?

10

E a s t A s i a in t h e
Post-Classical Period

A l l the birds have flown u p a n d gone;

A lonely cloud floats leisurely by.
We never tire o f looking at each other ?
Only the mountain a n d I.

?Li Bo, ?Alone Looking at the Mountain? (date unknown)

P . , L i Bo (701-762 C.E.) was one of the most accomplished artists o f

the Tang era in China. Many of his poems, such as the one above, describe
someone contemplating nature. Others focus on attending parties and other
ways people enjoy life with friends. These themes, both positive and uplifting,
seem to reflect the buoyancy of Post-Classical China. During the 600 years o f
the Tang and Song dynasties, China enjoyed great wealth, political stability,
and fine artistic and intellectual achievements. These years were a golden era
in Chinese history.
During the Post-Classical period, China dominated East Asia. Its neighbors,
including Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, developed vibrant and distinctive cultural
traditions, but each also displayed China?s influence.

P o l i t i c a l S t r u c t u r e s in C h i n a
After the collapse o f the Han Dynasty in the third century C.E., China fell into
a state of anarchy f o r nearly 400 years. People suffered from reduced trade and
greater political turmoil until the short-lived Sui Dynasty (581-618 C.E.).
Unity under the Sui D y n a s t y Emperor Sui Yangdi unified China
t h r o u g h v i o l e n c e and repression. Successful m i l i t a r y e x p e d i t i o n s to the s o u t h
e x p a n d e d the reach o f China?s g o v e r n m e n t . H e also sent t r o o p s i n t o K o r e a
a n d C e n t r a l A s i a . S u i Y a n g d i r u l e d t h r o u g h harsh, d i c t a t o r i a l m e t h o d s , w h i c h
made dissent risky.
G r a n d C a n a l T h e greatest a c c o m p l i s h m e n t o f the d y n a s t y was the
i n c e p t i o n o f the construction o f the G r a n d Canal. T h i s a m b i t i o u s p u b l i c w o r k s
p r o j e c t i n v o l v e d thousands o f c o n s c r i p t e d peasants w o r k i n g f o r m a n y years.
T h e i d e a b e h i n d the canal was to p r o v i d e a means o f t r a n s p o r t i n g rice and other
crops f r o m the f o o d - r i c h Yangtze R i v e r v a l l e y i n the south to p o p u l o u s n o r t h e r n
China and the center o f g o v e r n m e n t o f L u o y a n g . A t the southern end o f the

180 WORLD HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT? EXAM

 Tang
Dynasty

into
Vietnam.
modern-day

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181
IN
ASIA
EAST
POST-CLASSICAL

THE
PERIOD
 in
scholarship
China.

to
status.
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acknowledge
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from
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182
THE
FOR
WORLD
HISTORY:
ADVANCED
PREPARING
EXAM
PLACEMENT®

and from
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183
IN
EAST
THE
POST-CLASSICAL
PERIOD
ASIA

(East
Sea) JAPAN OF
SEA
 wealth.
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other
any
mobility
than
system
hiring
time.

184
EXAMTHE
FOR
WORLD
HISTORY:
ADVANCED
PREPARING
PLACEMENT®

in
China
Economic
Developments
Post-Classical

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 See
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page

provinces.
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to
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produced
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rice)
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This
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They
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of
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on
(both enrich
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human
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The
Tax
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Song
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They
paper
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in
of
In
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Under
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Productivity
new
because
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prospered

=185
IN
THE
PERIOD
ASIA
EAST
POST-CLASSICAL
 likely.
made
sinking
less

plows,
and
weapons,
better
bridges.

for
right
reserving
money,
that
paper
themselves.

186 FOR
THE
HISTORY:
ADVANCED
PREPARING
PLACEMENT®
EXAM
WORLD

to
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toin
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and
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As
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earlier and
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 da
Se a E Ao R
Soe ohs a e
Financial Description Origin Date Early
Instrument Location

Coin Minted precious metals (silver, | c. 500 B.C.E. Lydia, Turkey

bronze, gold) with own inherent
value

Inns along trade routes where c. 500 B.C.E. Persian Empire

travelers could trade, rest, and
replenish

Paper Money | Currency in paper form c. 800 C.E.

