AUTOMATIC DIMENSIONING MACHINE

ABSTRACT

In our project “AUTOMATIC DIMENSIONING MACHINE” beings with an introduction

to material Inspection, it’s various applications. The Ultrasonic sensors are used to
measure the material dimensions and this signal is given to control Unit.

This is a very efficient instrument for checking the dimensions like length,
breadth, height etc., to be used in modern engineering industries. The manual
efforts can be completely avoided by using this modern equipment. It also reduces
the inspection time and manual inspection errors. If the work piece is defective, the
pneumatic cylinder placed next to the sensor will be actuated to remove the
defective work piece.

INTRODUCTION

This is an era of automation where it is broadly defined as replacement of

manual effort by mechanical power in all degrees of automation. The operation
remains an essential part of the system although with changing demands on physical
input as the degree of mechanization is increased.

Degrees of automation are of two types, viz.

Full automation.
 Semi automation.
Need For Automation

Automation can be achieved through computers, hydraulics, pneumatics,

robotics, etc., of these sources, pneumatics form an attractive medium for low cost
automation. The main advantages of all pneumatic systems are economy and
simplicity. Automation plays an important role in mass production.

COMPONENTS USED

The components used in this project are:

 Ultrasonic sensors
 Electronic controls
 LCD Display

Electronic circuit

The die from an Intel 8742, an 8-bit microcontroller that includes a CPU, 128 bytes of RAM,
2048 bytes of EPROM, and I/O "data" on current chip.
A circuit built on a printed circuit board (PCB).

An electronic circuit is composed of individual electronic components, such

as resistors, transistors, capacitors, inductors and diodes, connected by
conductive wires or traces through which electric current can flow. To be referred to
as electronic, rather than electrical, generally at least one active component must be present.
The combination of components and wires allows various simple and complex operations to
be performed: signals can be amplified, computations can be performed, and data can be
moved from one place to another.[1]

Circuits can be constructed of discrete components connected by individual pieces of wire,

but today it is much more common to create interconnections by photolithographic
techniques on a laminated substrate (a printed circuit board or PCB) and solder the
components to these interconnections to create a finished circuit. In an integrated circuit or
IC, the components and interconnections are formed on the same substrate, typically
a semiconductor such as silicon or (less commonly) gallium arsenide.[2]

An electronic circuit can usually be categorized as an analog circuit, a digital circuit, or a

mixed-signal circuit (a combination of analog circuits and digital circuits). The most widely
used semiconductor device in electronic circuits is the MOSFET (metal-oxide-
semiconductor field-effect transistor).[3]

Breadboards, perfboards, and stripboards are common for testing new designs. They allow
the designer to make quick changes to the circuit during development.

Analog circuits
Main article: Analogue electronics

A circuit diagram representing an analog circuit, in this case a simple amplifier

Analog electronic circuits are those in which current or voltage may vary continuously with
time to correspond to the information being represented. Analog circuitry is constructed from
two fundamental building blocks: series and parallel circuits.

In a series circuit, the same current passes through a series of components. A string of
Christmas lights is a good example of a series circuit: if one goes out, they all do.

In a parallel circuit, all the components are connected to the same voltage, and the current
divides between the various components according to their resistance.

A simple schematic showing wires, a resistor, and a battery

The basic components of analog circuits are wires, resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes,
and transistors. (In 2012 it was demonstrated that memristors can be added to the list of
available components.) Analog circuits are very commonly represented in schematic
diagrams, in which wires are shown as lines, and each component has a unique symbol.
Analog circuit analysis employs Kirchhoff's circuit laws: all the currents at a node (a place
where wires meet), and the voltage around a closed loop of wires is 0. Wires are usually
treated as ideal zero-voltage interconnections; any resistance or reactance is captured by
explicitly adding a parasitic element, such as a discrete resistor or inductor. Active
components such as transistors are often treated as controlled current or voltage sources: for
example, a field-effect transistor can be modeled as a current source from the source to the
drain, with the current controlled by the gate-source voltage.

An alternative model is to take independent power sources and induction as basic electronic
units; this allows modeling frequency dependent negative resistors, gyrators, negative
impedance converters, and dependent sources as secondary electronic components.[clarification
needed][citation needed]

When the circuit size is comparable to a wavelength of the relevant signal frequency, a more
sophisticated approach must be used, the distributed-element model. Wires are treated as
transmission lines, with nominally constant characteristic impedance, and the impedances at
the start and end determine transmitted and reflected waves on the line. Circuits designed
according to this approach are distributed-element circuits. Such considerations typically
become important for circuit boards at frequencies above a GHz; integrated circuits are
smaller and can be treated as lumped elements for frequencies less than 10GHz or so.

Digital circuits
Main article: Digital electronics

In digital electronic circuits, electric signals take on discrete values, to represent logical and
numeric values.[4] These values represent the information that is being processed. In the vast
majority of cases, binary encoding is used: one voltage (typically the more positive value)
represents a binary '1' and another voltage (usually a value near the ground potential, 0 V)
represents a binary '0'. Digital circuits make extensive use of transistors, interconnected to
create logic gates that provide the functions of Boolean logic: AND, NAND, OR, NOR, XOR
and combinations thereof. Transistors interconnected so as to provide positive feedback are
used as latches and flip flops, circuits that have two or more metastable states, and remain in
one of these states until changed by an external input. Digital circuits therefore can provide
logic and memory, enabling them to perform arbitrary computational functions. (Memory
based on flip-flops is known as static random-access memory (SRAM). Memory based on the
storage of charge in a capacitor, dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) is also widely
used.)

