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General Biology
THE CELL THEORY Cell organelle that houses DNA and directs synthesis of ribosomes and
QUARTER 1 - MODULE 1 proteins.
RIBOSOMES
INTRODUCTION
A ribosome is an intercellular structure made of both RNA and protein,
● Prior to the invention of the very first microscope, everything and it is the site of protein synthesis in the cell.
that could not be seen by the naked eye was unexplainable. MITOCHONDRIA
A membrane-bound cell organelles that generate most of the chemical
● In 1665, English physicist Robert Hooke used of the first light energy needed to power the cell's biochemical reactions.
microscope to look at thin slices of plant tissues. PEROXISOMES
Are organelles that sequester diverse oxidative reactions and play
● One of these, a slice of cork, especially caught his eye. Under
important roles in metabolism, reactive oxygen species detoxification,
the microscope, cork seemed to be made of thousands of tiny
chambers. and signaling.
VESICLES
● Hooke called this chambers ― Cells because they reminded Help transport materials that an organism needs to survive and recycle
him of a monastery‘s tiny rooms, which were also known as waste materials. They can also absorb and destroy toxic substances and
cells. pathogens to prevent cell damage and infection.
VACUOLES
● Until 1676, Anton van Leeuwenhoek published his
A membrane-bound cell organelle. In animal cells, vacuoles are generally
observations on tiny living organisms which he named
animalcules. small and help sequester waste products. In plant cells, vacuoles help
maintain water balance.
● It was believed that Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe CENTROSOME
under his microscope the structure of a red blood cell of A cellular structure involved in the process of cell division. Before cell
different animals as well as a sperm cell. division, the centrosome duplicates and then, as division begins, the two
centrosomes move to opposite ends of the cell.
● One of the leading botanists in his time, Robert Brown in 1831
was able to compare diverse kinds of plant specimens under CELL WALL
the microscope. A rigid nonliving permeable wall that surrounds the plasma membrane
and encloses and supports the cells of most plants, bacteria, fungi, and
● He markedly indicated that there is a common thing about algae
them - they are all composed of cells, and inside the cell is a LYSOSOME
dark dense spot which he termed as the nucleus. A lysosome is a membrane-bound cell organelle that contains digestive
enzymes. Lysosomes are involved with various cell processes. They break
● A few years later, German botanist Matthias Schleiden (1838)
concluded that all plant parts are made of cells. down excess or worn-out cell parts. They may be used to destroy
invading viruses and bacteria.
● Theodor Schwann (1839), also a botanist and a close friend of CHLOROPLAST
Schleiden, stated that all animal tissues are composed of cells, An organelle within the cells of plants and certain algae that is the site of
too. photosynthesis.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
● In 1858, Rudolf Virchow concluded that all cells come from
pre-existing cells.
(Rough vs Smooth)
● The discoveries made by Hooke, Leeuwenhoek, Schleiden, A large, dynamic structure that serves many roles in the cell including
Schwann, Virchow, and others led to the formulation of the cell calcium storage, protein synthesis and lipid metabolism.
theory. GOLGI APPARATUS
A cell organelle that helps process and package proteins and lipid
● The cell theory describes the properties of all cells.
molecules, especially proteins destined to be exported from the cell.
This theory can be summed up into three basic CYTOSKELETON
components: Maintains cell‘s shape, secure organelles on specific positions, allows
cytoplasm and vesicles to move within the cell, and enables unicellular
(1)All living things are composed of one or more cells; organisms to move independently.
FLAGELLA
(2)The cell is the basic unit of life; and A flagellum is primarily a motility organelle that enables movement and
chemotaxis.
(3)All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
CILIA
Quarter 1 - Module 1B Cilia are short, hair like appendages extending from the surface of a living
STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL cell.
PLASMODESMA
● All living organisms are made up of one or many cells. Plasmodesma is a microscopic cytoplasmic canal that passes through
plant-cell walls and allows direct communication of molecules between
● The cells are the building block of life just as atoms are the
two adjacent cells.
basic building blocks of all matter.