Hanseatic First c o m m o n market and 1296 C.E. Germany

League confederation of merchant
guilds

Precursor to modern bank c. 200 B.C.E.

Bill of A written order without interest | c. 700 C.E. China

Exchange which binds one party to pay a
fixed sum to another party at a
predetermined date in the future

S o c i a l Structures in C h i n a
Through m o s t o f Chinese history, the majority o f people l i v e d i n rural areas.
The Tang and Song eras were no exception. However, this was the first t i m e
i n China?s history when urban areas grew i n prominence. A t the height o f
the Song Dynasty, China was the most urbanized land i n the w o r l d , boasting
several cities containing more than 100,000 people. The largest cities,
Chang?an, Hangzhou, and Guangzhou, were cosmopolitan m e t r o p o l i s e s ?
active centers o f commerce w i t h many entertainment options to offer.
Taverns, restaurants, street vendors, markets, theaters, and specialty shops
filled w i t h imported luxuries were all available to residents o f these bustling
cities, many o f w h i c h were located on the southeastern coast o f China. T h e
size and wealth o f these cities amazed foreign visitors and traders, w h o came
from as f a r away as Italy.

N e w Social Class Though urbanization represented a significant

development i n China?s economic and social landscape, l i f e in rural areas
grew more complex as well. A s discussed earlier, the Song Dynasty expanded
the bureaucracy immensely, opening up opportunities f o r w e l l - p a y i n g jobs to
men o f modest backgrounds. This expansion created an entirely new social
class, the scholar gentry. They soon outnumbered the aristocracy, w h i c h was
comprised o f landowners w h o inherited their wealth. The scholar gentry were
educated i n Confucian philosophy, had more money than their ancestors, and,
because o f their numbers, became the most influential social class in China.

EAST ASIA IN THE POST-CLASSICAL PERIOD 187

 O t h e r Classes Three other classes ranked below the scholar gentry:
farmers, artisans and craftsmen, and the merchant class. Merchants were
considered by the gentry as the lowest in rank because they didn?t produce
anything new; they merely profited from the exchange o f others? h a n d i w o r k
and labor. Even so, the merchant was often quite wealthy and held considerably
more influence i n society than their rank would suggest.
Role of W o m e n A s i n many societies, in China, men ruled and w o m e n
assumed subordinate roles. China?s patriarchal society strengthened during the
Song and Tang dynasties. One distinctive constraint on women?s activity i n
China was the practice o f f o o t binding, which began during the Song Dynasty.
From a very young age, girls from aristocratic families had their feet wrapped
So tightly that the bones did not grow naturally. Though the small feet were
considered a sign o f beauty, foot binding was quite painful and often made it
difficult for women to walk. M a n y women had to use canes to get around, and
some had servants carry them to their desired destinations, Because it restricted
a woman?s movement, foot binding was not prevalent among rural peasants.
Thus, a bound foot signified social status, something particularly desired when
choosing a suitable mate. Often, such practices have served to restrict women
and thus l i m i t their contributions to the public sphere.

CHINESE W O O D - B L O C K P R I N T I N G

E S

Source: Thinkstock

W i t h the development o f w o o d b l o c k p r i n t i n g i n China, people could make m u l t i p l e copies o f art o r

w r i l t e n texts w i t h o u t laboriously copying each b y hand.