The design process for digital circuits is fundamentally different from the process for analog
circuits. Each logic gate regenerates the binary signal, so the designer need not account for
distortion, gain control, offset voltages, and other concerns faced in an analog design. As a
consequence, extremely complex digital circuits, with billions of logic elements integrated on
a single silicon chip, can be fabricated at low cost. Such digital integrated circuits are
ubiquitous in modern electronic devices, such as calculators, mobile phone handsets, and
computers. As digital circuits become more complex, issues of time delay, logic races, power
dissipation, non-ideal switching, on-chip and inter-chip loading, and leakage currents,
become limitations to circuit density, speed and performance.

Digital circuitry is used to create general purpose computing chips, such as microprocessors,
and custom-designed logic circuits, known as application-specific integrated
circuit (ASICs). Field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), chips with logic circuitry whose
configuration can be modified after fabrication, are also widely used in prototyping and
development.
Mixed-signal circuits
Main article: Mixed-signal integrated circuit

Mixed-signal or hybrid circuits contain elements of both analog and digital circuits.
Examples include comparators, timers, phase-locked loops, analog-to-digital converters,
and digital-to-analog converters. Most modern radio and communications circuitry uses
mixed signal circuits. For example, in a receiver, analog circuitry is used to amplify and
frequency-convert signals so that they reach a suitable state to be converted into digital
values, after which further signal processing can be performed in the digital domain.

Microcontroller
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The die from an Intel 8742, an 8-bit microcontroller that includes a CPU running at 12
MHz, 128 bytes of RAM, 2048 bytes of EPROM, and I/O in the same chip

Two AT mega microcontrollers

A microcontroller (MCU for microcontroller unit) is a small computer on a single metal-

oxide-semiconductor (MOS) integrated circuit chip. In modern terminology, it is similar to,
but less sophisticated than, a system on a chip (SoC); a SoC may include a microcontroller as
one of its components. A microcontroller contains one or more CPUs (processor cores) along
with memory and programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form
of ferroelectric RAM, NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a
small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in contrast
to the microprocessors used in personal computers or other general purpose applications
consisting of various discrete chips.

Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as

automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls, office
machines, appliances, power tools, toys and other embedded systems. By reducing the size
and cost compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output
devices, microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more devices and
processes. Mixed signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog components needed
to control non-digital electronic systems. In the context of the internet of things,
microcontrollers are an economical and popular means of data
collection, sensing and actuating the physical world as edge devices.

Some microcontrollers may use four-bit words and operate at frequencies as low as 4
kHz, for low power consumption (single-digit milliwatts or microwatts). They generally have
the ability to retain functionality while waiting for an event such as a button press or
other interrupt; power consumption while sleeping (CPU clock and most peripherals off) may
be just nanowatts, making many of them well suited for long lasting battery applications.
Other microcontrollers may serve performance-critical roles, where they may need to act
more like a digital signal processor (DSP), with higher clock speeds and power consumption.

History
Background
The origins of both the microprocessor and the microcontroller can be traced back to the
invention of the MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor), also known as
the MOS transistor.[1] It was invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell
Labs in 1959, and first demonstrated in 1960.[2] The same year, Atalla proposed the concept
of the MOS integrated circuit, which was an integrated circuit chip fabricated from
MOSFETs.[3] By 1964, MOS chips had reached higher transistor density and lower
manufacturing costs than bipolar chips. MOS chips further increased in complexity at a rate
predicted by Moore's law, leading to large-scale integration (LSI) with hundreds
of transistors on a single MOS chip by the late 1960s. The application of MOS LSI chips
to computing was the basis for the first microprocessors, as engineers began recognizing that
a complete computer processor could be contained on a single MOS LSI chip.[1]

The first multi-chip microprocessors, the Four-Phase Systems AL1 in 1969 and the Garrett
AiResearch MP944 in 1970, were developed with multiple MOS LSI chips. The first single-
chip microprocessor was the Intel 4004, released on a single MOS LSI chip in 1971. It was
developed by Federico Faggin, using his silicon-gate MOS technology, along
with Intel engineers Marcian Hoff and Stan Mazor, and Busicom engineer Masatoshi Shima.
[4]
It was followed by the 4-bit Intel 4040, the 8-bit Intel 8008, and the 8-bit Intel 8080. All of
these processors required several external chips to implement a working system, including
memory and peripheral interface chips. As a result, the total system cost was several hundred
(1970s US) dollars, making it impossible to economically computerize small appliances.
MOS Technology introduced sub-$100 microprocessors, the 6501 and 6502, with the chief
aim of addressing this economic obstacle, but these microprocessors still required external
support, memory, and peripheral chips which kept the total system cost in the hundreds of
dollars.

Development
One book credits TI engineers Gary Boone and Michael Cochran with the successful creation
of the first microcontroller in 1971. The result of their work was the TMS 1000, which
became commercially available in 1974. It combined read-only memory, read/write memory,
processor and clock on one chip and was targeted at embedded systems.[5]

During the early-to-mid-1970s, Japanese electronics manufacturers began producing

microcontrollers for automobiles, including 4-bit MCUs for in-car entertainment, automatic
wipers, electronic locks, and dashboard, and 8-bit MCUs for engine control.[6]

Partly in response to the existence of the single-chip TMS 1000, [7] Intel developed a computer
system on a chip optimized for control applications, the Intel 8048, with commercial parts
first shipping in 1977.[7] It combined RAM and ROM on the same chip with a
microprocessor. Among numerous applications, this chip would eventually find its way into
over one billion PC keyboards. At that time Intel's President, Luke J. Valenter, stated that the
microcontroller was one of the most successful products in the company's history, and he
expanded the microcontroller division's budget by over 25%.
Most microcontrollers at this time had concurrent variants. One had EPROM program
memory, with a transparent quartz window in the lid of the package to allow it to be erased
by exposure to ultraviolet light. These erasable chips were often used for prototyping. The
other variant was either a mask programmed ROM or a PROM variant which was only
programmable once. For the latter, sometimes the designation OTP was used, standing for
"one-time programmable". In an OTP microcontroller, the PROM was usually of identical
type as the EPROM, but the chip package had no quartz window; because there was no way
to expose the EPROM to ultraviolet light, it could not be erased. Because the erasable
versions required ceramic packages with quartz windows, they were significantly more
expensive than the OTP versions, which could be made in lower-cost opaque plastic
packages. For the erasable variants, quartz was required, instead of less expensive glass, for
its transparency to ultraviolet light—to which glass is largely opaque—but the main cost
differentiator was the ceramic package itself.

In 1993, the introduction of EEPROM memory allowed microcontrollers (beginning with the
Microchip PIC16C84)[8] to be electrically erased quickly without an expensive package as
required for EPROM, allowing both rapid prototyping, and in-system programming.
(EEPROM technology had been available prior to this time, [9] but the earlier EEPROM was
more expensive and less durable, making it unsuitable for low-cost mass-produced
microcontrollers.) The same year, Atmel introduced the first microcontroller using Flash
memory, a special type of EEPROM.[10] Other companies rapidly followed suit, with both
memory types.

Nowadays microcontrollers are cheap and readily available for hobbyists, with large online
communities around certain processors.

Volume and cost

In 2002, about 55% of all CPUs sold in the world were 8-bit microcontrollers and
microprocessors.[11]

Over two billion 8-bit microcontrollers were sold in 1997, [12] and according to Semico, over
four billion 8-bit microcontrollers were sold in 2006.[13] More recently, Semico has claimed
the MCU market grew 36.5% in 2010 and 12% in 2011.[14]

A typical home in a developed country is likely to have only four general-purpose

microprocessors but around three dozen microcontrollers. A typical mid-range automobile
has about 30 microcontrollers. They can also be found in many electrical devices such as
washing machines, microwave ovens, and telephones.

Historically, the 8-bit segment has dominated the MCU market [..] 16-bit microcontrollers
became the largest volume MCU category in 2011, overtaking 8-bit devices for the first time
that year [..] IC Insights believes the makeup of the MCU market will undergo substantial
changes in the next five years with 32-bit devices steadily grabbing a greater share of sales
and unit volumes. By 2017, 32-bit MCUs are expected to account for 55% of microcontroller
sales [..] In terms of unit volumes, 32-bit MCUs are expected account for 38% of
microcontroller shipments in 2017, while 16-bit devices will represent 34% of the total, and
4-/8-bit designs are forecast to be 28% of units sold that year.

The 32-bit MCU market is expected to grow rapidly due to increasing demand for higher
levels of precision in embedded-processing systems and the growth in connectivity using the
Internet. [..] In the next few years, complex 32-bit MCUs are expected to account for over
25% of the processing power in vehicles.

— IC Insights, MCU Market on Migration Path to 32-bit and ARM-based Devices[15]

Cost to manufacture can be under $0.10 per unit.

Cost has plummeted over time, with the cheapest 8-bit microcontrollers being available for
under 0.03 USD in 2018,[16] and some 32-bit microcontrollers around US$1 for similar
quantities.

In 2012, following a global crisis—a worst ever annual sales decline and recovery and
average sales price year-over-year plunging 17%—the biggest reduction since the 1980s—the
average price for a microcontroller was US$0.88 ($0.69 for 4-/8-bit, $0.59 for 16-bit, $1.76
for 32-bit).[15]

In 2012, worldwide sales of 8-bit microcontrollers were around $4 billion, while 4-

bit microcontrollers also saw significant sales.[17]

In 2015, 8-bit microcontrollers could be bought for $0.311 (1,000 units), [18] 16-bit for $0.385
(1,000 units),[19] and 32-bit for $0.378 (1,000 units, but at $0.35 for 5,000).[20]

In 2018, 8-bit microcontrollers can be bought for $0.03, [16] 16-bit for $0.393 (1,000 units, but
at $0.563 for 100 or $0.349 for full reel of 2,000), [21] and 32-bit for $0.503 (1,000 units, but at
$0.466 for 5,000).[22] A lower-priced 32-bit microcontroller, in units of one, can be had for
$0.891.[23]
In 2018, the low-priced microcontrollers above from 2015 are all more expensive (with
inflation calculated between 2018 and 2015 prices for those specific units) at: the 8-bit
microcontroller can be bought for $0.319 (1,000 units) or 2.6% higher, [18] the 16-bit one for
$0.464 (1,000 units) or 21% higher,[19] and the 32-bit one for $0.503 (1,000 units, but at
$0.466 for 5,000) or 33% higher.[20]

A PIC 18F8720 microcontroller in an 80-pin TQFP package

Smallest computer
On 21 June 2018, the "world's smallest computer" was announced by the University of
Michigan. The device is a "0.04mm3 16nW wireless and batteryless sensor system with
integrated Cortex-M0+ processor and optical communication for cellular temperature
measurement." It "measures just 0.3 mm to a side—dwarfed by a grain of rice. [...] In
addition to the RAM and photovoltaics, the new computing devices have processors
and wireless transmitters and receivers. Because they are too small to have conventional radio
antennae, they receive and transmit data with visible light. A base station provides light for
power and programming, and it receives the data." [24] The device is 1/10th the size of IBM's
previously claimed world-record-sized computer from months back in March 2018, [25] which
is "smaller than a grain of salt",[26] has a million transistors, costs less than $0.10 to
manufacture, and, combined with blockchain technology, is intended for logistics and
“crypto-anchors”—”digital fingerprints” applications.[27]

Embedded design
A microcontroller can be considered a self-contained system with a processor, memory and
peripherals and can be used as an embedded system.[28] The majority of microcontrollers in
use today are embedded in other machinery, such as automobiles, telephones, appliances, and
peripherals for computer systems.

While some embedded systems are very sophisticated, many have minimal requirements for
memory and program length, with no operating system, and low software complexity.
Typical input and output devices include switches, relays, solenoids, LED's, small or
custom liquid-crystal displays, radio frequency devices, and sensors for data such as
temperature, humidity, light level etc. Embedded systems usually have no keyboard, screen,
disks, printers, or other recognizable I/O devices of a personal computer, and may lack
human interaction devices of any kind.

Interrupts
Microcontrollers must provide real-time (predictable, though not necessarily fast) response to
events in the embedded system they are controlling. When certain events occur,
an interrupt system can signal the processor to suspend processing the current instruction
sequence and to begin an interrupt service routine (ISR, or "interrupt handler") which will
perform any processing required based on the source of the interrupt, before returning to the
original instruction sequence. Possible interrupt sources are device dependent, and often
include events such as an internal timer overflow, completing an analog to digital conversion,
a logic level change on an input such as from a button being pressed, and data received on a
communication link. Where power consumption is important as in battery devices, interrupts
may also wake a microcontroller from a low-power sleep state where the processor is halted
until required to do something by a peripheral event.

Programs

Typically micro-controller programs must fit in the available on-chip memory, since it would
be costly to provide a system with external, expandable memory. Compilers and assemblers
are used to convert both high-level and assembly language codes into a compact machine
code for storage in the micro-controller's memory. Depending on the device, the program
memory may be permanent, read-only memory that can only be programmed at the factory,
or it may be field-alterable flash or erasable read-only memory.

Manufacturers have often produced special versions of their micro-controllers in order to help
the hardware and software development of the target system. Originally these
included EPROM versions that have a "window" on the top of the device through which
program memory can be erased by ultraviolet light, ready for reprogramming after a
programming ("burn") and test cycle. Since 1998, EPROM versions are rare and have been
replaced by EEPROM and flash, which are easier to use (can be erased electronically) and
cheaper to manufacture.

Other versions may be available where the ROM is accessed as an external device rather than
as internal memory, however these are becoming rare due to the widespread availability of
cheap microcontroller programmers.

The use of field-programmable devices on a micro controller may allow field update of
the firmware or permit late factory revisions to products that have been assembled but not yet
shipped. Programmable memory also reduces the lead time required for deployment of a new
product.

Where hundreds of thousands of identical devices are required, using parts programmed at
the time of manufacture can be economical. These "mask programmed" parts have the
program laid down in the same way as the logic of the chip, at the same time.

A customized micro-controller incorporates a block of digital logic that can be personalized

for additional processing capability, peripherals and interfaces that are adapted to the
requirements of the application. One example is the AT91CAP from Atmel.

Other microcontroller features

Microcontrollers usually contain from several to dozens of general purpose input/output pins
(GPIO). GPIO pins are software configurable to either an input or an output state. When
GPIO pins are configured to an input state, they are often used to read sensors or external
signals. Configured to the output state, GPIO pins can drive external devices such as LEDs or
motors, often indirectly, through external power electronics.

Many embedded systems need to read sensors that produce analog signals. This is the
purpose of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC). Since processors are built to interpret and
process digital data, i.e. 1s and 0s, they are not able to do anything with the analog signals
that may be sent to it by a device. So the analog to digital converter is used to convert the
incoming data into a form that the processor can recognize. A less common feature on some
microcontrollers is a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) that allows the processor to output
analog signals or voltage levels.

