SPEED OF REACTION [chapter 16]

TEMPERATURE PARTICLE SIZE PRESSURE CONCENTRATION

Increase temperature
Increase KE of reacting
particles
Increase frequency of collisions
Particles move faster and more
particles have energy equal to
or more than activation energy
Increase frequency of collisions
Smaller particles Increase pressure
Larger surface area of contact Particles closer together
Increase frequency of collisions
Increase probability of Increase probability of
effective collisions effective collisions
SOR increases SOR increases
Increase concentration of
excess reactant
Increase number of reacting
particles per unit volume
Increase frequency of collisions
Increase probability of
effective collisions
Increase concentration of
limiting reactant
Increase number of reacting
particles per unit volume
Increase frequency of collisions
Increase probability of effective
collisions

Increase probability of SOR increases SOR increases

effective collisions

SOR increases

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.. Place the

cotton wool in the mouth of the flask to prevent acid
spray.
2. Record the mass of the conical flask and contents.
3. Release the thread and shake the the conical flask to mix
the contents. Start the stopwatch immediately.
4. Record the mass of the conical flask at one minute
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram intervals.
2. Record volume of gas collected in the gas syringe at half minute intervals. 5. From the results, plot a graph of the mass of fask and
3. From the results, plot a graph of the volume of gas produced against time. contents against time.
4. The gradient at any point of the graph shows the SOR at a particular time. 6. The gradient at any point of the graph shows the SOR at
5. Average speed = total volume of gas (cm3) /time(min) a particular time.
7. Average speed = total volume of gas (cm3) /time(s)

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 Energy Changes (Chapter 15)

Exothermic reactions give out heat energy to the surroundings. Reactions that absorb heat from the surroundings are called
endothermic reactions.
Examples
Examples • Dissolving some ionic
• Dissolving anhydrous salts (e.g. compounds (e.g. ammonium
anhydrous sodium carbonate, anhydrous chloride, sodium carbonate
copper(II) sulfate) in water crystals) in water
• Neutralisation • Thermal decomposition
• Dissolving of concentrated sulfuric acid • Photosynthesis
in water • Action of light on silver
• Combustion of fuels (wood, coal, bromide in photographic film
petroleum, natural gas) • Evaporation
• Corrosion of metals (e.g. rusting of
iron)
Air and Pollution (Chapter 17)

Air Pollutant Source Effects

Carbon monoxide Incomplete combustion of carbon Can cause breathing difficulties and even
containing fuels death.

Reacts with haemoglobin in blood and

Sulfur dioxide  Combustion of fossil fuels in
factories, power stations and
motor cars
 Volcanic eruptions
0xides of nitrogen  Vehicle exhaust fumes,
chemical factories
 Lightning activities
Carbon dioxide Methane- decay of plant and animal ma
and methane
reduces the ability of blood to transport
oxygen.
 Irritate the eyes and lungs and
cause breathing difficulties
 React with water in the
atmosphere to form acid rain
which
- Corrodes buildings
- Harms aquatic life and plants
- Removes nutrients from the
soil
Green house gases – cause global warming

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 Metals (chapter 13) Extraction of metals
Physical Properties Method of obtaining a metal from its ore is related to its position in the
 Good conductors of heat and electricity reactivity series
 Usually have high densities, melting points and boiling points
 Malleable and ductile Reactivity Series
Alloys Potassium
An alloy is a mixture of a metal with one or a few other elements.
Sodium Metals high in the reactivity series are reactive
and their compounds are very difficult to be
Calcium
broken down. These metals are extracted by
Magnesium using electricity, process called electrolysis.
Aluminium
Pure metal
alloy Carbon

Alloys have atoms of different sizes which disrupts the orderly arrangement of atoms. Zinc
Thus, the atoms of different sizes cannot slide over each other easily when a force is
Metals in the middle of the reactivity series
applied. This makes the alloy harder and stronger than a pure metal.
Iron are not so reactive and these metals are
Lead readily extracted by reducing their oxides with
Reactivity Series carbon.
Copper
Potassium
React with cold water Silver Gold low in the reactivity series is very unreactive and does
Sodium
Metal + cold water  metal hydroxide + hydrogen gold not form compounds easily. Often found naturally in the
Calcium 2Na(s) + 2H2O (l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) uncombined state.
Magnesium Coke reacts with oxygen in hot air to form
React with steam Extraction of iron from haematite
Aluminium carbon dioxide
Metal + steam  metal oxide + hydrogen waste gases C + O2  CO2
Carbon Mg(s) + H2O (l) MgO(s) + H2(g) Carbon dioxide reacts with more coke to
React with dilute hydrochloric acid form carbon monoxide
Zinc Metal + HCl  metal chloride + hydrogen Iron ore (haematite), CO2 + C  2CO
Mg(s) + 2HCl (aq)  MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) coke, The carbon monoxide reduces the iron(II)
Iron
limestone oxide in haematite to iron.
Lead Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)

Hydrogen Removal of impurities

Copper Limestone consists of calcium carbonate
No reaction with cold water, steam or acid as which decomposes at high temperatures.
Silver these are less reactive than hydrogen Carbon dioxide and calcium oxide are
hot air produced
gold CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
molten slag Calcium oxide reacts with silicon(IV) oxide
molten iron
(sand) in the iron ore.
A more reactive metal can displace a less reactive metal from its CaO(s) + SiO2(s) → CaSiO3(l)
compounds.
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 Periodic Table (chapter 14)

 It is a list of elements arranged in order of increasing proton (atomic) numbers.