188 WORLD HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT® EXAM

 Intellectual a n d Cultural Developments
Perhaps because of China?s increased affluence, better-educated populace,
and extensive contact with foreign nations, intellectual pursuits (technology,
literature, and visual arts) thrived during the Tang and Song eras.
P a p e r a n d P r i n t i n g T h e Chinese had invented paper as early as the
second century C.E., and they developed a system o f p r i n t i n g in the seventh
century, T h e y were the first culture to use w o o d - b l o c k p r i n t i n g . In that m e t h o d ,
an artist carves a b l o c k o f wood so that the carved parts o f the w o o d w i l l appear
as b l a n k spaces o n the page. T h e artist then coats the r e m a i n i n g raised parts o f
t h e b l o c k w i t h ink, and the m i r r o r image o f the b l o c k is created w h e n pressed
against a page. A Buddhist scripture produced i n the seventh c e n t u r y is t h o u g h t
to be the world?s f i r s t w o o d - b l o c k printed work. (For m o r e on the Gutenberg
press, see page 278.)
Reading and Poetry The development of paper and printing expanded the
availability o f books. Though most peasants were illiterate, China?s privileged
classes had increased access to literature. Confucian scholars not only consumed
literature at a tremendous rate, they also were the major producers of literature
throughout the Post-Classical Era. The Tang and Song dynasties? emphasis on
schooling created generations of well-rounded scholar-bureaucrats with leisure
time on their hands, which they might spend composing romantic verses or
dabbling in painting. These members of a privileged class were the world?s first
?Renaissance men.?
T h e secular backgrounds o f m a n y w r i t e r s were revealed i n their p o e t r y . F o r
e x a m p l e , L i Bo?s verse o f the eighth c e n t u r y was l i g h t and airy; his subjects
w e r e love, f r i e n d s h i p , and the pleasures o f wine. (See the e x a m p l e at the
b e g i n n i n g o f the chapter.) H i s w r i t i n g stands i n contrast to the m o r e s o m b e r
p o e t r y o f D u F u , i n the same century. D u Fu is k n o w n as the ??poet-historian?
o f China?s Post-Classical Era. A s the Tang D y n a s t y began to c r u m b l e , D u Fu?s
w r i t i n g dealt w i t h the hardships o f daily life. T h e w o r k s o f these t w o p r o l i f i c
w r i t e r s c o n t i n u e to be read i n m o d e r n times.

Painting Another art form that flourished during the Post-Classical Era
was landscape painting. Landscape in Chinese literally means ??mountain-
water.? Human figures on the canvas are miniscule in comparison to the work?s
vast empty spaces or mountains. Daoism?s emphasis on nature shows itself in
these paintings.

R e l i g i o u s D i v e r s i t y in C h i n a
Many Chinese respected the ideals o f Daoism and combined Daoist beliefs
w i t h Confucianism. The two belief systems existing alongside each other in
people?s everyday beliefs and practices. For example, the scholar gentry who
created meditative landscape paintings were also well-versed in Confucianism.
However, Confucians and Buddhists did not coexist comfortably.

EAST ASIA IN THE POST-CLASSICAL PERIOD +189

 Buddhism had come to China from its birthplace in India via the Silk
Roads. Its presence is evident during the anarchic period between the later Han
and the Sui dynasties. However, its popularity became widespread during the
Tang Dynasty. The seventh century Buddhist monk Xuanzang was instrumental
in building Buddhism?s popularity in China.
B u d d h i s m and Taoism Monks introduced Buddhism to the Chinese
by relating its beliefs to Daoist principles. For example, Buddhism?s idea o f
dharma became translated as dao (?the way?). Eventually, Buddhist doctrines
combined with elements of Daoist traditions to create the syncretic faith Chan
Buddhism, also known as Zen Buddhism. Similar to Taoism, this new form o f
Buddhism emphasized direct experience and meditation as opposed to formal
learning based on scripture.
Thanks to this religious syncretism, Buddhism?s popularity in China grew
immensely. Monasteries?homes of monks?appeared in virtually every
major city, which became a problem in itself for the Tang bureaucracy. Wealthy
converts donated large tracts of land to monasteries, which did not pay taxes,
annoying the Confucian bureaucracy.
More broadly, it was difficult f o r many leaders o f the Tang Dynasty, which
considered itself the ?Middle K i n g d o m ? ? t h e center o f world a f f a i r s ? t o accept
that a foreign religion would have such prominence in society. Buddhism?s
popularity, which drew individuals away from China?s native religions, made
Daoists and Confucians quite jealous. Thus, during the eighth century, Tang
officials ordered that Buddhist monasteries be closed and their lands seized.
Nevertheless, Chan Buddhism remained popular among ordinary Chinese
citizens.
B u d d h i s m a n d N e o - C o n f u c i a n i s m The Song D y n a s t y w a s s o m e w h a t
f r i e n d l i e r towards B u d d h i s m , b u t it d i d not g o out o f its w a y to p r o m o t e
the r e l i g i o n , p r e f e r r i n g to emphasize China?s native traditions, such as
C o n f u c i a n i s m , w h i c h i t s e l f w e n t through changes. Buddhism?s presence had
been so strong that m a n y Confucians had begun to adopt its ideals i n t o their
d a i l y lives. The development o f p r i n t i n g had made B u d d h i s t scriptures w i d e l y
available to the C o n f u c i a n scholar gentry. In spite o f themselves, the scholars
found that they appreciated the thoughtfulness that B u d d h i s m devoted to
issues o f the soul and the m e a n i n g o f life. Thus, N e o - C o n f u c i a n i s m , another
syncretic faith, evolved i n China between 7 7 0 and 840. N e o - C o n f u c i a n i s m is
a social and ethical philosophy, not a religious belief, that c o m b i n e s rational
thought w i t h the metaphysics o f T a o i s m and B u d d h i s m . T h i s n e w i n c a r n a t i o n
o f C o n f u c i a n i s m also became i m m e n s e l y p o p u l a r i n the countries i n China?s
orbit, i n c l u d i n g Japan, Korea, and V i e t n a m .

Japan
Though the ?Middle Kingdom? was powerful, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam had
their own political and cultural traditions. That said, China cast a long shadow

190 WORLD HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT® EXAM

over itsn e i g h b o r s , D u r i n g the Post-Classical Era, these societies were forced
to adapt to the rise o f China and grapple w i t h the changes that its predominance
b r o u g h t to their lands.
_

F e a r o f C h i n a During the Post-Classical Era, Japan?s isolation was

interrupted b y China?s emergence as a global power. T h o u g h China did n o t
invade Japan d u r i n g this time, it did have a presence in nearby Korea, w h i c h
t r o u b l e d the Japanese government. Japanese officials worried that the ? M i d d l e
K i n g d o m ? w o u l d soon be encroaching upon their land.
U n d e r Prince Shotoku Taishi (lived 574-622), o f the dominant Yamato
region, Japan responded b y attempting to implement Chinese practices i n Japan.
For example, the prince wrote a new constitution that consolidated power f o r
all o f Japan i n one ruler. He argued f o r a centralized government w i t h a m e r i t -
based system o f selecting bureaucrats. He hired skilled Chinese laborers to
c o m e to Japan to share their knowledge in various crafts and construction.
T h e court also sent Japanese nobility to China to study Chinese culture. They
promoted B u d d h i s m and Confucianism as supplements to Japan?st r a d i t i o n a l
Shinto religion, and introduced wood-block printing to Japan (Test Prep: In
a paragraph compare Japan?s reaction to China w i t h its reaction to Western
powers i n the 1800s. See page 454.)
a

¥:

Religion First W i d e l y Practiced in Perecentage

Japan of Japanese*

Prehistoric period Developed in

Japan

Buddhism Sixth century C.E.

Christianity Sixteenth century C.E. Portugal

Source: The World Factbook. cia.gov.

* M a n y Japanese c o n s i d e r themselves f o l l o w e r s o f m o r e t h a n one r e l i g i o n .

T a i k a R e f o r m s A f t e r Shotoku?s death, his successor enacted other

reforms, known as the Taika Reforms, i n 646. One goal o f the reforms was
increasing efficiency; the other was to wrest control o f society from the landed
aristocracy. The new laws put all farmland under government ownership, which
meant that all taxes would be paid directly to the central government, rather

EAST ASIA IN THE POST-CLASSICAL PERIOD 191

than the nobility. This was a major blow to the power of the feudal lords and a
large step toward creating a powerful centralized government.
In the 710, the F u j i w a r a clan took control of the government and moved
the capital city to Nara, which was built in the style o f China?s capital city,
Chang?an. Indeed, the Fujiwara clan continued in the tradition o f Shotoku in
modeling itself after Tang China in many ways.
R e t u r n to Decentralized G o v e r n m e n t Eventually, however, the power
o f the aristocracy was too strong, and in 794, the current emperor moved the
capital back to Heian, where the emperor had more support. Unlike the Chinese
emperors, the emperor o f Japan was merely a figurehead to w h o m the Japanese
people gave respect. In the Post-Classical Era, power truly rested i n the hands
o f the Fujiwara family.
Leaders o f the empire during the Heian Period (794-1185) still tried to
emulate Chinese political traditions. They were not successful, though, as
Heian Japan slipped back into a pattern o f political decentralization. Though
the government had instituted an equal-field system similar to China?s, it failed
because o f the nobility?s influence. The merit-based bureaucracy actually
served to strengthen the nobility because the civil service examination was not
open to all social classes.
The Tale o f G e n j i Although leaders o f Heian Japan failed to consolidate
government power, their cultural achievements are notable. Literature flourished
during this period. M o s t notably, a noblewoman known as Murasaki Shikibu,
who lived at the Japanese court, wrote The Tale o f Genji. The main character,
Genji, is a prince. As Murasaki tells of his various trials, adventures, and
romances, she provides a window into the life o f aristocratic Japan. However,
the book is more than just a melancholy story about life among Japan?s elite.
Earlier books in cultures throughout the world were often collections o f loosely
connected tales or stories i n which characters changed little from beginning to
end. However, The Tale o f Genji focuses on the psychological development o f
one main character, the way many modern stories do. Because o f this focus, it
is often cited at the world?s first novel.
M i l i t a r y Rule Political weakness and aristocratic greed caused the
downfall o f the Heian court. Thereafter, the Minamoto clan rose to power.
From the end o f the twelfth century until the late sixteenth century, power
would stay in the hands of the Minamoto family, which installed a shogun, or
military ruler, to reign supreme. This shogun was separate from the emperor,
who had even less power during this period than before. While the Nara and
Heian courts tried to emulate China?s scholarly and courtly traditions, the
Minamoto shogunate emphasized military prowess.
Because power became decentralized under the Minamoto clan, noble
families returned to battling over estates. To protect their lands, nobles recruited
samurai, professional warriors who, in return f o r their sacrifice, received
clothing, shelter, and food from their landlord. In the absence o f any army
or central political force to stabilize the society, the samurai played a central
role in the 400-year period (the Kamakura and Muromachi shogunates) after

192 WORLD HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT® EXAM

H e i a n Japan fell. (Test Prep: M a k e an outline i n w h i c h you compare Japanese
samurai w i t h knights o f medieval Europe. See page 223.)
Feudalism For hundreds o f years, Japan h a d b e e n a f e u d a l society
w i t h o u t a centralized government. L a n d o w n i n g aristocrats, the daimyo, battled
f o r supreme p o w e r over the land, w h i l e the m a j o r i t y o f people w o r k e d as rice
farmers.
_
Japanese feudalism was similar to European feudalism, w h i c h is described
in Chapter 12. B o t h featured very l i t t l e social mobility, and both systems were
b u i l t upon hereditary hierarchies. In Japan, peasants, k n o w n as serfs, were born
into lives o f economic dependency, w h i l e samurai were born into t h e i r roles as
protectors and daimyo were born into lives o f privilege. I n Europe, the three
groups were serfs, knights, and nobles.
W h a t distinguishes Japanese feudalism from that o f Europe was that the
d a i m y o enjoyed much more power than the nobility in Europe did. The d a i m y o
ruled over vast stretches o f land and, i n reality, were more p o w e r f u l than either
the emperor o r the shogun. B y contrast, Europe?s hierarchy placed the monarch
above the nobility. Though there were periods when authority o f the monarch
waned and power was distributed among nobility, the main centralized power
structure o f European feudalism would not change until the M o d e r n Industrial
Era.
In Europe, the ideal k n i g h t held to the code o f chivalry, w i t h d u t y to
countrymen, d u t y to God, and d u t y to women, the last expressed t h r o u g h
c o u r t l y love and the virtues o f gentleness and graciousness. In Japan, the code
was k n o w n as bushido and stressed frugality, loyalty, the martial arts, and
h o n o r u n t o death.