In addition to the converters, many embedded microprocessors include a variety of timers as

well. One of the most common types of timers is the programmable interval timer (PIT). A
PIT may either count down from some value to zero, or up to the capacity of the count
register, overflowing to zero. Once it reaches zero, it sends an interrupt to the processor
indicating that it has finished counting. This is useful for devices such as thermostats, which
periodically test the temperature around them to see if they need to turn the air conditioner
on, the heater on, etc.

A dedicated pulse-width modulation (PWM) block makes it possible for the CPU to
control power converters, resistive loads, motors, etc., without using lots of CPU resources in
tight timer loops.

A universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter (UART) block makes it possible to receive and

transmit data over a serial line with very little load on the CPU. Dedicated on-chip hardware
also often includes capabilities to communicate with other devices (chips) in digital formats
such as Inter-Integrated Circuit (I²C), Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI), Universal Serial Bus
(USB), and Ethernet.[29]

Higher integration

Die of a PIC12C508 8-bit, fully static, EEPROM/EPROM/ROM-

based CMOS microcontroller manufactured by Microchip Technology using a
1200 nanometre process
Die of a STM32F100C4T6B ARM Cortex-M3 microcontroller with 16 kilobytes flash
memory, 24 MHz central processing unit (CPU), motor control and Consumer Electronics
Control (CEC) functions. Manufactured by STMicroelectronics.

Micro-controllers may not implement an external address or data bus as they integrate RAM
and non-volatile memory on the same chip as the CPU. Using fewer pins, the chip can be
placed in a much smaller, cheaper package.

Integrating the memory and other peripherals on a single chip and testing them as a unit
increases the cost of that chip, but often results in decreased net cost of the embedded system
as a whole. Even if the cost of a CPU that has integrated peripherals is slightly more than the
cost of a CPU and external peripherals, having fewer chips typically allows a smaller and
cheaper circuit board, and reduces the labor required to assemble and test the circuit board, in
addition to tending to decrease the defect rate for the finished assembly.

A micro-controller is a single integrated circuit, commonly with the following features:

 central processing unit – ranging from small and simple 4-bit processors to complex 32-
bit or 64-bit processors
 volatile memory (RAM) for data storage
 ROM, EPROM, EEPROM or Flash memory for program and operating parameter
storage
 discrete input and output bits, allowing control or detection of the logic state of an
individual package pin
 serial input/output such as serial ports (UARTs)
 other serial communications interfaces like I²C, Serial Peripheral Interface and Controller
Area Network for system interconnect
 peripherals such as timers, event counters, PWM generators, and watchdog
 clock generator – often an oscillator for a quartz timing crystal, resonator or RC circuit
 many include analog-to-digital converters, some include digital-to-analog converters
 in-circuit programming and in-circuit debugging support

This integration drastically reduces the number of chips and the amount of wiring and circuit
board space that would be needed to produce equivalent systems using separate chips.
Furthermore, on low pin count devices in particular, each pin may interface to several internal
peripherals, with the pin function selected by software. This allows a part to be used in a
wider variety of applications than if pins had dedicated functions.

Micro-controllers have proved to be highly popular in embedded systems since their

introduction in the 1970s.

Some microcontrollers use a Harvard architecture: separate memory buses for instructions
and data, allowing accesses to take place concurrently. Where a Harvard architecture is used,
instruction words for the processor may be a different bit size than the length of internal
memory and registers; for example: 12-bit instructions used with 8-bit data registers.

The decision of which peripheral to integrate is often difficult. The microcontroller vendors
often trade operating frequencies and system design flexibility against time-to-market
requirements from their customers and overall lower system cost. Manufacturers have to
balance the need to minimize the chip size against additional functionality.

Microcontroller architectures vary widely. Some designs include general-purpose

microprocessor cores, with one or more ROM, RAM, or I/O functions integrated onto the
package. Other designs are purpose built for control applications. A micro-controller
instruction set usually has many instructions intended for bit manipulation (bit-wise
operations) to make control programs more compact. [30] For example, a general purpose
processor might require several instructions to test a bit in a register and branch if the bit is
set, where a micro-controller could have a single instruction to provide that commonly
required function.

Microcontrollers traditionally do not have a math coprocessor, so floating point arithmetic is

performed by software. However, some recent designs do include an FPU and DSP optimized
features. An example would be Microchip's PIC32 MIPS based line.
Programming environments
Microcontrollers were originally programmed only in assembly language, but various high-
level programming languages, such as C, Python and JavaScript, are now also in common use
to target microcontrollers and embedded systems.[31] Compilers for general purpose languages
will typically have some restrictions as well as enhancements to better support the unique
characteristics of microcontrollers. Some microcontrollers have environments to aid
developing certain types of applications. Microcontroller vendors often make tools freely
available to make it easier to adopt their hardware.

Microcontrollers with specialty hardware may require their own non-standard dialects of C,
such as SDCC for the 8051, which prevent using standard tools (such as code libraries or
static analysis tools) even for code unrelated to hardware features. Interpreters may also
contain nonstandard features, such as MicroPython, although a fork, CircuitPython, has
looked to move hardware dependencies to libraries and have the language adhere to a
more CPython standard.

Interpreter firmware is also available for some microcontrollers. For example, BASIC on the
early microcontrollers Intel 8052;[32] BASIC and FORTH on the Zilog Z8[33] as well as some
modern devices. Typically these interpreters support interactive programming.