● Each cell contains materials that carry out basic life processes. QUARTER 1 - MODULE 2A
PROKARYOTIC VS EUKARYOTIC CELLS
● Cell structures can only be observed under high magnification
electron microscope and are separated internally into Brief Introduction
numerous membranous compartments called organelles (little
● There are two kinds of organisms according to their cell
organs).
structure, the prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
● Organelles perform a variety of functions like production of ● The difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms
proteins, storage of important materials, harvesting energy, is said to be the most important distinction among the groups
repairing cell parts, digestion of substances, and maintaining of living things.
the shape and structure of the cell. PROKARYOTES
Pro- = “Before” Karyo- = “Nucleus”
CELLS STRUCTURE AND ITS FUNCTIONS
EUKARYOTES
Eu- = “True’ Karyo- = “Nucleus”
CELL MEMBRANE
It separates cell from external environment; control passage of organic
Prokaryotic Cell vs Eukaryotic Cell
molecules, ions, water, oxygen, and wastes in and out of the cell.
Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms that lack a membrane-bound
CYTOPLASM
nucleus, mitochondria, and all other organelles.
The gelatinous liquid that fills the inside of a cell. Provides the structure
Eukaryotes are organisms with cells that contain membrane-bound
of the cell; site of metabolic reactions; medium in which organelles are
nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.
found.
NUCLEOLUS
Prokaryotic Cells
An area inside the nucleus of a cell that is made up of RNA and proteins
Prokaryotes includes bacteria and archaea (single celled organisms) that
and is where ribosomes are made.
include those that can survive in hostile environments. They exist mostly
NUCLEUS
as single celled organisms although multicellular prokaryotes do exist.
GENERAL BIOLOGY
Shapes can either be cocci (round), bacilli (rod shaped) or spirilla (helical). ● Pseudo-stratified columnar—single layer of cells; may just look
stacked because of varying height; for lining of respiratory
Eukaryotic cells tract; usually lined with cilia (i.e., a type of cell modification
The nucleus of a eukaryotic cell contains the genetic material (DNA), that sweeps the mucus).
enclosed by a nuclear envelope. Other membrane-bound organelles are
mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, and chloroplast found in photosynthetic CONNECTIVE TISSUE
organisms such as algae and plants. ● Connective tissues are a diverse group of tissues that serve
various binding and supportive functions.
There are also unicellular eukaryotes known as protozoa. All other
eukaryotes are multicellular organisms such as plants, animals, and fungi ● They are so widespread in the body that removal of other
tissues would still leave the complete form of the body clearly
Differences of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes apparent.
Cells that make up epithelial tissues can have distinct arrangements: ● BONE — mineralized connective tissue made by bone-forming
cells called osteoblasts which deposit collagen.
● Cuboidal—for secretion
● The matrix of collagen is combined with calcium, magnesium,
● Simple columnar—brick- shaped cells; for secretion and active and phosphate ions to make the bone hard. Blood vessels and
absorption nerves are found at a central canal surrounded by concentric
circles of osteons.
● Simple squamous—plate-like cells; for exchange of material
through diffusion MUSCLE TISSUE
● These tissues are composed of long cells called muscle fibers
● Stratified squamous—multilayered and regenerates quickly; that allow the body to move voluntary or involuntary.
for protection
GENERAL BIOLOGY
● Movement of muscles is a response to signals coming from
nerve cells. THE CELL CYCLE
● Muscle is the most abundant tissue in the body of most Interphase—is the growth period in the cell cycle.
animals. It originates (with few exceptions) from mesoderm,
and its unit is the cell or muscle fiber, specialized for THE CELL CYCLE: CHECKPOINTS
contraction.
● The G1 Checkpoint—the Restriction Point
● When viewed with a light microscope, striated muscle appears
transversely striped (striated), with alternating dark and light ● The G1 checkpoint ensures that the cell is large enough to
bands. divide and that enough nutrients are available to support the
resulting daughter cells.
In vertebrates, these muscles can be categorized into the following:
● If the cell does not receive the ‘go-ahead‘ signal, it will exit the
● SKELETAL—striated; voluntary movements Cell Cycle and switch to a non-dividing state called G0.
● CARDIAC—striated with intercalated disk for synchronized ● Most cells in the human body are in the G0 phase.
heart contraction; involuntary
● In the next phase, the S phase or synthesis phase, DNA
● SMOOTH—not striated; involuntary replication occurs where the nucleus becomes larger with
twice the amount of DNA.
NERVOUS TISSUE
● These tissues are composed of nerve cells called neurons and ● During this stage, the cell spends considerable amount of time
glial cells that function as support cells. and energy to make copies of its chromosome.
● These neurons sense stimuli and transmit electrical signals ● The G2 Checkpoint—ensures that DNA replication in S phase
throughout the animal body. has been successfully completed.
● A structure found inside the nucleus of a cell. A chromosome is ● Mitosis (apparent division)
made up of proteins and DNA organized into genes.
● is nuclear division; the process by which the nucleus divides to
● Each cell normally contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. produce two new nuclei.
CELL CYCLE: MITOSIS ● Mitosis results in two daughter cells that are genetically
identical to each other and to the parental cell from which they
BRIEF INTRODUCTION came.
The Cell Cycle control system is driven by a built-in clock that can be Metaphase—is when chromosomes become arranged so that their
adjusted by external stimuli (i.e., chemical messages). centromeres become aligned in one place, halfway between the two
spindle poles. The long axes of the chromosomes are 90 degrees to the
Checkpoint—a critical control point in the Cell Cycle where stop‘ and spindle axis. The plane of alignment is called the metaphase plate.
go-ahead‘ signals can regulate the cell cycle.
GENERAL BIOLOGY
ANAPHASE ● The synapsed tetrads are found aligned at the metaphase plate
(the equatorial plane of the cell) instead of only replicated
Anaphase—is initiated by the separation of sister chromatids at their chromosomes.
junction point at the centromere. The daughter chromosomes then move
toward the poles. ANAPHASE I
● The chromosomes uncoil and assume their extended form ● The dyads complete their migration to the poles. New nuclear
during interphase. membranes may form.
● A nuclear membrane then forms around each chromosome ● In most species, cytokinesis follows, producing two daughter
group and the spindle microtubules disappear. Soon, the cells. Each has a nucleus containing only one set of
nucleolus reforms. chromosomes (haploid level) in a replicated form.
CYTOKINESIS PMAT II
● Cytokinesis is the physical process that finally splits the parent PROPHASE II
cell into two identical daughter cells.
METAPHASE II
QUARTER 1 - MODULE 4
PMAT II
MEIOSIS
● Second Meiotic Division - the events in the second meiotic
division are quite similar to mitotic division.
BRIEF INTRODUCTION
● The difference lies, however, in the number of chromosomes
● Reproduction is needed by all organisms to continue living and
that each daughter cell receives.
propagating their species lineage. Each organism has a unique
mode of reproduction.
● While the original chromosome number is maintained in
mitosis, the number is reduced to half in meiosis.
● If the cells in our body divides through mitosis to repair
damaged cells. Is there a special type of cell division that is
● Prophase II — The dyads contract.
exclusive for gametes (sperm and egg cell)?
● Metaphase II — The centromeres are directed to the equatorial
Reduces the amount of genetic information. While mitosis in diploid cells
plate and then divide.
produces daughter cells with a full diploid complement, meiosis produces
haploid gametes or spores with only one set of chromosomes.
● Anaphase II — The sister chromatids (monads) move away from
each other and migrate to the opposite poles of the spindle
During sexual reproduction, gametes combine in fertilization to
fiber.
reconstitute the diploid complement found in parental cells.
● Telophase II — The monads are at the poles, forming two
The process involves two successive divisions of a diploid nucleus.
groups of chromosomes. A nuclear membrane forms around
each set of chromosomes and cytokinesis follows. The
PMAT I
chromosomes uncoil and extend.
ANAPHASE I
● The two nuclei are compartmentalized into separate daughter
TELOPHASE I cells and complete the mitotic cell division process.
Homologous chromosomes aligned -> Chromosome crossover -> MITOSIS MAKES SKIN
Recombinant chromatids, Non-recombinant chromatids
GAMETOGENESIS
METAPHASE I
● The production of sperm and eggs, takes place through the
● The spindle apparatus is completely formed and the process of meiosis.
microtubules are attached to the centromere regions of the
homologues. ● During meiosis, two cell divisions separate the paired
chromosomes in the nucleus and then separate the chromatids
that were made during an earlier stage of the cell’s life cycle,
GENERAL BIOLOGY
resulting in gametes that each contain half the number of ● When certain lipids are placed into water, they will
chromosomes as the parent. spontaneously rearrange themselves to form structures called
micelles.
● The production of sperm is called spermatogenesis and the
production of eggs is called oogenesis. ● These are created by fatty acids.
DISORDERS IN CELL CYCLE ● Present in this formation are the electric and hydrogen bonds,
and the London dispersion forces (or the vander waals forces)
CHROMOSAL ABERRATION that stabilize the structure.
● This are changes in chromosome structure or number. Most ● Micelles can be spherical but can also form ellipsoidal,
chromosomal aberrations are known as aneuploidies, or discoidal, and cylindrical structures.
different numbers of chromosome other than pairs.
● Hydrophobic Effect – the main driving force in membrane
KEY TERMS TO REMEMBER! formation.
● Nondisjunction - is the failure of the chromosomes to separate, ● When amphipathic molecules are dispersed in water, their
which produces daughter cells with abnormal numbers of hydrophobic parts (i.e., hydrocarbon chains) aggregate and
chromosomes. become segregated from the solvent.
results when one of the X chromosomes (sex chromosomes) is missing or ● Phospholipids are the major constituents of eukaryotic cell
partially missing membranes.
where boys and men are born with an extra X chromosome. ● Amphipathic lipids can also form bilayers, but some do so more
readily than others; this ability depends on the diameter of the
METAFEMALE head group relative to the cross-sectional area of the
hydrocarbon chain(s).
a sterile female organism, esp a fruit fly (Drosophila) that has three X
chromosomes ● More wedge-shaped molecules tend to favor the formation of
micelles while cylindrical molecules tend to form bilayers.
JACOB’S SYNDROME
● Sonication – involves the bombarding of solution with sound
a rare genetic abnormality in which a male receives an extra Y waves.
chromosome from his father.
USES OF LIPOSOME
AUTOSOMAL ABERRATION
● To study the properties of cell membranes (i.e. ion
● Down syndrome or trisomy 21 is a genetic condition caused by permeability).
an extra chromosome.
● To deliver drugs or DNA to patients.
● Trisomy 18, also known as Edward's Syndrome, is a
chromosomal abnormality that often results in stillbirth or an Quarter 1 - Module 5
early death of an infant.
TRANSPORT MECHANISMS:
● Trisomy 13, also called Patau syndrome, is a chromosomal
condition associated with severe intellectual disability and THE CELL MEMBRANE
physical abnormalities.
BRIEF INTRODUCTION
STRUCTURAL ABERRATION
● In cellular biology, membrane transport refers to the collection
❖ Deletion of mechanisms that regulate the passage of solutes such as
❖ Duplication ions and small molecules through biological membranes, which
❖ Inversion are lipid bilayers that contain proteins embedded in them.
❖ Translocation
● Plasma membrane (Cell Membrane) plays a vital role in the
QUARTER 1 - MODULE 5A transport mechanisms and separates the living cell from its
surroundings.
LIPID PROPERTIES & MEMBRANE FORMATION
● To perform these roles, it needs lipids, which make a
LIPIDS semi-permeable barrier between the cell and its environment.
● are amphipathic which means they have both hydrophilic and ● It also needs proteins, which are involved in cross-membrane
hydrophobic properties. transport and cell communication, and carbohydrates (sugars
and sugar chains), which decorate both the proteins and lipids
LIPID BILAYER and help cells recognize each other.
● The Lipid Bilayer are created by lipids with bulkier and thicker FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
hydrophobic tails (e.g. glycolipids, phospholipids and
cholesterol lipids). ● The modern understanding of the cellular or plasma membrane
is referred to as the fluid mosaic model or fluid mosaics of
● Phospholipids and glycolipids form the bilayer structure and lipids and proteins.
not the micelles itself.
● It is composed of a bilayer of phospholipids, with their
LIPID FORMATION hydrophobic, fatty acid tails in contact with each other.
GENERAL BIOLOGY
(Quarter 1: Module 6)
● The steroid cholesterol has different effects on membrane
fluidity at different temperatures.
Transport Mechanisms:
SELECTIVE PERMEABILITY
● At cool temperatures, it maintains fluidity by preventing tight
packing.
KEY NOTES
Signal Transduction ● Small, uncharged molecules like O2, CO2 and H2O can move
easily through the membrane.
Cell Signalling
● Works well over short distances.
● Among the most sophisticated functions of the plasma
membrane is its ability to transmit signals via complex ● Once molecules enter the cell, the rate of diffusion slows.
proteins.
● Limits cell size.
● These proteins can be receptors, which work as receivers of
extracellular inputs and as activators of intracellular OSMOSIS
processes, or markers, which allow cells to recognize each
other. ● Diffusion of the solvent across a semi-permeable membrane
separating two solutions. (Diffusion of
What are Receptors? water)
● Receptors are proteins either inside a cell or on its surface, ● Water molecules move from a region of high concentration to a
which receive a signal. region of low concentration.
● It comes in many types, but they can be divided into two ● Direction depends on the relative concentration of water
categories: intracellular receptors, which are found inside of molecules on either side of the cell membrane.
the cell and cell surface receptors, which are found in the
plasma membrane. Isotonic: Water inside the cell equals the water outside the cell and equal
amounts of water move in and out of the cell.
Cell Signalling
Hypotonic: Hypotonic: Water outside the cell is greater than that inside
● Membrane receptors provide extracellular attachment sites the cell, water moves into the cell, may cause cell to burst (lysis)
for effectors like hormones and growth factors, which then
trigger intracellular responses. Hypertonic: Water inside the cell is greater than outside. Water moves
out of the cell, may cause the cell to shrink (plasmolysis)
● Some viruses, such as Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV),
can hijack these receptors to gain entry into the cells, causing
infections.
FACILITATED TRANSPORT/DIFFUSION
(PASSIVE-MEDIATED TRANSPORT)
● Membrane markers allow cells to recognize one another, which ● Carrier proteins: Transports noncharged molecules with a
is vital for cellular signaling processes that influence tissue and specific shape.
organ formation during early development.
● Channel proteins: Tunnel shape that transports small charged
● This marking function also plays a later role in the “self”- versus molecules.
― ”non-self” distinction of the immune response.
● DOES NOT REQUIRE water molecules for other molecules to
● Marker proteins on human red blood cells, for example, transfer.
determine blood type (A, B, AB, or O).
TRANSMEMBRANE
TRANSPORT MECHANISMS PROTEIN CHANNELS & TRANSPORTERS
1. Kidney cells pump glucose and amino acids out of the urine and Substrate - the reactant molecule that an enzyme works on.
back into the blood.
Active Site - the part of the enzyme where the substrate binds.
1. Intestinal cells pump in nutrients from the gut. Root cells pump
in nutrients from the soil. Gill cells in fish pump out sodium Enzyme-substrate complex - formed when the substrate molecule
ions. collides with the active site of its enzyme.
● Sodium-potassium pump Activation energy - the minimum energy required to start a chemical
● 3 sodium ions inside the cell and 2 potassium ions outside the reaction.
cell bind to the pump.
● This allows the release of energy from ATP and causes the Transition state - the intermediate stage in a reaction in which the old
protein complex to change shape. bonds break and new bonds are formed.
● The change in shape allow the Na+ and K+ ions to move across
and be released Brief Introduction
BULK TRANSPORT ● Enzymes are vital for life and serve a wide range of important
functions in the body, such as aiding in fighting germs,
● Endocytosis: The cell membrane folds inward, traps and digestion, and metabolism.
encloses a small amount of matter from the extracellular fluid.
● Some enzymes help break large molecules into smaller pieces
● Transports large molecules (or even whole cells) by engulfing that are more easily absorbed by the body. Other enzymes help
them. bind two molecules together to produce a new molecule.
● Exocytosis: The reverse of endocytosis: A vesicle from inside ● Enzymes are highly selective catalysts, meaning that each
the cell moves to the cell membrane. The vesicle fuses to the enzyme only speeds up a specific reaction.
membrane and the contents are secreted.
What is an enzyme?
● Removes or secretes substances such as hormones or enzymes.
● Enzymes are protein macromolecules.
● Pinocytosis: The intake of a small droplet of extracellular fluid. ● They speed up rate of reaction by lowering the activation
This occurs in nearly all cell types. energy (Ea).
● Phagocytosis: The intake of a large droplet of extracellular ● They are stereospecific, meaning the reaction produces a
fluid. This occurs in specialized cells. single product.
TEMPERATURE
● Raising temperature generally speeds up a reaction, and
lowering temperature slows down a reaction.
● Redox reactions are common and vital to some of the basic Power of Hydrogen
functions of life, including photosynthesis, respiration,
combustion, and corrosion or rusting. ● pH (abbr. power of hydrogen or potential for hydrogen):
What do you mean by oxidation and reduction? ● Each enzyme has an optimum pH range. Changing the pH
outside of this range will slow enzyme activity. Extreme pH
● OXIDATION can be defined as addition of values can cause enzymes to denature.
oxygen/electronegative element to a substance or removal of
hydrogen/ electropositive element from a substance. ● Even small pH changes can alter the electrical charges on
various chemical groups in enzyme molecules, thereby altering
● REDUCTION can be defined as removal of the enzyme‘s ability to bind its substrate and catalyze a
oxygen/electronegative element from a substance or addition reaction.
of hydrogen/ electropositive element to a substance.
*oxidation occurs when an atom’s oxidation state increases during a Enzymes catalyze a reaction most rapidly at an optimum pH, near neutral
reaction
Enzyme Components
Apoenzyme
COFACTOR ● At the saturation point, the reaction will not speed up, no
matter how much additional substrate is added. The graph of
● mostly metal ions or small organic molecules, are inorganic and the reaction rate will plateau.
organic chemicals that assist enzymes during the catalysis of
reactions. Enzymatic Activity and Substrate Concentration
● Nonprotein component (e.g. magnesium, zinc) (c) Substrate concentration. With increasing concentration of substrate
molecules, the rate of reaction increases until the active sites on all the
COENZYME enzyme molecules are filled, at which point the maximum rate of reaction
is reached.
● are non-protein organic molecules that are mostly derivatives
of vitamins soluble in water by phosphorylation. Enzyme Concentration
● Organic cofactor (Eg: NADH, FADH) ● Increasing enzyme concentration will speed up the reaction, as
long as there is substrate available to bind to.
GENERAL BIOLOGY
● Once all of the substrate is bound, the reaction will no longer
speed up, since there will be nothing for additional enzymes to
bind to.
Feedback inhibition
● Hormone production
● Cell regulation
● Muscle Contraction
● Transporting materials around a cell
● Respiration
● Signal transduction