Korea
Since it shared a land border with China, Korea had a much more direct
relationship w i t h China than Japan. The Tang Dynasty demanded that
representatives o f the Korean Silla Kingdom perform the ritual k o w t o w w h e n
meeting the Chinese emperor and Silla becomea t r i b u t a r y state o f China. I n
order to appease the Chinese, the Korean kingdom agreed. Giving tributes
to China had its benefits: Korea began receiving valuable Chinese exports to
w h i c h i t m a y not have otherwise had access.
S i m i l a r i t y to China Through its tributary relationship, Korea and China
were in close contact. Thus Korea emulated many aspects o f China?s politics
and culture. For example, it modeled its capital city, Kumsong, on Chang?an.
It centralized its government in the style of the Chinese. Culturally, Koreans
adopted both Confucian and Buddhist beliefs. The educated elite studied
Confucian classics, while Buddhist doctrine attracted the peasant masses.
Koreans adopted the Chinese writing system, which proved to be very awkward.
W h i l e the long and close contacts between people in China and Korea resulted
in many shared words, the Chinese and Korean languages remained structurally
very different.

EAST ASIA IN THE POST-CLASSICAL PERIOD 193

 K o r e a n B u r e a u c r a c y One important difference between Korea and China
was that the landed aristocracy was more powerful in Korea than in China. As
a result, the Korean elite were able to prevent certain Chinese reforms from
ever being implemented. For example, though there was a Korean c i v i l service
examination, it was not open to peasants. Thus there was no t r u l y merit-based
system f o r entering the bureaucracy.

Vietnam

Vietnam?s adversarial relationship with China stands in stark contrast to

Korea?s peaceful one. The Vietnamese realized the benefits o f new technology
and trade, but they did not w i l l i n g l y give up their own identity to China.
Sinification, or the assimilation o f Chinese traditions and practices, was not
welcomed wholeheartedly in Vietnam.
T r a d e The Han Dynasty had expanded south into Vietnam during the
Classical Era. I t did not significantly alter Vietnam?s culture or government,
though it did bring trade to this Southeast Asian land. In exchange f o r Chinese
silk, the Vietnamese exported tortoise shells, ivory, peacock feathers, and
pearls.
L a n g u a g e Vietnamese schools educated their students in Chinese, which
led the Vietnamese to develop their own written language based on Chinese
characters. They still retained their spoken language, however, w h i c h is not at
all related to the Chinese language. (Test Prep: Write a paragraph i n w h i c h you
compare and contrast the way Vietnam dealt w i t h the Chinese language w i t h
the w a y Korea dealt w i t h the Chinese language. See page 193.)
G e n d e r a n d Social S t r u c t u r e Several aspects o f Vietnamese culture
differed f r o m Chinese culture, w h i c h is w h y so many resisted Chinese
incursion into their lifestyles. For example, women in Vietnamese culture
enjoyed greater independence i n their married lives than did Chinese w o m e n
in the Confucian tradition. While the Chinese lived in extended families, the
Vietnamese preferred nuclearf a m i l i e s (just a wife, husband, and their children).
Vietnamese villages operated independently o f a national government; political
centralization was nonexistent.
A l t h o u g h Vietnam adopted a merit-based bureaucracy o f educated men,
the Vietnamese system did not function like the Chinese scholar-bureaucracy.
Instead o f l o y a l t y to the emperor, scholar-officials i n V i e t n a m o w e d more
allegiance to the village peasants. In fact, Vietnamese scholar-officials often
led revolts against the government i f they deemed it too oppressive. Vietnamese
women resented their inferior status under the Chinese, as w e l l as Confucian
practices such as polygyny (the practice o f having more than one spouse at the
same time).
In spite o f Vietnamese efforts to maintain the purity o f their own culture,
sinification did occur. For example, the majority o f the Vietnamese converted

194 WORLD HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT® EXAM

to Buddhism and became serious adherents to the faith. Politically, Vietnamese
kings modeled their palaces after those in China but w i t h less grandeur and
opulence. Formal education continued to be conducted in Chinese.

M i l i t a r y C o n f l i c t w i t h C h i n a A s the Tang Dynasty began to crumble i n

the eighth century, Vietnamese rebels took the opportunity to drive o u t China?s
occupying army. In their battles against the Chinese, they showed a strong
capacity f o r guerilla warfare, perhaps due to their deep knowledge o f their
o w n land. One tactic used b y the Vietnamese against the naval forces o f the
Chinese (and later, the Mongols) was to place sharpened logs i n the harbor
that were l o w enough that ships could easily sail i n during h i g h tide. However,
when the tide went out, the sticks would trap the ships i n the harbor, where they
could be attacked f r o m land. The Vietnamese won a major v i c t o r y i n 938, when
their small army defeated a Chinese force nearly three times larger.

C o m p a r i n g J a p a n , Korea, a n d V i e t n a m
O n e o f the most important dynamics in the histories o f Japan, Korea, and
V i e t n a m was each country?s relationship w i t h China. Each developed its o w n
distinct language and culture, but it did so in the shadow o f China. When China
was unified, its political power, economic wealth, religious and intellectual
traditions, and technological innovations made it one o f the world?s most
p o w e r f u l realms. Its smaller neighbors benefited from being so close to China
b u t faced a challenge o f maintaining their own distinctive culture.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES: WHO INVENTED GUNPOWDER AND GUNS?

The development o f gunpowder and its use i n guns revolutionized w o r l d

history. However, historians have not agreed on who was responsible f o r
Starting this revolution.
Chinese C l a i m s a n d E u r o p e a n D o u b t s W h i l e the Chinese l o n g
took credit f o r developing both gunpowder and guns, European historians
were traditionally skeptical because they doubted the Chinese had the
technological ability to make such advances. For example, Henry Hime,
a B r i t i s h m i l i t a r y officer, argued in his 1904 book, Gunpowder a n d
A m m u n i t i o n : T h e i r O r i g i n and Progress, that the Chinese ?possessed
little genius f o r mechanical or chemical inventions? so they had probably
?obtained their first gunpowder and firearms f r o m the West.?
F i r e w o r k s Europeans slowly acknowledged Chinese contributions
to the technologies that led to the development o f guns. They first
recognized that the Chinese had invented gunpowder and_ that
knowledge o f the explosive substance had been carried b y traders and
the Mongols to Europe i n the thirteenth century. However, European
historians continued to argue that the Chinese had used gunpowder only

EAST ASIA IN THE POST-CLASSICAL PERIOD =195

 for fireworks, not for weaponry. Historian Jack Kelly, in a recent book
about the history o f gunpowder, noted that historians had not moved
much beyond Hime?s argument in their views of Chinese abilities. ?The
notion of China?s benign relationship with gunpowder sprang in part
from Western prejudices about the Chinese character. Some viewed the
Chinese as dilettantes who stumbled onto the secret of gunpowder but
couldn?t envision its potential. Others saw them as pacifist sages who
wisely turned away from its destructive possibilities.?
A g r e e m e n t The next step was for Europeans to acknowledge that
the Chinese historians were correct, and that the Chinese had begun
using g u n p o w d e r to make early forms o f guns since the tenth century.
B r i t i s h scholar Joseph Needham revolutionized Western attitudes toward
China w i t h his m u l t i v o l u m e w o r k Science a n d Civilization in China.
Begun i n 1954, i t continued after Needham?s death under other scholars
and n o w includes more than 25 volumes. B y 1986, Needham c a l l e d
the development o f gunpowder ?no doubt the greatest o f all Chinese
m i l i t a r y inventions.? A n d he concluded that the Chinese had developed
the first gun ?before other peoples knew o f the invention at all.?

KEY TERMS BY THEME

ECONOMICS STATE-BUILDING CULTURE

e q u a l - f i e l d system Sui Dynasty kowtow
f a s t - r i p e n i n g rice G r a n d Canal Vighurs
proto-industrialization Hangzhou f o o t binding
f l y i n g cash Tang Dynasty Li Bo
paper money Middle Kingdom D u Fu
m a g n e t i c compass Silla K i n g d o m Chan (Zen)
rudder t r i b u t a r y system Buddhism
junk S o n g Dynasty Neo-Confucianism
wood-block printing Southern Song S h o t o k u Taishi
Dynasty Taika R e f o r m s
SOCIAL STRUCTURES Tang T a i z o n g Fujiwara clan
nuclear family S o n g Taizu Nara
sinification Chang?an Heian
polygyny Kaifeng Murasaki Shikibu
Xuanzang Yuan Dynasty The Tale o f G e n j i
Hsuan Tsung M i n g Dynasty bushido
A n Lushan M i n a m o t o clan
scholar gentry shogun
daimyo samurai
Kumsong
guerilla warfare