Simulators are available for some microcontrollers. These allow a developer to analyze what
the behavior of the microcontroller and their program should be if they were using the actual
part. A simulator will show the internal processor state and also that of the outputs, as well as
allowing input signals to be generated. While on the one hand most simulators will be limited
from being unable to simulate much other hardware in a system, they can exercise conditions
that may otherwise be hard to reproduce at will in the physical implementation, and can be
the quickest way to debug and analyze problems.

Recent microcontrollers are often integrated with on-chip debug circuitry that when accessed
by an in-circuit emulator (ICE) via JTAG, allow debugging of the firmware with a debugger.
A real-time ICE may allow viewing and/or manipulating of internal states while running. A
tracing ICE can record executed program and MCU states before/after a trigger point.

Types
As of 2008, there are several dozen microcontroller architectures and vendors including:

 ARM core processors (many vendors)

 o ARM Cortex-M cores are specifically targeted toward microcontroller applications
 Microchip Technology Atmel AVR (8-bit), AVR32 (32-bit), and AT91SAM (32-bit)
 Cypress Semiconductor's M8C core used in their PSoC (Programmable System-on-Chip)
 Freescale ColdFire (32-bit) and S08 (8-bit)
 Freescale 68HC11 (8-bit), and others based on the Motorola 6800 family
 Intel 8051, also manufactured by NXP Semiconductors, Infineon and many others
 Infineon: 8-bit XC800, 16-bit XE166, 32-bit XMC4000 (ARM based Cortex M4F), 32-
bit TriCore and, 32-bit Aurix Tricore Bit microcontrollers[34]
 Maxim Integrated MAX32600, MAX32620, MAX32625, MAX32630, MAX32650,
MAX32640
 MIPS
 Microchip Technology PIC, (8-bit PIC16, PIC18, 16-bit dsPIC33 / PIC24), (32-bit
PIC32)
 NXP Semiconductors LPC1000, LPC2000, LPC3000, LPC4000 (32-bit), LPC900,
LPC700 (8-bit)
 Parallax Propeller
 PowerPC ISE
 Rabbit 2000 (8-bit)
 Renesas Electronics: RL78 16-bit MCU; RX 32-bit MCU; SuperH; V850 32-bit
MCU; H8; R8C 16-bit MCU
 Silicon Laboratories Pipelined 8-bit 8051 microcontrollers and mixed-signal ARM-based
32-bit microcontrollers
 STMicroelectronics STM8 (8-bit), ST10 (16-bit), STM32 (32-bit), SPC5 (automotive 32-
bit)
 Texas Instruments TI MSP430 (16-bit), MSP432 (32-bit), C2000 (32-bit)
 Toshiba TLCS-870 (8-bit/16-bit)

Many others exist, some of which are used in very narrow range of applications or are more
like applications processors than microcontrollers. The microcontroller market is extremely
fragmented, with numerous vendors, technologies, and markets. Note that many vendors sell
or have sold multiple architectures.
Interrupt latency
In contrast to general-purpose computers, microcontrollers used in embedded systems often
seek to optimize interrupt latency over instruction throughput. Issues include both reducing
the latency, and making it be more predictable (to support real-time control).

When an electronic device causes an interrupt, during the context switch the intermediate
results (registers) have to be saved before the software responsible for handling the interrupt
can run. They must also be restored after that interrupt handler is finished. If there are
more processor registers, this saving and restoring process may take more time, increasing
the latency. (If an ISR does not require the use of some registers, it may simply leave them
alone rather than saving and restoring them, so in that case those registers are not involved
with the latency.) Ways to reduce such context/restore latency include having relatively few
registers in their central processing units (undesirable because it slows down most non-
interrupt processing substantially), or at least having the hardware not save them all (this fails
if the software then needs to compensate by saving the rest "manually"). Another technique
involves spending silicon gates on "shadow registers": One or more duplicate registers used
only by the interrupt software, perhaps supporting a dedicated stack.

Other factors affecting interrupt latency include:

 Cycles needed to complete current CPU activities. To minimize those costs,

microcontrollers tend to have short pipelines (often three instructions or less), small write
buffers, and ensure that longer instructions are continuable or restartable. RISC design
principles ensure that most instructions take the same number of cycles, helping avoid the
need for most such continuation/restart logic.
 The length of any critical section that needs to be interrupted. Entry to a critical section
restricts concurrent data structure access. When a data structure must be accessed by an
interrupt handler, the critical section must block that interrupt. Accordingly, interrupt
latency is increased by however long that interrupt is blocked. When there are hard
external constraints on system latency, developers often need tools to measure interrupt
latencies and track down which critical sections cause slowdowns.
o One common technique just blocks all interrupts for the duration of the critical
section. This is easy to implement, but sometimes critical sections get uncomfortably
long.
 o A more complex technique just blocks the interrupts that may trigger access to that
data structure. This is often based on interrupt priorities, which tend to not correspond
well to the relevant system data structures. Accordingly, this technique is used mostly
in very constrained environments.
o Processors may have hardware support for some critical sections. Examples include
supporting atomic access to bits or bytes within a word, or other atomic access
primitives like the LDREX/STREX exclusive access primitives introduced in
the ARMv6 architecture.
 Interrupt nesting. Some microcontrollers allow higher priority interrupts to interrupt
lower priority ones. This allows software to manage latency by giving time-critical
interrupts higher priority (and thus lower and more predictable latency) than less-critical
ones.
 Trigger rate. When interrupts occur back-to-back, microcontrollers may avoid an extra
context save/restore cycle by a form of tail call optimization.

