Unit 4

Plate Movements
Table of Contents

Table of Contents 1

Introduction 3

Essential Questions 4

Review 4

Lesson 4.1: Tectonic Plates 5

Objectives 5
Warm-Up 5
Learn about It 6
Key Points 11
Web Links 11
Check Your Understanding 12
Challenge Yourself 13

Lesson 4.2: Causes of Plate Movements 14

Objectives 14
Warm-Up 14
Learn about It 15
Key Points 22
Web Links 23
Check Your Understanding 23
Challenge Yourself 24

Lesson 4.3: Evidence That Supports Plate Movement 25

Objectives 25
Warm-Up 25
Learn about It 26
Key Points 31
Web Links 31
Check Your Understanding 32
Challenge Yourself 33

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Lesson 4.4: Applications in Technology 34
Objectives 34
Warm-Up 34
Learn about It 35
Key Points 38
Web Links 38
Check Your Understanding 39
Challenge Yourself 40

Laboratory Activity 41

Performance Task 45

Self Check 46

Key Words 47

Wrap Up 48

References 48

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SCIENCE | GRADE 10

Unit 4
Plate Movements

If we remove water from the surface of Earth, what we will observe are vast land
masses. We can observe large cracks that divide the land masses into multiple
plates with various shapes and sizes. The interaction between these plates caused
significant changes on the landforms present in Earth surface.

Several questions about Earth’s processes can be addressed by theories that are
based on concrete observations and experimentation. The plate tectonics theory
illuminates the forces at work underneath and on the crust, as well as the scale at
which these forces operate. It is important to have a firm grasp of plate tectonics
because it is the fundamental principle of Earth’s geology, geologic history, and
processes.

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 Essential Questions

At the end of this unit, you should be able to answer the following questions.

● What are tectonic plates?

● How do tectonic plates move?
● What are the theories associated with plate movements?
● What is the evidence that supports plate movement?
● What are the technological applications of plate movements?

Review

● The crust is Earth’s outermost layer with a thickness ranging from 5 to

80 km and a density much lighter than those of its underlying layers.
● The mantle is Earth’s second most outer layer with a thickness of about
~2900 km and is divided into an upper and lower layer.
● Convergent margin is the boundary between two plates that are moving
toward each other resulting in the destruction or amalgamation of crustal
material.
● Divergent margin is the boundary between two plates that are moving
away from each other resulting in the creation of crustal material.
● Orogenic belts are curved or straight sections in the crust that have
undergone regional compressional stress.

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 Lesson 4.1: Tectonic Plates

Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to:
● define what are tectonic plates;
● describe plate movements; and
● discuss theories on plate movements.

We live on a solid surface of Earth that is constantly changing. Most of the time we
can experience movements on Earth’s lithosphere caused by earthquakes or
volcanic eruptions. These movements can possibly have a direct effect on humans
and other living organisms. Have you ever wondered how it is possible for a
massive solid land mass to move that results to earthquake or volcanic
eruption?

Warm-Up

Continental Jigsaw Puzzle

Materials:
● scissors
● printed handout of the Continental Jigsaw Puzzle

Procedure:
1. Print the document below.

● Continental Jigsaw Puzzle

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1qV7xbddOqmYMSwWe-VM183IkN8WgxTc
o/view?usp=sharing

5
 2. Cut through the borders to make the puzzle pieces. Make 2 to 3 sets for the
class.
3. Divide the class into 2 to 3 groups. Each group will have one set of the
puzzle
4. For five minutes, each group will try to fit the puzzle pieces together.

Guide Questions:
1. Do the puzzle pieces fit together to form one image?
2. What can particular puzzle pieces you easily put together?
3. What do the puzzle pieces look like?

Learn about It

Tectonic plate refers to blocks that are primarily sturdy, with margins that trace
earthquake zones lying along the network of ridges and trenches (Fig. 1). The
plates have varying sizes, from hundreds to thousands of kilometers. Two of the
largest plates are the Pacific and the Antarctic plates.

Fig. 1. Map showing the earthquake zones and volcanoes.

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The subdivided plates of the lithosphere is an essential component of Earth. Each
plate moves in different velocities. Plate tectonics is the generated difference in
velocities between plates. Their affinity with the underlying mantle controls the
diverging and converging of plates. Activities on Earth’s mantle trigger plate
movements that eventually put pressure on the surface that may cause crustal
deformation which is mainly manifested physically on rocks.

Models for Plate Movements

There are two kinds of models of deformation that have been employed to
understand geological structures. These are kinematics and dynamics. Among
them, kinematics is incorporated into the plate tectonics theory.

Kinematics involves movement and is the much-preferred means to analyze

crustal movements. In this model, geologic structures are examined and compared
to the movements of blocks of Earth’s surface, ignoring underlying forces. The
common qualities of the structures are consequently identified and used to group
them into tectonic regimes.

Dynamics, on the other hand, involves forces and processes resulting in material
movement throughout Earth and is used to study rocks at depth.

Theories on Plate Movement

The theory that successfully reconciles geologic facts, that at first glance appear
unconnected, is the plate tectonics theory. Formed in the late 1960s and early
1970s, it came about from the combination of two theories that preceded it,
continental drift and seafloor spreading. Both of the latter theories portray
Earth’s crust as being somehow mobile, with continents and oceanic crust shifting
places across the planet’s surface.

Continental Drift Theory

Continental drift, the theory from which
plate tectonics developed, was widely
advocated by Alfred Wegener in 1915. It
argues close kinship among sets of
continents, as well as their geological
characteristics. Wegener however, had to
redefine the ‘continents’ to include the
actual land areas, as well as their
corresponding continental shelves and

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continental slopes, to be able to piece the continents together better. The theory
first postulates that a gigantic landmass, Pangaea, began to break up into smaller
components about 200 million years ago. It consisted of two supercontinents,
Gondwana (Fig. 2) and Laurasia, which were made up of current South America,
Africa, India, Australia, and Antarctica, and North America and Europe respectively.
They were sutured along the north-western boundary of Africa and mostly
separated by the Tethys Ocean, home to abundant fauna.

Wegener further proposed that the ensuing continents moved to their current
localities. Though he had evidence to support his idea, he failed to provide an
explanation for the continents’ movement which led others to initially reject his
ideas.

Seafloor Spreading Theory

In 1962, Harry Hess
pioneered the concept of
seafloor spreading. He
envisioned that drifting along
an oceanic ridge results from
the activity of two opposing
convection cells rising from
underneath Earth’s surface,
similar to a conveyor belt. As
these cells ascend, they
create tension in the ridge,
generating earthquakes
under it and spewing hot
water and new crust in their
axis. Consequently, with
time, oceanic floors widen as
existing oceanic crust are
pushed away from the axes.
It is this same process that is
at work in the Red Sea and
the Gulf of Aden. These
basins, as well as the East
African Rift Valley, form a
triple junction, a specific
point where three plate

8
boundaries converge (Fig. 3).

Since the East African Rift Valley is the arm of the triple junction that failed to
produce an ocean basin, it is referred to as an aulacogen. This divergence and
rifting accounts for the first few stages of plate tectonics: when continents split and
begin to drift unto other points.

Though continental drift and seafloor spreading have already explained much
about crustal movement, the plate tectonics model was further refined after it
was observed that there was little to no distortion among the patterns of faults
and magnetism in the rocks on the seafloor. It was then proposed that the whole
crust must be partly flexible, having characteristics akin to plastic, such that each
plate (oceanic or continental) can travel as a distinct block and that movement
between plates are constrained along their margins.

Birth of the Plate Tectonics Theory

The advances in instruments, as well as the ocean exploration, led the way to a
more comprehensive explanation of the movement of continents and ocean floor,
which is now known as the theory of plate tectonics was conceived. According to
plate tectonics theory, the lithosphere (includes the uppermost mantle and the
overlying crust) behaves as a strong, rigid layer which is broken into segments
known as plates. The lithosphere is thinnest in the ocean which varies from a few
kilometers and may reach up to 100 kilometers. On the other hand, the
lithosphere found in continents is generally thicker than 100 kilometers and may
even reach up to 200-300 kilometers in depth. The lithosphere is broken into
several irregularly-shaped segments called lithospheric plates or tectonic plates
that are in constant motion with respect to each other.

Although there are about two dozen lithospheric plates, there are only seven
major plates which include North America, South American, Pacific, African,
Eurasian, Australian-Indian, and Antarctic plates. There are also
intermediate-sized plates which include the Caribbean, Nazca, Philippine, Arabian,
Cocos, Scotia, and Juan de Fuca plates. It is important to note that these plates also
includes the ocean floor and is not only limited to continental boundaries.

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 Fig. 4. Lithospheric Continental Plates

Although the evidence for the continental drift hypothesis is compelling, it still
takes 50 years for this idea to be recognized and supported by other scientists. As
mentioned before, Wegener’s hypothesis was opposed due to the presence of
scientifically incorrect concepts. The proposal of a new scientific model about
Earth, which is the theory of plate tectonics, provided a more detailed explanation
of numerous geological events and the creation of geological formations. The
following paragraphs describe the pieces of evidence supporting plate tectonics
theory.

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 Key Points

● Tectonic plates refers to blocks that are primarily sturdy, with margins that
trace earthquake zones lying along the network of ridges and trenches.
● Kinematics involves movement and is the much-preferred means to
analyze crustal movements. On the other hand, dynamics involves forces
and processes resulting in material movement throughout Earth and is used
to study rocks at depth.
● Continental drift and seafloor spreading are theories that portray
Earth’s crust as being somehow mobile, with continents and oceanic crusts
shifting places across the planet’s surface.
● Plate tectonics theory states that the lithosphere (includes the
uppermost mantle and the overlying crust) behaves as a strong, rigid layer
which is broken into segments known as plates.

Web Links

For further information, you can check the following web links:
● Read about the life story of Alfred Wegener the man behind the
idea that continents move.
Famous Scientists. 2015. ‘Alfred Wegener.’
https://www.famousscientists.org/alfred-wegener/

● How do Early Earth and Plate Tectonics look like?

Fruediger, Michael. 2007. ‘The Early Earth and Plate Tectonics.’
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QDqskltCixA

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 Check Your Understanding

A. Match the given term on set A to the definitions in set B.

Set A Set B
1. Alfred Wegener a. converging zone of three plate
2. Pangaea boundaries
3. Gondwana b. involves forces and processes
4. Harry Hess within crustal movements
5. Dynamics c. continental drift theory
6. Tectonic Plate d. seafloor spreading theory
7. Aulacogen e. ignores underlying forces
8. Triple Junction within crustal movements
9. Kinematics f. South America, Africa, India
10. Laurasia g. a solid rock composed of both
the continental and oceanic
lithosphere
h. North America, Europe
i. failed triple junction arm
j. gigantic landmass

B. Modified True or False. Write true if the statement is correct. If false, underline
the text that makes the statement incorrect and write the correct word or
group of words on top of it.
1. Dynamics involves forces and processes and their relation to the
movement of tectonic plates.
2. Pangaea was a gigantic landmass which consisted of four supercontinents.
3. Continental drift theory was set forth by a geophysicist named Harry Hess.
4. The triple junction is the point where three plate boundaries converge.
5. The arm of the triple junction that failed to produce an ocean basin is
called the aucolagen.
6. Harry Hess envisioned that drifting along an oceanic ridge results from the
activity of two opposing convection cells riding from underneath Earth’s
surface.
7. The supercontinents Gondwana and Laurasia were part of Pangaea.
8. Laurasia was made up of the continents of South America, Africa, India,
Australia, Antarctica.

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 9. Kinematics is not concerned with the underlying forces within the crustal
movements.
10. The plate tectonics theory came about from the combination of the
continental drift theory and the sea floor spreading theory.

Challenge Yourself

Briefly answer the given questions.

1. Having a piece of knowledge in the movement of continents, what do you
think would the continents will look like millions of years from now?
2. How active seafloor spreading cause movements of tectonic plate?.
3. Using your knowledge on plate tectonic theory, how do the Himalayan
mountains were formed?
4. How does the Philippine archipelago was formed due to plate movements?
5. What plates surround the Philippines? Describe its movements.

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 Lesson 4.2: Causes of Plate Movements

Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to:
● identify the causes of plate movements; and
● discuss the mechanism on how tectonic plates move.

It was postulated that continents today were once part of a supercontinent called
Pangea. The continent splits creating oceans that we have today. One evidence is
the land configuration on South America that fits that of Africa. Considering the
distance on how these continents are far away from each other, it is hard to
imagine an image of how the continents have moved. Have you ever wondered
what makes the continents move?

Warm-Up

Heat and Steam

Materials:
● beaker or glass/metal container
● 5mL of warm water
● burner/alcohol lamp
● wire gauze
● tripod
● a strip of paper

Procedure:
1. Put the warm water in the beaker and heat it up with burner or candle.
2. Wait until the water reaches the boiling point. Observe.
3. Put a stip of paper directly above the mouth of the beaker about 3 to 4
inches away.

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Guide Questions:
1. What did you observe as the water boils?
2. What happened to the strip of paper when put above the beaker?
3. How will you describe the movement of the hot air coming from the boiling
water?
4. Based on your observations, how do you think the experimental model
similar to the actual causes of the plate movement?

Learn about It

During the early times, the prior knowledge of most geologists is that continents
and ocean basins are in a fixed position. However, less than a decade after the
1960s, this idea was changed due to technological advances that proved that
Earth’s continents are gradually moving resulting to the collision of continental
blocks, splitting apart of landmasses, and continuous creation and destruction of
oceanic basins.

Factors Affecting Plate Movements

Solid-State Flow Model

In the 1930s, Arthur
Holmes heavily
advocated the
solid-state flow model
for continental
movement from which
the current models for
mantle circulation
arose. Solid-state flow
can be compared to
how water circulates in
a kettle (Fig. 5).

Water boils due to the

heat produced from the
stove.

15
As the liquid evaporates, it expands, becomes less dense, and ascends to the top
of the kettle, where it is cooler. The vapor, upon cooling, condenses into liquid,
becomes denser and falls down to the bottom of the kettle.

Earth can then be thought of as a heat engine, with convection cells in the mantle
circulating heat. Radioactivity causes magma to rise where it expands to produce
the plates above Earth’s surface. The older, denser plates descend, replacing the
hotter material below. However, because convection in Earth is through solid-state
flow, the rate at which it occurs is much slower than that of water in the kettle.
Though gravity and seismic data showed evidence that solid-state flow was indeed
possible, several problems were identified, particularly the specific geometry of
the convection currents, the lateral movement of ridges and subduction zones
with time, and the asthenosphere limitations to drive the stronger lithosphere.
Since it can be observed that energy (as heat) is released in the ridges and collects
in the subduction zones, it is also in these areas, which are in the lithosphere, that
the most gravitation imbalance occurs. It is therefore in these areas where the
effects of gravitation to drive plate movement are most felt. These forces are
referred to as ridge-push and slab-pull (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. The ridge-push and slab-pull mechanisms.

The ridge-push is a force that causes hotter, less dense material to force itself up
through a ridge. The additional weight emplaced is offset by the lower density of
that specific portion of the lithosphere, since at 50 km depth, the total weight of
the lithosphere is equal all throughout. Because gravity causes arcs to return loads
back to the ocean floor, topographic highs are effectively forced to cause the
sideward movement of material. (Fig. 7).

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 Fig. 7. Sideward movement of material as a result of the effect of gravity upon
topographic highs.

The slab-pull force is the pulling of oceanic lithosphere downward at subduction

zones. It is due to the gravitational difference between the denser plate with its
attached mantle, as well as with the lighter, overlying plate. These gravity-driven
mechanisms are now the widely accepted means that drive plate movement. A
smaller, opposing force acts upon the overlying plate against the slab-pull force of
the subducting plate. Mantle drag (Fig. 8) moves material underneath the plates
sideward, but its effect is so small that it is considered negligible.

Fig. 8. Mantle drag occurs at hot spots and ridges.

All these forces are counteracted by the frictional forces (i.e. along transform
faults), but their effects are insignificant. Though much of the factors influencing
plate movement are found in the plates’ boundaries, they do not provide a
complete explanation because deformation also occurs within plates.

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 Fig. 9. A map of the Hawaiian Chain and their corresponding ages.

Hot Spots
These are areas with an abnormally high volcanic activity that have remained
stationary for a very long time. Since it does not move along with the plates, a
chain of volcanoes forms over these areas. These volcanoes are active so long as
the hot spots are under them, otherwise, volcanic activity ceases. The farther these
volcanoes are from the hot spot, the older they are. An example of such volcanoes
is the Hawaiian Island chain (Fig. 9). The hot spot that created them is currently
under Lo’ihi. About 43 million years ago, the plate on which they lie changed
direction causing a defined bend of the chain.

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 Fig. 10. Hot spots, constructive and destructive plate boundaries, and outline of
continents drawn on the world map. Notice the hot spot of the Afar Triangle lying
on a constructive ridge.

Not all hotspots are located within plate

interiors; there are those that lie along the
ridges (Fig. 10 and 11), such as the Afar
Triangle, which is also the name given for its
triple junction.

Volcanic activity in hot spots lying under ridges

is varied; it can either be more or less
vigorous. Hot spots are the surface
representation of mantle plumes (Fig.).
Mantle plumes are rising columns of hot
rocks from the lower mantle and cause
melting as they reach the surface, hence
another mechanism for plate motion. It is
even possible that these hot spots are the
prime producers of plate material. Because of
the complicated relationship between
hotspots, convection currents, and plate

19
movements, a model accurately describing plate movement has yet to be
produced.

Fig. 12. A rising plume underneath the triple junction.

Mechanism of Plate Motion

There are different forces which drive the motion of tectonic plates. Remember in
the past units that although the mantle is composed of solid rock, it is actually hot,
ductile, and weak making it capable of fluid-like behavior making it possible to
facilitate convection. Mantle convection is driven by a combination of three
thermal processes: (1) heating at the bottom caused by the heat loss from Earth’s
core; (2) heating due to radioactive decay and; (3) cooling on the surface creating
thick, cold lithospheric slabs denser than the mantle. There are two models of
plate-mantle convection proposed to explain the mechanism of plate motion.

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Some researchers proposed that the mantle is divided into two zones of
convection which is a thin layer in the upper mantle at a depth of 660 kilometers
and a thick layer located below. This model is known as the “layer cake” model.

Fig. 13. “Layer cake” convection model

Other researchers support the whole mantle convection where denser oceanic
lithosphere sinks and may even reach the core-mantle boundary. This material
eventually melts and rises toward the surface of Earth.

Fig. 14. Whole mantle convection model

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Aside from this heat-driven in the movement of plates, some geologists also
believe that there are also gravity-driven mechanisms referred to as “slab-pull”
and “ridge-push” (shown in Fig. 15). It is important to note that these mechanisms
go hand in hand and even if it is governed by gravity, it still depends on the
temperature differences of Earth’s interior. Ridge push is the force that causes
warm and less dense material to force itself up through a ridge. On the other
hand, slab-pull is a pulling force which causes the oceanic plates to move
downward at subduction zones due to the difference in density as well as the
effect of gravity. These models are still being developed and may still be improved
to further explain the mechanism but the concept which states that the
plate-mantle motion is caused by a type of thermal convection caused by the
unequal distribution of heat within Earth is a generally accepted fact.

Fig. 15. Slab-pull and ridge-push mechanisms

Key Points

● Solid-state flow model explains the convection cells in the mantle

circulating heat cause plate motion. Radioactivity causes magma to rise
where it expands to produce the plates above Earth’s surface. The older,
denser plates descend, replacing the hotter material below.

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 ● Hotspots are areas with an abnormally high volcanic activity that have
remained stationary for a very long time and contribute on plate motion.
● Mantle plumes are rising columns of hot rocks from the lower mantle
and cause melting as they reach the surface, hence another mechanism
for plate motion.
● Mantle convection is the rising of warm material and sinking of cold
material in the mantle. There are two models of the mantle known as layer
cake model and whole mantle convection
● The gravity-driven mechanism includes slab pull and ridge push. Slab pull
is the force which causes the oceanic plates to move downward at
subduction zones. Meanwhile, ridge push is the force that causes warm and
less dense material to force itself up through a ridge.

Web Links

For further information, you can check the following web links:
● Discover the hottest place in the surface of the planet situated
in the Afar Triangle.
Super Interesting Documentaries. 2017. Danakil Desert: ‘The Hottest Place On Earth
(HD).’
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=meex6Y4xdos

● Take a look at Hawaii’s hotspot

Storm. 2010. ‘Hawaii’s Hotspot.’
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bYv6V5EJAKc

Check Your Understanding

A. Write true if the statement is correct, and false if it is incorrect.

1. Hot spots are the surface representation of mantle plumes.
2. Hot spots are only located within plate interiors.
3. In solid-state flow, the energy is released in the continental rifts.
4. Distribution of the hot spots is limited along the ridges.

23
 5. Most of the gravitation imbalance occurs within the ridges and subduction
zones.
6. The slab-pull force pulls the oceanic lithosphere downward to the
subduction zones.
7. The ridge-push force moves material underneath the plates sideward.
8. Hot spots move along the plates.
9. Mantle plumes are rising columns of hot rocks from the lower mantle.
10. Solid-state flow can be compared to how water circulates in a kettle.

B. Identify the following term being referred to the definitions below.

1. A force that causes hotter, less dense material to force itself up through a
ridge.
2. Areas with an abnormally high volcanic activity that have remained
stationary for a very long time.
3. It moves material underneath the plates sideward.
4. The force that causes the pulling of oceanic lithosphere downward at
subduction zones.
5. The rising of hot rocks from the lower mantle.
6. The hot spot that is caused by Afar Triple Junction.
7. He advocated the solid-state flow model for the continental movement.
8. It causes the magma to rise during the solid-state flow.
9. These are areas where most of the gravitation imbalance occur.

Challenge Yourself

Briefly answer the following questions.

1. Why most volcanoes in Hawaii are highly active?
2. Using illustrations, differentiate Ridge-push and slab-pull.
3. How do mantle plumes act as a mechanism for plate movement?
4. How would you illustrate the movement of the continental plate?
5. What are the 5 hot spot areas and their coordinates in Pacific plates?

24
 Lesson 4.3: Evidence That Supports Plate
Movement

Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to:
● describe the continental fitting and how it supports the tectonic
theory;
● discuss how fossils and glacier deposits can prove plate
movements; and
● explain how paleomagnetic data are used to prove plate
movement.

Palawan island is one of the Philippines’ best assets. It houses diverse natural
resources that are incomparable to other islands of the country. This mark a
distinguishable difference of the islands in the archipelago. Based on studies,
Palawan island in terms of natural composition is the same with Borneo than the
other islands of the Philippines. Have you ever wondered how two land masses
separated by vast bodies of water have the same natural composition?

Warm-Up

Reconstructing Pangea
Materials:
● printout of the Pangea puzzle
● scissors
● clear tape

Procedure:
1. Print the document below.

● Pangaea Puzzle
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1ZrnvwWNDEEJXek5vvOmjs0lBPKJlO4pQ/vi
ew?usp=sharing

25
 2. Cut through the borders and broken lines to make puzzle pieces. Make 2 to
3 sets of puzzle per class.
3. Divide the class into 2 to 3 groups.
4. Each group will solve the Pangea puzzle in 5 minutes.

Guide Questions:
1. Did continents fit together?
2. What do the continents have in common?
3. How will you interpret the image formed in the puzzle?
4. Do you think it is possible to find common things in Africa and South
America?

Learn about It

There are various proofs that support plate movement. These include the fitting of
current continents, locations of fossils, reconstructions of past continents, as well
as glacial, and paleomagnetic data.

Fig. 16. The supercontinent Pangaea separated by the Tethys Ocean, and the
latitudinal differences marked by varying past climates.

26
Continental Fit
Even before Wegener’s hypothesis, several people have already noticed that some
continents remarkably fit especially Africa and South America. Wegener noticed
this pattern on the coastlines of opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean. His claim was
challenged by other scientists because he used the present-day coastlines which
are regularly changed by erosional and depositional processes. Scientists later
determined that the use of the seaward edge of the continental shelf as a
continent’s boundary are the better way to estimate the fit between continents.

Glacial Deposits and Fossil Records

The first of Wegener’s pieces of evidence for his continental drift theory is the
rocks dating 200 million years ago in several continents showing the past
climates in different areas during that time, as summarized by Valentine and
Moore. While glacial deposits indicate a large ice sheet encompassing broad
areas of today’s southern continents, evaporites and sandstones marked an
ancient desert, and carbonate and coal deposits delineated equatorial regions
(Fig. 16). Examples of these include coals (which are produced by tropical forests)
and glacial deposits found at the North Pole and the equator respectively.

Fig. 17. The fossils of the Gondwana rock succession and the continents in which
they were found.

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Related to these coals is the fossil assemblage dubbed as the Glossopteris flora,
which is a seed fern that is characterized by its leaves. This assemblage is scattered
among five continents, particularly constituting the Gondwana rock succession,
yet in all of them, it is uniform. In accordance with its namesake, the Gondwana
rock succession is seen exclusively in the Gondwana continents. It is composed of
the Glossopteris flora, preserved vertebrates, glacial deposits, and terrestrial
sediments with coal. Intrusions of kimberlites and a layer of basalt capping the
deposit were also observed (Fig. 17).

Of the vertebrates in succession, of

interest were the remains of
Mesosaurus, Lystrosaurus, and
Cynognathus. The Mesosaurus is a
prehistoric, carnivorous reptile that
lived in fresh and brackish waters
and was dug up in South Africa and
Brazil. It is assumed that it could not
have swum across the present
Atlantic. The Lystrosaurus, a
herbivorous reptile that lived in
fresh waters, was found in Africa,
India, and Antarctica. The
Cynognathus, a small reptile that is
considered a link between reptiles
and mammals, was unearthed in
Africa and South America.

The plotting of fossil assemblages

of the same kind of land animals
and plants in several localities
shows that they indeed must have
lived in a supercontinent since
these animals could not have
traversed a large ocean. Moreover, current assemblages among the continents
possess key differences, indicating that the fossilized organisms had to have
crossed the continents via land bridges to be homogeneous.

28
Paleomagnetic Data
The land formations and geology of the continents, particularly the arrangement of
orogenic belts and geologic structures, were the same. A few examples include
those of the Appalachian Mountains and Caledonian Mountains and the Rift
Valleys of East Africa. It is no surprise that the continents’ margins fit like a jigsaw
puzzle, such as that of Africa and South America (Fig. 18).

This, however, could not have been sufficiently proven at Wegener’s time, which is
why his ideas were frowned upon until Arthur Holmes’ discovery in 1931 about
Earth’s radioactivity and its convection currents. His work provided a method by
which continents could move across Earth’s surface. There was still much dispute
among the scientific community until advances in paleomagnetism in the 1960s
from research done during the International Geophysical Year (1957-1958)
showed evidence supporting these claims. Through geophysical techniques, the
seafloor was mapped, providing rock and sediment patterns and magnetic data.
Central to the analysis of the magnetic data is appreciating how Earth’s magnetic
field functions much similar to a bar magnet, where the planet’s magnetic poles
correspond to the poles of a magnet (Fig. 19).

Fig. 19. Illustration of Earth functioning like a bar magnet

29
When lava on Earth’s surface cools under the Curie point (a specific temperature
at which materials change or lose their magnetism), the crystallizing magnetite is
imprinted with a magnetic signature identical to Earth’s magnetic field at that point
in time. This orientation is preserved as the lava fully crystallizes into a rock. The
alignment of these forming crystals, as well as residue magnetite incorporated as
sedimentary rock, documents the orientation of the planet’s magnetic field. It is
important to note however that Earth’s magnetic field is not static, rather, it
frequently switches polarities. These changes are referred to as magnetic
reversals. Magnetic activity is evident in a mid-oceanic ridge near Iceland (Fig. 20),
where the magnetic stripes are symmetrical to the ridge axis. The sections with
color symbolize magnetic reversals, while those between them depict normal
magnetic polarity.

Fig. 20 The magnetic signatures in the seafloor near Iceland.

When rocks dating to 200 million years ago from several continents were analyzed,
their magnetic north was found to be discordant (or have undergone apparent
polar wandering). However, when they were compared to the continents’
supposed original arrangement, the magnetic poles of the rocks matched. This
allowed rocks to record different paleomagnetic orientations from the different
locations of their plates through time.

30
 Key Points

● Glacial deposits indicate a large ice sheet encompassing broad areas of

today’s southern continents, evaporites and sandstones marked an
ancient desert, and carbonate and coal deposits delineated equatorial
regions
● Current fossil assemblages among the continents possess key differences,
indicating that the fossilized organisms had to have crossed the continents
via land bridges to be homogeneous.
● Curie point is a specific temperature at which materials change or lose
their magnetism
● Earth’s magnetic field is not static, rather, it frequently switches polarities.
These changes are referred to as magnetic reversals.

Web Links

For further information, you can check the following web links:

● Read more about the magnetic pole reversals.

Dunbar, Brian. 2017. ‘Magnetic Pole Reversal Happens all (Geologic) the time.’
https://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/2012-poleReversal.html

● Earth’s magnetic field is shifting and weakening

Dip, Sarah 2011. ‘Will the Earth’s Magnetic Fields Shift, NOVA Magnetic Pole Flip
530,000 Years Overdue.’
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4XNMCTBdQtk

31
 Check Your Understanding

A. Identify the term being referred below.

1. A seed fern fossil assemblage characterized by its leaves.
2. A specific temperature at which materials change or lose their magnetism.
3. He discovers Earth’s radioactivity and its convection currents.
4. It refers to the changes of the polarities of Earth’s magnetic fields.
5. A small reptile that is considered a link between reptiles and mammals.

B. Match the given terms on set A to its corresponding definition in set B.

Set A Set B
1. Earth’s Radioactivity a. Lystrosaurus
2. Herbivorous reptile found b. Gondwana rock succession
Africa, India, and the Antarctic c. Glossopteris flora
3. Glossopteris flora, preserved d. Arthur Holmes
vertebrates, glacial deposits e. Mesosaurus
4. A seed fern fossil assemblage
5. Prehistoric, carnivorous reptile
dug up in South Africa and
Brazil

C. Write true if the statement is correct. Otherwise, write false.

1. Earth’s magnetic field is static.
2. Wegener provided a method by which continents could move across
Earth’s surface.
3. Magnetic materials cannot change or lose their magnetism.
4. Gondwana rock succession is seen exclusively in the Gondwana
continents.
5. Glossopteris flora is scattered in all five continents of Gondwana.
6. There are four kinds of vertebrates found in the Gondwana rock
succession.
7. Mesosaurus was found in Africa and South America.
8. Prehistoric animals were able to traverse in large oceans.
9. Lystrosaurus is a herbivorous reptile that lived fresh waters.
10. Cynognathus is considered a link between reptiles and mammals.

32
 Challenge Yourself

Briefly answer the given questions below.

1. Explain how rocks can become evidence of continental drift
2. What is the importance of discovering coal?
3. How would you describe the vertebrates discovered in the rock succession?
4. What are the examples of continents with the same land formation and
geology? Provide evidence to support your answer.
5. How would you illustrate Earth functions as a bar magnet?

33
 Lesson 4.4: Applications in Technology

Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to:
● discuss applications of studying plate movements.

Metro Manila is preparing for a major earthquake that is about to happen soon.
Government agencies made people aware of the movement of major faults in the
Philippines. One of which is the West Valley fault that is set to move anytime soon.
Though the earthquake cannot be stopped, the effect can be lessened if the
people are prepared. Have you ever wondered how they could tell which
major fault is about to move?

Warm-Up

Picture Effect

Materials:
● 3 to 4 sets of
pictures of
landforms around
the world

Procedure:
1. The teacher will prepare 3 to 4 sets of pictures of landforms around the
world such as Mayon Volcano, San Andreas fault, and Iceland tectonic
plates. Each set will have 5 pictures. Examples are shown above.
2. The class will be divided into 3 to 4 groups.
3. Each group will have a set of pictures of different landforms.
4. Based on their knowledge on plate tectonics, students will write the first

34
 word that comes to their mind upon seeing the pictures.
5. The group will be given 30 seconds to write the words on a sheet of paper.
After that, the group will exchange sets of pictures.
6. Each group will shortly explain their answers to the whole class.

Guide Questions:
1. What are the common characteristics of the landforms in the pictures?
2. How the movements of these landforms affect the areas surrounding it?
3. Is there a way of measuring the movements or activities of these landforms?

Learn about It

Plate tectonics has many implications in the world today, from the rate of plate
movements, the geologic history of localities, mineral exploration, hazard
predictions, and urban planning.

Geologic History and Mineral Explorations

The rates of continental advancement and seafloor spreading are determined by
measuring the widths of the magnetic stripe on the seafloor. In fact, the locations
of the continents prior to Pangaea’s breakup were also accurately pinpointed
through this method. Broader stripes indicate a longer period while thinner
stripes, over a shorter period. The diversity of magnetic signatures all over the
world produces variation among the rates at which plates travel. This general
trend can be observed: oceanic plates travel faster (about 6-9 cm per year) than
continental plates (maximum: 2 cm per year). It is important to note however that
movement in the plates are irregular and intermittent. On some brief occasions,
the plates move rapidly, but most of the time they move very sluggishly for
extended periods of time, at such low speeds that they seem to be completely
inert. This slow movement is referred to as creep.

Plate tectonics elucidates the geologic history of localities by providing an

explanation for the regional settings and processes of an area, painting a more
vivid picture of the geologic record. For example, past climate, land formations,
and other living conditions for the ancient plants and animals are better
reconstructed, facilitating the analysis of an area’s fossils and geology during a

35
specific time. As a consequence of these better depictions of geologic history and
maps, mineral explorers can more easily trace and quantify deposits.

Tectonic processes cause

surface modifications that
are being recorded with
time which can be used to
make three or
four-dimensional geologic
models. A geologic map is
an essential material in
mineral exploration (see
Fig. 21). It provides various
information that is
important in locating for
new mineral deposits. It
makes use of the
morphology of rocks bodies
as well as age relationships
between rock units.
Mapping collects structural
information, including the
orientation of crystallizing
minerals within rocks that
can be used to predict the
geology in the subsurface. This
information provides an overall picture of ore-bearing host rocks and hidden
post-ore rocks. Geologic mapping has been significantly used for exploration for
more than 100 years.

Hazard Prediction and Urban Planning

Since current tectonic activity primarily manifests itself through earthquakes,
volcanoes, and aseismic movements that are clustered in distinct zones, scientists
have made progress toward the understanding of these phenomena, and
consequently, in hazard prediction. Most of the seismicity can be found along plate
boundaries (i.e. the axis of mid-ocean ridges, and orogenic belts of the
Alpine-Himalayas and the Pacific) (Fig. 21). While earthquakes along the former are
mostly shallow (focal depths of about 50 km), those in the vicinity of ocean
trenches vary from shallow to deep (focal depths of up to about 700 km),

36
highlighting the great disparity between the tectonic processes operating on them.
Along the newly-formed orogenic belts, the focal depth of seismic activity is
moderate (mostly a little less than about 300 km). Like earthquakes, volcanoes are
also concentrated in particular zones, specifically where volcanism is present such
as along the orogenic belts in the Pacific Ring of Fire, ocean ridges and their
ancillary seamounts, volcanoes above hot spots, and continental rift zones (i.e. the
Afar Triangle).

Fig. 22. Map showing where most seismicity occurs: along the axis of mid-ocean
ridges, and orogenic belts of the Alpine-Himalayas and those in the Pacific.

37
Other crustal movements having less intensity than those related to tectonic belts
are classified as aseismic, which as the name suggests, lack the involvement or
properties of earthquakes. They have both vertical and horizontal components,
ranging from a few millimeters to centimeters every year.

Since hazards have been discovered, plotted, and observed, preparations for
natural calamities have also been done. The Philippine Institute of Volcanology
and Seismology (PHIVOLCS), an arm of the Department of Science and
Technology (DOST), is in charge of reducing the impacts of natural disasters. As
part of their work to help society, they establish early warning systems, evacuation
programs (drills, sites, routes, etc.), permanent danger zones (areas where
settlements must not be built), provide hazard maps, and assist in land use and
development plans for better city planning and risk management.

Key Points

● The diversity of magnetic signatures all over the world produces variation
among the rates at which plates travel. On some brief occasions, the plates
move rapidly, but most of the time they move very sluggishly for extended
periods of time, at such low speeds that they seem to be completely inert.
This slow movement is referred to as creep.
● crustal movements having less intensity than those related to tectonic
belts are classified as aseismic, which as the name suggests, lack the
involvement or properties of earthquakes
● The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) is in
charge of reducing the impacts of natural disasters.

Web Links

For further readings, you can check the following web links:

● Read the geologic evolution of the Philippines

Morisson, Sean. Not dated. ‘Geologic evolution of the Philippines.’
https://geomorrison.files.wordpress.com/2014/04/geologic-evolution-of-the-philippi
nesv04.pdf

38
 ● Read about ore deposits of the Philippines
Bryner, Leonid.1969. ‘Ore deposits of the Philippines- An Introduction to their
Geology.’
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.875.7878&rep =rep1&
type=pdf

Check Your Understanding

A. Match the given descriptions in set A to the terms in set B.

Set A Set B
1. Travels about 6-9 cm per year a. creep
2. Accurately pinpointed by measuring b. PHIVOLCS
magnetic stripes c. Aseismic
3. Elucidated the geologic history of d. permanent danger
localities zones
4. Manifest itself through earthquakes, e. rates of continental
volcanoes and aseismic activities advancement
5. The local depth of seismic activity is f. Pangea’s breakup
moderate g. oceanic plate
6. Determined by widths of magnetic h. newly-formed orogenic
stripes belts
7. Areas where settlements must not i. tectonic activity
be built j. plate tectonics
8. Crustal movement with less intensity
9. In charge of reducing the impacts of
natural disasters
10. Slow movements of plates

B. Write true if the statement is correct. If false, give the correct word/s to
make the statement correct.
1. The rates of continental advancement and seafloor spreading are
determined by measuring the length of magnetic stripes.
2. Broader stripes indicate a shorter period.
3. Magnetic signatures all over the world are the same.
4. Movements of plates are irregular and intermittent.

39
 5. The slow movement of plates is called creep.
6. Plate tectonics tell nothing about geologic history.
7. The scientists made progress toward understanding the tectonic activity.
8. Seismic refers to crustal movement having less intensity.
9. PHIVOLCS predicts natural disasters.
10. Permanent danger zones are areas where settlements must not be built.

Challenge Yourself

Briefly answer the following question.

1. How do scientists determine the movement of Pangea?
2. What is the difference between the movement of the oceanic plate and
continental plate?
3. How will you interpret magnetic signatures caused by plate movements?
4. How do scientists can predict seismic activity?
5. Gather information about the seismic activities in your barangay/province
caused by tectonic movements. Construct a hazard map showing areas that
are not safe for human settlements.

40
 Laboratory Activity

Activity 4.1
Convection Current and Continental Drift

Objectives
At the end of this laboratory activity, the students should be able to:
● describe the mechanism driving continental drift; and
● illustrate the mechanism of plate movement.

Materials and Equipment

● food coloring (red and green)
● water
● ice
● hot plate, burner, or candle
● 3 beaker (500 ml)
● 2 styrofoam (2×3”)
● pipette/medicine dropper
● transparent shallow container
● hot pot holder

Procedure
1. Put a 450 mL cold water and ice cubes on two beakers.
2. Put the shallow container half-full of cold water on top of the two beakers.
The two beakers positions at the sides leaving a space for another beaker at
the middle. Follow the illustration below.
3. Using a pipette, put a small amount of green food coloring at the bottom of
the container just above the beakers with cold water.
4. Put a small amount of red food coloring in the middle bottom of the
container in between the two green coloring.
5. Boil water in the third beaker using the hot plate or burner.
6. Once the water boils, carefully transfer the beaker in between the two
beakers. Draw and describe what you have observed.
7. Put two styrofoam on the surface on top of the red food color. Draw and
describe what you have observed.