 Elements in the same period have the same number of electron shells. Elements in the same group have the same number of valence
electrons. (Since chemical properties depend on the number of valence electrons, elements in the same group have similar chemical
properties)
 Across a period (Left to Right : Group I to Group O) – decreasing metallic properties (from metal to non-metal)
- Oxides change from basic oxides amphoteric oxides  acidic oxides

Group I (Alkali metals) Group VII Elements — Halogens

Physical  soft • have low melting points and boiling points;

properties  light (low density) – lithium, sodium and potassium less
dense than water, thud can float on water.
 low melting and boiling points
 like all metals – good conductors of heat and electricity
and shiny
• are coloured
( F2 – pale yellow gas, Cl2 –greenish yellow gas, Br2 –
reddish brown liquid, I2- purplish black solid)
• poor conductors of electricity as these are non-
metals
• exists as diatomic molecules

Trends in  Melting and boiling points decrease down the group • Melting and boiling points increase down the group
physical  Densities increase down the group • Colour intensity increases down the group
properties
Chemical Alkali metals are very reactive. 1. Halogens react with most metals to form halides.
properties E.g. sodium tarnishes easily in air to form an oxide. 2. Halogens are powerful oxidising agents.
It is stored in oil to prevent reaction with air and moisture. 3. Halogens undergo displacement reactions.
A more reactive halogen displaces a less reactive
• Alkali metals react with cold water to form alkali and halogen from its halide solution.
hydrogen gas. Displacement reactions are redox reactions.
alkali metal + water → metal hydroxide(alkali) + H2 Cl2(g) + 2NaBr(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + Br2(aq)
• Alkali metals are powerful reducing agents. (colourless solution turns reddish brown)
Cl2(g) + 2Br−(aq) → 2Cl−(aq) + Br2(aq)

Cl2(g) + 2NaI(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + I2(aq)

(colourless solution turns brown)
Cl2(g) + 2I −(aq) → 2Cl−(aq) + I2(aq)
Trends in  reactivity increases down the group • reactivity decreases down the group
chemical • reducing power increases. • oxidising power decreases down the group
properties
4
 Kinetic Particle Theory (chapter 1, 3, 4, 5)

Characteristic Solid Liquid Gas

Arrangement of particles • Orderly • Disorderly • Disorderly

• Closely packed • Less closely packed than in a solid • Very far apart

Attractive forces between particles Very strong Strong Very weak

Kinetic energy of particles Very low Low High

Motion of particles Vibrate and rotate about fixed positions Move freely throughout the liquid Move rapidly in any direction

Atomic number (proton number) – number of protons

Atomic Structure (sub-atomic particles)
Nucleon number(mass number) – number of protons + number of neutrons
Particle Relative mass Relative charge Isotopes – Atoms of the same element with the same number of protons and electrons but
different number of neutrons.
proton 1 +1 Ions – charged particles formed when an atom loses or gains electrons

neutron 1 0

electron 1/1840 –1

5
Separation of Mixtures

6
 Chemical bonding

ionic bonding covalent bonding

Metal Non-metal Non-metal Non-metal

transfer outer share outer electrons
+ electrons -
Metal Non-Metal
positive ion negative ion
(cation) (anion)
property Ionic compound (Ionic compounds form giant ionic lattice) Covalent compound (exist as simple molecules)
Melting and • High melting and boiling points • they have low melting and boiling points.
boiling • Non-volatile • They are usually gases or volatile liquids at room temperature
points • Exist as solids at room temperature and pressure
Strong electrostatic forces of attraction between ions in Little energy is required to overcome the weak intermolecular forces
crystal lattice. A large amount of energy is required to holding the molecules together.
overcome these forces of attraction between ions.
solubility Usually soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents Usually insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents
Electrical • Conduct electricity in the molten and aqueous • do not conduct electricity in any state because they have no
conductivity states because the cations and anions are free to free mobile ions or electrons in their solid, liquid or gaseous
move and available to conduct electricity states.
O O
• Do not conduct electricity in the solid state because chlorine
there are no free moving ions to conduct oxygen
electricity. Cl Cl
Examples
water

Sodium chloride ammonia

methane Carbon dioxide
Magnesium chloride
H H
O C O
C
H H
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