Lower end microcontrollers tend to support fewer interrupt latency controls than higher end
ones.

Memory technology
Two different kinds of memory are commonly used with microcontrollers, a non-volatile
memory for storing firmware and a read-write memory for temporary data.

Data
From the earliest microcontrollers to today, six-transistor SRAM is almost always used as the
read/write working memory, with a few more transistors per bit used in the register
file. FRAM or MRAM could potentially replace it as it is 4 to 10 times denser which would
make it more cost effective.

In addition to the SRAM, some microcontrollers also have internal EEPROM for data
storage; and even ones that do not have any (or not enough) are often connected to external
serial EEPROM chip (such as the BASIC Stamp) or external serial flash memory chip.

A few recent[when?] microcontrollers beginning in 2003 have "self-programmable" flash

memory.[10]
Firmware
The earliest microcontrollers used mask ROM to store firmware. Later microcontrollers (such
as the early versions of the Freescale 68HC11 and early PIC microcontrollers)
had EPROM memory, which used a translucent window to allow erasure via UV light, while
production versions had no such window, being OTP (one-time-programmable). Firmware
updates were equivalent to replacing the microcontroller itself, thus many products were not
upgradeable.

Motorola MC68HC805 [9] was the first microcontroller to use EEPROM to store the
firmware. EEPROM microcontrollers became more popular in 1993 when Microchip
introduced PIC16C84[8] and Atmel introduced an 8051-core microcontroller that was first one
to use NOR Flash memory to store the firmware.[10] Today's microcontrollers almost
exclusively use flash memory, with a few models using FRAM, and some ultra-low-cost
parts still use OTP or Mask-ROM.

Ultrasonic transducer
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Ultrasonic transducers or ultrasonic sensors are a type of acoustic sensor divided into three
broad categories: transmitters, receivers and transceivers. Transmitters convert electrical
signals into ultrasound, receivers convert ultrasound into electrical signals, and transceivers
can both transmit and receive ultrasound.

In a similar way to radar and sonar, ultrasonic transducers are used in systems which evaluate
targets by interpreting the reflected signals. For example, by measuring the time between
sending a signal and receiving an echo the distance of an object can be calculated. Passive
ultrasonic sensors are basically microphones that detect ultrasonic noise that is present under
certain conditions.

The design of transducer can vary greatly depending on its use: those used for diagnostic
purposes, for example the range-finding applications listed above, are generally lower power
than those used for the purpose of changing the properties of the liquid medium, or targets
immersed in the liquid medium, through chemical, biological or physical (e.g. erosive)
effects. The latter class include ultrasonic probes and ultrasonic baths, which apply ultrasonic
energy to agitate particles, clean, erode, or disrupt biological cells, in a wide range of
materials; See Sonication.

A linear array ultrasonic transducer for use in medical ultrasonography

Applications and performance

Ultrasound can be used for measuring wind speed and direction (anemometer), tank or
channel fluid level, and speed through air or water. For measuring speed or direction, a
device uses multiple detectors and calculates the speed from the relative distances to
particulates in the air or water. To measure tank or channel liquid level, and also sea
level (tide gauge), the sensor measures the distance (ranging) to the surface of the fluid.
Further applications include: humidifiers, sonar, medical ultrasonography, burglar
alarms, non-destructive testing and wireless charging.

Systems typically use a transducer which generates sound waves in the ultrasonic range,
above 18 kHz, by turning electrical energy into sound, then upon receiving the echo turn the
sound waves into electrical energy which can be measured and displayed.

This technology, as well, can detect approaching objects and track their positions.

Ultrasound can also be used to make point-to-point distance measurements by transmitting

and receiving discrete bursts of ultrasound between transducers. This technique is known
as Sonomicrometry where the transit-time of the ultrasound signal is measured electronically
(ie digitally) and converted mathematically to the distance between transducers assuming the
speed of sound of the medium between the transducers is known. This method can be very
precise in terms of temporal and spatial resolution because the time-of-flight measurement
can be derived from tracking the same incident (received) waveform either by reference level
or zero crossing. This enables the measurement resolution to far exceed the wavelength of the
sound frequency generated by the transducers.
Transducers

Sound field of a non focusing 4 MHz ultrasonic transducer with a near field length of
N = 67 mm in water. The plot shows the sound pressure at a logarithmic db-scale.

Sound pressure field of the same ultrasonic transducer (4 MHz, N = 67 mm) with the
transducer surface having a spherical curvature with the curvature radius R = 30 mm

Ultrasonic transducers convert AC into ultrasound, as well as the reverse. Ultrasonics,

typically refers to piezoelectric transducers or capacitive transducers. Piezoelectric crystals
change size and shape when a voltage is applied; AC voltage makes them oscillate at the
same frequency and produce ultrasonic sound. Capacitive transducers use electrostatic fields
between a conductive diaphragm and a backing plate.

The beam pattern of a transducer can be determined by the active transducer area and shape,
the ultrasound wavelength, and the sound velocity of the propagation medium. The diagrams
show the sound fields of an unfocused and a focusing ultrasonic transducer in water, plainly
at differing energy levels.

