + ( 2ηζ )2

@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
3.2 Response of Damped Systems to Harmonic Loading 67

1
=
(1 − 0.322 )2 + (2 × 0.32 × 0.099)2
= 1.111

Example 3.3 An automobile whose weight is 150 N is mounted on four identical

springs. Due to its weight, it sags 0.23 m. Each shock absorber has a damping
coefficient of 0.4 N for a velocity of 3 cm per second. The car is placed on a platform
which moves vertically at resonant speed, having an amplitude of 1 cm. Find the
amplitude of vibration of the car.

The centre of gravity is assumed to be at the centre of the wheelbase.

The natural frequency of the car as per Eq. (2.20) is

9.81
p= = 6.53 rad/s
0.23

The damping coefficient for the four shock absorbers is

0.4 × 4 160
c= = Ns/m
0.03 3
The platform vibrates with an amplitude x0 . Therefore, spring extension is x −
x0 sin ω t, where ω is the frequency of oscillation of the platform. The equation of
motion is

m ẍ + c (ẋ − x0 ω cos ω t) + k (x − x0 sin ω t) = 0

or

m ẍ + c ẋ + kx = cx0 ω cos ω t + kx0 sin ω t


= (cx0 ω )2 + (kx0 )2 sin (ω t + α)

Therefore, equivalent external force is


F= (cx0 ω )2 + (kx0 )2

At resonance,

ω= p 1 − 2ζ 2
160
ζ = = 0.027
3 × 2 × 150 × 6.53

ω = 6.53 1 − 2 (0.027)2 = 6.53
150
x0 = 0.01 m and k =
0.23

@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
68 3 Forced Vibration of Single Degree of Freedom System

Fig. 3.6 Rotating machine

Therefore,
 2  2
160 150
F= × 0.01 × 6.53 + × 0.01
3 0.23
= 7.39 N
ω
η= =1
p

Therefore, the amplitude of the automobile is

F 7.39 × 3
x= = = 0.021 m = 2.1 cm
cω 6.53 × 160

3.3 Rotating Unbalance

Many machines, such as a turbine or an electric motor, are reciprocating in nature.

Unbalance in the machines causes vibration excitation, and the unbalance occurs
when the mass centre of the rotor does not coincide with the axis of rotation.
A rotating machine is shown in Fig. 3.6. Total mass of the machine is M. The
unbalance is represented by mass m having an eccentricity e. It is rotating with
angular velocity ω. The machine is constrained to move in the vertical direction
only. The displacement of the mass m from the static equilibrium position at any
instant of time is ( x + e sin ω t).

@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation