AP Physics C - E & M

Inductance
2018-08-10

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 Table of Contents:
Inductance
Click on the topic to go to that section.

· Self - Inductance
· Mutual Inductance
· RL Circuits
· Magnetic Field Energy
· LC Circuits
· RLC Circuits

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source, providing attribution and additional information.
Self - Inductance

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 Self - Inductance
Self inductance is the EMF induced in a circuit by its own current
flow.

Consider the circuit loop shown on the left. Close the switch. A
current will flow in the direction shown in the circuit diagram to
the right. This will create a Magnetic Field within the loop that is
pointing out of the page.
Switch Switch
+ - + -

I0

https://njctl.org/video/?v=JPMYwDpgqfs
 Self - Inductance
The increased Magnetic Flux will induce an EMF and current in
the loop that will oppose the change by creating a Magnetic Field
into the page - Faraday's and Lenz's Laws.

The induced EMF and current are in the opposite direction of the
current supplied by the battery, thus preventing the current from
reaching I = ΔV/R immediately.
The induced EMF, E L, is
+ - represented by the blue
dashed battery symbol - it is
- not a real battery - and is
I0 EL opposite in polarity to the
+ battery that generated the
initial current.
 Self - Inductance

Caution! You might be asking now why when you turn a wall
switch on for an incandescent lighting fixture, the light bulb turns
right on at full intensity. Why is there no delay due to self -
inductance?

The induced EMF and current are very small because the circuit
connecting the switch to the light is just one loop of wire.

To experience self - inductance, you need a large number of

loops of wire. A circuit element called an inductor, which can
have hundreds of loops (coils) of wire in a cylinder of radius of
1 cm, is designed for this purpose, and will be discussed shortly.
 Self - Inductance
The voltage drop across an inductor, EL, is called the self-induced or
"back EMF," and is a property of the geometry of the loop. The
magnetic flux through a conducting loop is proportional to the
generating current. Assume N loops all with the same flux, and a
proportionality constant, L, which will be called the self-inductance
of the loop:

Assume that the generating current is changing with time and take
the time derivative of the first equation:

Faraday's Law, with the

subscript recognizing that
this is an induced EMF.
 Self - Inductance
Solve this equation for L:

Compare to Ohm's Law that shows that the resistance of a circuit for
a given electric potential opposes the current.

The inductance opposes the time rate of change of the current

due to changes in the applied EMF.
 Inductor
An application of self-inductance in a circuit is when changes in the
current need to be "smoothed out," that is, made more constant, to
protect sensitive electronics.

In order to maximize the impact of self - inductance, a wire is twisted

into multiple adjacent coils with the same symmetry axis - an
inductor. This looks just like the solenoid of N turns, where we
earlier calculated the magnetic flux as:

Number of loops per

length, l

The inductance of a solenoid

 Inductor
The unit of inductance is named after Joseph Henry, who did similar
work to Michael Faraday - but Faraday published first, so it's
Faraday's Law:

1 Henry = 1 H = 1 Wb/A.

An inductor is represented in circuit diagrams as (looks like a

solenoid):
 Inductor
The inductance of an inductor can be greatly increased by wrapping
the coils of wire about a ferromagnetic core, such as soft iron or
nickel.

A greater magnetic field will be present in the coil, and the magnetic
permeability, μ, can be a thousand times the value of μ0, the
permeability of free space - or air.

An inductor can store energy (just like a capacitor), but instead of

storing it in a generated Electric Field (capacitor), an inductor stores
energy in the created Magnetic Field.
 1 An inductor, with inductance L, is placed in series with a
battery that delivers a current of . Which of the
following represents the magnitude of the induced EMF
in the inductor at t = 1 s?

A 2Lb/e

Answer
B Lb/e2

C Lb/3e3

D 2Lb/e2

E 0

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 2 What is the inductance of a solenoid that has 10 windings
per cm, a length of 3.0 cm and a cross sectional area of
1.1 cm2?

A 4.1 μH

Answer
B 41 μH

C 4.1 mH

D 41 mH

E 410 mH

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 3 An inductor, placed in a circuit:

A decreases the applied voltage.

B increases the applied voltage.

Answer
C opposes the current.

D opposes the rate of change of current.

E stores energy in an electric field.

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 4 What is true about the magnetic permeability of the core
of iron within a solenoid?

A It is equal to the permeability of free space.

B It is greater than the permeability of free space.

Answer
C It is less than the permeability of free space.

D It decreases the value of the inductance for the

solenoid.

E It has no effect on the value of the inductance for

the solenoid.

https://njctl.org/video/?v=LzYQXslOG74
 Electric Field Behavior in an
Inductor
Kirchoff's Loop rule states that the sum of the electric potential
differences (voltage drops) across all the circuit elements must
equal zero. The applied EMF is due to a conservative Electric
Field, EC.

The electric field created by the changing magnetic field in the

inductor is not conservative, as Faraday's Law shows that the
path integral of the electric field is not equal to zero.

Label the non conservative field induced in the inductor as EN.

We cannot apply Kirchoff's Rules to understand the voltage

drops across the inductor without a little work.

https://njctl.org/video/?v=0i9lvr5lUzM
 Electric Field Behavior in an
Inductor
We'll try a different approach. Create a loop with an inductor and a
variable source of EMF as shown below (the arrow indicates the
EMF is adjustable), with a current, I.
L
a b
i

Start with an inductor that has a very small resistance which implies
that charges can move through it with an infinitesimal total Electric
Field, ETotal = 0.
 Electric Field Behavior in an
Inductor
The total electric field in the inductor is zero, but it is the sum of a
conservative and a non conservative field as charges are moving
through the inductor:

The non zero EC requires a separation of charge between the two

ends of the inductor to exist, creating an electric potential difference
between the ends of the inductor.
 Electric Field Behavior in an
Inductor
Use Faraday's Law and the definition of inductance, and integrate
around the entire loop in the clockwise direction (similar to using
Kirchoff's Loop Rule):

L
a i b

Since EN is zero except within the inductor, we replace the path

integral with an integral from point (a) to point (b). Point (a) is the
side of the inductor where the conventional current enters, and point
(b) is on the other side:
 Electric Field Behavior in an
Inductor
Since EN = - EC, we replace the integral with:

L
a i b

This is done so we can relate the right hand side of the equation to
a difference in Electric Potential - and this can only be done for
conservative fields as shown on the next slide.
 Electric Field Behavior in an
Inductor
Recognize the integral of the conservative electric field as the
negative of the Electric Potential (voltage drop) difference between
points (a) and (b):

L
a i b

We can now confidently apply Kirchoff's Loop Rule since we have a

voltage drop across the inductor, due to the separation of charge on
it which gives rise to a conservative electric field.
 Electric Field Behavior in an
Inductor
The electric potential difference across a resistor is negative when
Kirchoff's rules are applied and the loop direction is the same as the
current direction.

The inductor will give a positive or negative voltage drop depending

on the changing behavior of the current.

When the current is increasing in the inductor, the value of

is positive, so the voltage will be higher at point (a) than point (b).
L
a i b
 Electric Field Behavior in an
Inductor
Faraday's Law and Lenz's Law also explain the sign of the voltage
drop across the inductor.

As the current in the inductor increases, an EMF and current is

generated opposing the current flow. Point (a) then looks like the
positive terminal of a battery, and Va > Vb.

L
a i b
 Electric Field Behavior in an
Inductor
When the current is increasing, the voltage at point (a) is greater
than the voltage at point (b).

When the current is decreasing, the voltage at point (a) is less than
the voltage at point (b).

When the current is constant, there is no voltage drop:

L
a i b
 Kirchoff's Rules Sign
Convention
Using Kirchoff's Loop Rule where your loop direction is in the same
direction as the current shown, the following sign conventions apply.
The signs reverse since the loop rule uses Vb- Va.
L
a i b

· When the current is increasing, has a negative value.

· When the current is decreasing, has a positive value.

· When the current is constant, is equal to zero.

 5 The switch is closed in the below circuit. The value of the
resistance is decreased. Which of the following is the
correct expression for Kirchoff's Loop Rule if you
evaluate the loop in the counter-clockwise direction?

Answer
+ -
B
Switch

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 6 The switch is closed in the below circuit. The value of the
resistance is then increased. Which of the following is the
correct expression for Kirchoff's Loop Rule if you
evaluate the loop in the counter-clockwise direction?

Answer
B + -
Switch

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Mutual Inductance

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 Mutual Inductance
Consider two conducting loops with steady currents that generate
magnetic fields inside their loops due to their respective currents as
shown. If they are far away from each other, they will have no
interaction.
1 2
+ - - + I2

I1 Far

But what if they are moved closer together such that the current in
loop 1 (red) will create a magnetic field within loop 2, and the current
in loop 2 (blue) will create a magnetic field within loop 1?

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 Mutual Inductance
The current in each loop will increase the magnetic field and flux in
the other (if the currents were in the same direction in each loop, the
magnetic fields would be reduced).

1 2
+ - - + I2

I1

We'll work with the case where the currents are opposite in direction.

The magnetic field generated by I1 is in red, and the

magnetic field generated by I2 is in blue.
 Mutual Inductance
Define Mutual Inductance, M, as the proportionality constant that
relates the current in one loop to the magnetic flux it generates in
the other loop. It depends on the geometry of each loop and their
physical relationship to each other.

Consider the flux induced in loop 2 by the current in loop 1:

1 2
+ - - + I2

I1
 Mutual Inductance
If instead of 1 loop at position 2, there were N2 loops, then:

Now, let the current in loop 1 change with time and calculate the
EMF induced in Loop 2 using Faraday's Law:

The induced EMF in the second loop is proportional

to the change in current in the first loop.
 Mutual Inductance
What if there was a time varying current in loop 2? Using a similar
analysis, the EMF induced in loop 1 is:

It will be presented without proof that M12 = M21 = M, so we have:

 Mutual Inductance

An example of mutual inductance is the ammeter for AC circuits. We

don't cover AC circuits in this course, but an AC current changes
direction - in the USA, it changes direction 60 times per second (60
Hz).

In DC circuits (current stays in the same direction), you need to put

an ammeter in series with the circuit elements.

In AC circuits, you can loop the leads of a special ammeter around a

current carrying wire. The changing wire current (it's increasing and
decreasing 60 times a second) will induce an EMF in the ammeter's
loop. The ammeter is calibrated to read the current in the circuit.
 7 Two solenoids are placed in line so you can draw a
straight line through both of them. A current of 2.1 A in the
first solenoid produces a magnetic flux of 8.6 x 10-6 Wb in
the second solenoid. The first solenoid has 400 turns and
the second solenoid has 900 turns. What is the mutual
inductance of the two solenoids?
A 1.6 mH

Answer
B 2.0 mH

C 3.2 mH

D 3.7 mH

E 5.3 mH
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 8 Two adjacent coils have a mutual inductance,
M = 97 mH. What is the maximum EMF induced in the
second coil, if the first coil has a time dependent current,
I = 2 sin (3t)?

A 0.19 V

Answer
B 0.29 V

C 0.38 V

D 0.58 V

E 0.67 V

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RL Circuits

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 RL Circuits
An RL circuit contains a battery, resistor and an inductor. When the
switch S is closed, there is initially zero current, as the inductor acts
to oppose the change in current. After a long period of time, the
current rises to its maximum value of E/R. But what happens
between those two times?
Write Kirchoff's Loop rule (the
current is increasing):
R L

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 RL Circuits
At t = 0, there is no current flowing:

After a long time, the current

reaches a constant value, and its
rate of change is zero:

R L
 RL Circuits
Now, let's solve for the current's behavior between the two
extremes of time.

Separation of variables - as
done before for the RC circuit.
 RL Circuits
Continuing:

Current for a RL Circuit as a

function of of time
 RL Circuit Current Graph

This is mathematically similar to the charge on a capacitor

in an RC circuit as a function of time as it is being charged.
Can a time constant be found for the inductor current?
 Time Constant

Yes. Let and the current equation

becomes:

The time constant, , is the time it

takes for the current to reach 63.2%
of its maximum value, just like the
time constant for an RC circuit.

At t = 0, there is no current. Over a

long period of time (frequently
estimated as 10 time constants), the
current rises to E/R.
 9 Which of the following correctly describes the behavior of
the RL circuit when the switch is closed?

A The voltage drop across the inductor is equal to V/2.

Answer
B The voltage drop across the resistor is equal to V/2.

C The voltage drop across the resistor is equal to V.

D The current equals V/R.

E The current is zero.

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 10 Which of the following correctly describes the behavior of
the RL circuit after a time period equal to 10τ, after the
switch is closed?

A The voltage drop across the inductor is equal to V/2.

Answer
B The voltage drop across the resistor is equal to V/2.

C The voltage drop across the inductor is equal to V.

D The current equals V/R.

E The current is zero.

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 11 Which of the following is the correct expression for the
time constant of an RL circuit?

A RL

B L/R

Answer
C R/L

D 1/RL

E R2/L

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 RL Circuit Discharge
The circuit shown below consists of a battery, a resistor, an
inductor and a special switch - a "make-before-break" switch.

R L

S
a b

The make-before-break switch ensures that there is always a

path for the current to flow.

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 RL Circuit Discharge
Assume that the switch has been at position b for a long time, so
that the current in the circuit has reached its maximum value.
The current path is indicated by the red arrows.
R L

S
a b

Now, move the switch to position a. What is the current path?

 RL Circuit Discharge

The battery is taken out of the circuit, and the current flows as
indicated.

R L

S
a b

The inductor acts to oppose the change in current, so at t = 0, the

current is (E)/(R), but starts decreasing. Let's derive the equation
that describes the time behavior of the current.
 RL Circuits
Use Kirchoff's Loop rule, and go around the
loop in the same direction as the current.
R L

S
a b

I0 = (E)/(R); the steady state

current path before the switch
was thrown from point b to a.
 RL Circuit Current Decay

This is mathematically similar to the charge on a capacitor as it

is being discharged.
12 An inductor of unknown inductance and a resistor of 12Ω
are placed in series with a battery that supplies a current
throughout the circuit. The current in the inductor is given
by the equation, I = Io - Io e-3t . What is the value of the
inductance?

A 0.17H

Answer
B 0.25H

C 4.0H

D 36 H

E Not enough information provided

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 13 A circuit consisting of a 9.0 V battery, a 2.1 H inductor,
two resistors, R1 = 1.2 Ω, R2 = 1.5 Ω, and a switch is
shown below. What is the current through the inductor
after the switch is in position b for a long time (t > 10τ)?

A 0A

Answer
B 3.3 A

C 6.0 A

D 7.5 A

E 9.0 A

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 14 A circuit consisting of a 9.0 V battery, a 2.1 H inductor,
two resistors, R1 = 1.2 Ω, R2 = 1.5 Ω, and a switch is
shown below. After a long time period, the switch is
moved from position b to a. What is the current through
the inductor after 2 s elapses?
A 0.25 A

Answer
B 0.80 A

C 1.1 A

D 1.4 A

E 1.8 A

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Magnetic Field Energy

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 Magnetic Field Energy
In the RL circuit below, the switch is closed, and we want to find
out where the energy from the battery is going as the current
increases from 0 to E/R. The resistor dissipates the energy in the
form of thermal energy. The inductor stores the energy in the
magnetic field created by the current flow.

R L
Start with Kirchoff's Loop rule and
multiply each term by I:

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 Magnetic Field Energy
The power (EI) delivered by the battery is dissipated in the
resistor (I2R) and LIdI/dt is the power, or the rate of energy that is
delivered to the inductor. Thus:

Multiply by dt, and

then integrate from
I =0 to I at its
R L maximum steady
state value.

Magnetic Field Energy stored

in the inductor with a current I.
 Magnetic Field Energy
The equation we just found for the potential energy stored in an
inductor can be applied to any other shape, such as a toroidal
solenoid whose volume is equal to the circumference multiplied by
its area.

The value of its self inductance is:

The value of its Potential Energy is given by:

 Magnetic Field Energy
The magnetic energy density is given as the ratio of the potential
energy and the volume of the inductor. It is denoted by u.
 Magnetic Field Energy

The magnetic energy density can also be represented in terms of the

magnetic field.
The magnetic field inside the toroidal solenoid is:

Substitute into magnetic field

density equation:
 15 An inductor of inductance, 0.5 H, is placed in series with
a battery which supplies a constant current of 2 A. After
a long time,what is the energy stored in the inductor?

A 1J

B 2J

Answer
C 3J

D 4J

E 5J

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 16 Which of the following statements are true about an
inductor?
I When a switch is closed, connecting
A I a battery to an RL circuit, energy is
immediately stored in the inductor's

Answer
B II magnetic field.
II Inductors store energy in an electric
C III field.
D I and II III Inductors act to oppose a change in
current through the circuit.
E II and III

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 17 For the circuit below, assume the switch has been closed
for a long time. What is the power supplied by the
battery?

R = 8.0 Ω L = 12 H
A 0W

Answer
B 0.056 W

C 0.13 W

D 8.0 W

E 18 W

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 18 For the circuit below, assume the switch has been closed
for a long time. What is the power supplied to the
resistor?

R = 8.0 Ω L = 12 H
A 0W

Answer
B 0.056 W

C 0.13 W

D 8.0 W

E 18 W

https://njctl.org/video/?v=3vOyR5KJhVQ
 19 For the circuit below, assume the switch has been closed
for a long time. What is the power supplied to the
inductor?

R = 8.0 Ω L = 12 H
A 0W

Answer
B 0.056 W

C 0.13 W

D 8.0 W

E 18 W

https://njctl.org/video/?v=igZeehxnX9k
 20 For the circuit below, assume the switch has been closed
for a long time. How much energy is stored in the
inductor's magnetic field?

R = 8.0 Ω L = 12 H
A 0J

Answer
B 9.0 J

C 14 J

D 18 J

E 27 J

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LC Circuits

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 LC Circuits
Take a capacitor with charge Q, and put it in a series circuit with an
inductor and an open switch - an LC circuit. The energy of this
circuit is stored within the electric field of the capacitor.

Close the switch. The capacitor starts to discharge, causing

current to flow through the inductor. Starting at the negatively
charged plate on the capacitor, use Kirchoff's Loop Rule in the
clockwise direction:

The current is increasing in the

system. But since we drew the loop
opposite the current flow, we use a
negative value for the inductor
voltage for the loop rule.
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 LC Circuits
The electric field (and its energy) in the capacitor is decreasing as
the magnetic field and its energy increases in the inductor.
Assuming a circuit without any resistance, the total energy is
conserved. Continuing with Kirchoff:

Look familiar?
 LC Circuits
This is the same mathematical equation for simple harmonic
motion, so by analogy:

Spring-Mass

LC circuit
 LC Circuits
Continuing the analogy - in the mass spring system, the direction of
motion of the mass continues to reverse - it oscillates.

The same behavior is found in the LC circuit.

Current flows counter-clockwise, shifting

energy from the capacitor to the inductor,
reducing the charge on the capacitor.

When the capacitor is fully discharged,

the current is at a maximum and all the
energy is stored in the inductor's
magnetic field.
 LC Circuits
Even though the capacitor is at equilibrium (zero charge on both
plates), the current continues to flow, since the inductor prevents
the current from immediately decreasing to zero.

The current decreases, and continues to

transfer charge from the top plate to the
bottom plate through the inductor until the
bottom of the capacitor is fully charged to
+Q. The capacitor's polarity is reversed.
At this time, the current momentarily stops
and reverses direction.
 LC Circuits
The current continues to flow, but decreases until the bottom of the
capacitor is fully charged to +Q; the capacitor's polarity is reversed.
At this time, the current momentarily stops and reverses direction.

We assume that no energy is lost

through thermal or electromagnetic
radiation, so the current will oscillate
indefinitely with an angular frequency:

Just as mass opposes velocity changes

in a mechanical system, the inductance
opposes current changes in an electrical
system.
 LC Circuits
Given charge as a function of time, the current in the circuit can be
found by taking the first time derivative of charge.
 Energy in LC Circuits
Because energy is conserved, the total energy of the LC circuit is
equal to the energy stored in the inductor and the capacitor:

Substitute in the time dependent functions for the current and the
charge to find the energy behavior of the circuit over time:

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 Energy in LC Circuits
Determine the value of the phase angle .

At t = 0, I = 0, and Q = Qmax.

The current and charge equations are now:

 Energy in LC Circuits
The total energy equation simplifies to:

The energy stored in the inductor is 900 out of phase with the
energy stored in the capacitor - when the inductor energy is at a
maximum, there is zero energy stored in the inductor. The reverse
is also true. This implies that:
 Energy in LC Circuits
Express the total energy of the system in terms of the inductance or
capacitance alone:

Alternatively,
 Energy in LC Circuits
Electric Field Energy in Capacitor
Magnetic Field Energy in Inductor
These energy graphs
illustrate the 900 out of
phase behavior of the
energy stored in the
capacitor and the
inductor.
 21 A fully charged capacitor and an inductor are placed in
series with each other and have a frequency of ω. If
the inductance was quadrupled and the capacitance
was cut in half, which of the following represents the
new frequency?

Answer
B

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 22 A circuit is composed of a switch in the open position, a
fully charged 12 mF capacitor, that was charged by a
battery of 9.0 V, and an 8.5 H inductor in series. The
switch is closed. What is the maximum current of the
subsequent oscillations?
A 0.0038 A

Answer
B 0.34 A

C 2.6 A

D 2.9 A

E 29 A

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 23 A circuit is composed of a switch, a 14 V battery, a 12 mF
capacitor, and an 8.5 H inductor in series. The switch is
closed. What is the angular frequency of the subsequent
oscillations?

A 0.10 rad/s

Answer
B 0.32 rad/s

C 0.45 rad/s

D 3.1 rad/s

E 9.8 rad/s

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RLC Circuits

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 RLC Circuits

The LC circuit was analyzed assuming that there was no thermal

energy lost to resistance and no electromagnetic radiation. In
reality, there is always resistance in a circuit, and an oscillating or
alternating current (not covered in AP Physics C) radiates
electromagnetic waves.

We still won't address the electromagnetic radiation, but the

resistance of the circuit will be modeled by inserting a resistor into
an LC circuit; we now have an RLC circuit.

Energy will be converted into thermal energy in the resistor and will
leave the system, hence, RLC circuit energy is not conserved, and
will decrease over time.

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 RLC Circuits
The LC circuit below has had the switch in position (a) for a long
time, so the capacitor is fully charged with a value of Qmax and no
current is flowing.

Now, move the switch to position (b). The battery is out of the
circuit, and the capacitor will begin to discharge through the resistor
and the inductor. When fully discharged, the current will switch
direction and the oscillations will continue.
 RLC Circuits
When the RL circuit was analyzed, Kirchoff's Loop Rule was applied.
Now, the resistor will be added to the equation.

Solving this equation is more complex than can be covered in this

course, but the solution will be presented and discussed.
 RLC Circuits
The resistance term will cause the oscillations of the magnetic field
and electric field energy's to decrease to zero after time.

The charge on the capacitor will oscillate, but will decrease to zero
after some time - the graph is a sine/cosine function that is overlaid
by an exponential decay curve, and is shown on the next slide.

For small values of R, a solution to the previous equation is:

If there is no resistance, R = 0,
where:
then these two equations reduce to
the equation for an LC circuit.
 RLC Circuit
Charge with Respect to Time
Qmax

0 t

Over time, the energy in the magnetic and electric fields will
decrease to zero as the energy is converted into thermal
energy in the resistor.