Since piezoelectric materials generate a voltage when force is applied to them, they can also
work as ultrasonic detectors. Some systems use separate transmitters and receivers, while
others combine both functions into a single piezoelectric transceiver.

Ultrasound transmitters can also use non-piezoelectric principles. such as magnetostriction.

Materials with this property change size slightly when exposed to a magnetic field, and make
practical transducers.

A capacitor ("condenser") microphone has a thin diaphragm that responds to ultrasound

waves. Changes in the electric field between the diaphragm and a closely spaced backing
plate convert sound signals to electric currents, which can be amplified.

The diaphragm (or membrane) principle is also used in the relatively new micro-machined
ultrasonic transducers (MUTs). These devices are fabricated using silicon micro-machining
technology (MEMS technology), which is particularly useful for the fabrication of transducer
arrays. The vibration of the diaphragm may be measured or induced electronically using the
capacitance between the diaphragm and a closely spaced backing plate (CMUT), or by
adding a thin layer of piezo-electric material on diaphragm (PMUT). Alternatively, recent
research showed that the vibration of the diaphragm may be measured by a tiny optical ring
resonator integrated inside the diaphragm (OMUS).[1][2]

Use in medicine
Main article: Medical ultrasonography

Medical ultrasonic transducers (probes) come in a variety of different shapes and sizes for use
in making cross-sectional images of various parts of the body. The transducer may be passed
over the surface and in contact with the body, or inserted into a body opening such as
the rectum or vagina. Clinicians who perform ultrasound-guided procedures often use a probe
positioning system to hold the ultrasonic transducer.

Air detection sensors are used in various roles. [further explanation needed] Non-invasive air detection is
for the most critical situations where the safety of a patient is mandatory. Many of the
variables, which can affect performance of amplitude or continuous-wave-based sensing
systems, are eliminated or greatly reduced, thus yielding accurate and repeatable detection.

One key principle of in this technology is that the transmit signal consists of short bursts of
ultrasonic energy. After each burst, the electronics looks for a return signal within a small
window of time corresponding to the time it takes for the energy to pass through the vessel.
Only signals received during this period will qualify for additional signal processing. This
principle is similar to radar range gating

Use in industry
Ultrasonic sensors can detect movement of targets and measure the distance to them in
many automated factories and process plants. Sensors can have an on or off digital output for
detecting the movement of objects, or an analog output proportional to distance. They can
sense the edge of material as part of a web guiding system.

Ultrasonic sensors are widely used in cars as parking sensors to aid the driver in reversing
into parking spaces. They are being tested for a number of other automotive uses including
ultrasonic people detection and assisting in autonomous UAV navigation.[citation needed]

Because ultrasonic sensors use sound rather than light for detection, they work in applications
where photoelectric sensors may not. Ultrasonics are a great solution for clear object
detection and for liquid level measurement, applications that photoelectrics struggle with
because of target translucence. As well, target color or reflectivity do not affect ultrasonic
sensors, which can operate reliably in high-glare environments.

Passive ultrasonic sensors may be used to detect high-pressure gas or liquid leaks, or other
hazardous conditions that generate ultrasonic sound. In these devices, audio from the
transducer (microphone) is converted down to human hearing range.

High-power ultrasonic emitters are used in commercially available ultrasonic

cleaning devices. An ultrasonic transducer is affixed to a stainless steel pan which is filled
with a solvent (frequently water or isopropanol). An electrical square wave feeds the
transducer, creating sound in the solvent strong enough to cause cavitation.

Ultrasonic technology has been used for multiple cleaning purposes. One of which that is
gaining a decent amount of traction in the past decade is ultrasonic gun cleaning.

Ultrasonic testing is also widely used in metallurgy and engineering to evaluate corrosion,
welds, and material defects using different types of scans.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

WORKING PRINCIPLE
 The ultrasonic sensor will send the signals to the table. If we put the material

to the height of the distance will be measured. With it we can measure the

dimension of the material we have placed.

CONCLUSION
The concept of automated part transfer line fabricated as an experimental setup can be
extended to an industrial application with further modification in the manufacturing and
assembly process to achieve quality in the machine as per the test charts provided by leading
machine tool manufacturer. On a whole, it is concluded that the automation is an inevitable
process though the rate at which it should be introduced will have to be carefully planned in order
to bring social justice and to accrue economic benefits.

ADVANTAGES

 The Inspection Conveyor is more efficient in the technical field

 Quick response is achieved
 Simple in construction
 Easy to maintain and repair
 Cost of the unit is less when compared to other
 No fire hazard problem due to over loading
 Comparatively the operation cost is less
 Continuous operation is possible without stopping

LIMITATIONS
  While working, the compressed air (For Punching Operation) produces
noise therefore a silencer may be used.

APPLICATIONS

 Discharge of work piece:-

The Conveyor Feed has a wide application in low cost automation industries. It
can be used in automated assembly lines to carry up the finished product from
workstation and place them in bins. It can also be used to pick raw material and place
them on the conveyor belts.

 Improper Material Removing operation:-

This unit can also be used in improper material collected in a collecting

box. The solenoid operated pneumatic cylinder is used for this mechanism.