41
 8. Exercise caution while transferring the hot water. Transfer the beaker using
a hot pot holder.

Results and Observations

Food Coloring Movement

Before After

Description: Description:

42
 Styrofoam Movement
Before After

Description: Description:

Guide Questions
1. What is the effect of the hot water to the cold water inside the transparent
container?
2. In what direction does the two styrofoams move? Why?
3. What is the purpose of the two beakers with cold water?
4. Compare the movement observed in the experiment to the actual
movements of plates.

Activity 4.2
Crust and Mantle

Objectives
At the end of this laboratory activity, the students should be able to:
● explain how the heating the mantle affect crust;
● describe the mechanism driving continental drift; and
● illustrate the mechanism of plate movement.

Materials and Equipment

● 500 grams of chocolate powder
● milk
● pan
● hot plate

43
Procedure
1. Pour milk into the pan making sure that the whole pan is covered with a
very thin film of milk (1-2 mm).
2. Put the chocolate powder over the thin layer of milk. Add powder until the
surface is a dry layer of chocolate powder.
3. Put the pan on the hot plane and observe.
4. Exercise caution in handling hot objects. Use a hot pot holder if necessary.

Results and Observations

Before After

Description: Description:

Guide Questions
1. What does the hot plate represent? What is its role in crustal movements?
2. What is the effect of the heated milk on the chocolate powder? What is the
principle behind this effect?
3. On what places on earth can you observe the results of the experiments?
What processes do they have in common?

44
 Performance Task

Urban Planning

Goal
● Your group’s goal is to propose a land use and development plan based on
the hazard maps of your barangay.

Role
● You are a group of young researchers aiming to reduce the risk of disasters
brought about by natural hazards such as earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions.

Audience
● Your audience is your barangay officials and residents.

Situation
● The challenge is to make your audience be aware of their vulnerability to
disasters based on the hazard maps and convince them to have a better
planning of settlement areas based on your proposal.

Product, Performance, and Purpose

● You will create a hazard map that will show an overview of how the
barangay is vulnerable to a natural disaster. You will also create a map for
urban planning showing suitable areas for land use and development.

Standards and Criteria

● Your performance will be graded by the following rubric.

Below Needs Successful Exemplary

Criteria Expectations, Improvement Performance Performance
0% to 59% 50% to 74% 75% to 99% 100%

Content. Details not Details are Details are Details

Detailed and related presented. presented but Presented. And the can be easily
to the task Content is not there contents understood.
related to the are some content are related Content is

45
 task. that are not related to the task.
related to the task. Additional
supporting details
are presented.

Organization Presentation of Presentation was Presentation was Presentation was

data and info done but in a done smoothly but done clearly.
Skills.
was disorganized and the concepts are Concepts were
Presentation of data
not done illogical manner. presented in such presented in a
and information was
a way that should logical manner
done in an organized
be rearranged for and easily
manner.
better understandable by
understanding. the audience.

Creativity and No figures used The figures did not The figures and The concepts and
match information concepts were figures were
Appropriateness
being presented integrated into the integrated in
Subject matter and
Task but properly an organized and
figures were properly
presented. logical way.
integrated into the
presentation
Additional
Concepts related to
the task
were presented.

Self Check

This unit aims to provide a comprehensive discussion on tectonic plate

movements and explain how it is relevant to our daily lives. Put a check on the
space provided if you agree on each given statement.

Check I can…

discuss theories supporting plate movement

explain the mechanism behind plate movements

enumerate evidence that supports the movement of plates

list down technological applications of plate movements

46
 Key Words

Aseismic crustal movements having less intensity than those

related to tectonic belts
Hot spots areas with an abnormally high volcanic activity that have
remained stationary for a very long time
Kinematics geologic structures are examined and compared to the
movements of blocks of Earth’s surface, ignoring
underlying forces
Mantle convection It is the rising of warm material and sinking of cold
material in the mantle.
Mantle plumes rising columns of hot rocks from the lower mantle and
cause melting as they reach the surface, hence another
mechanism for plate motion
Plate tectonics theory It states that the lithosphere (includes the uppermost
mantle and the overlying crust) behaves as a strong,
rigid layer which is broken into segments known as
plates.
Seafloor spreading rifting along an oceanic ridge results from the activity of
two opposing convection cells rising from underneath
Earth’s surface, similar to a conveyor belt
Solid-state flow Earth can then be thought of as a heat engine, with
model convection cells in the mantle circulating heat.
Tectonic plate it refers to blocks that are primarily sturdy, with margins
that trace earthquake zones lying along the network of
ridges and trenches

47
 Wrap Up

References

Allaby, Michael. Dictionary of Geology and Earth Sciences, 8th Edition. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2013. http://app.knovel.com/hotlink/toc/id:kpDGESE001/
dictionary -geology -earth/ dictionary-geology-earth.

Classzone. n.d. “Age of Hawaiian volcanoes”. Accessed May 11, 2017.

https://www.classzone.com/books/earth_science/terc/content/investigations
/es0810/es0810page02.cfm.

DOST-PHIVOLCS. “Strategic Initiatives” and “About PHIVOLCS”. Accessed May 9,

2017. http://
www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=
article&id=34&Item id=64 and
http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/index.php?option =com_ content&view=
article &id=13&Itemid=300075.

Dr. Schieber, Jürgen. “Sedimentary Structures”. Accessed May 10, 2017.

http://www.indiana.edu/~geol105/images/gaia_chapter_5/sedimentary
_structures.htm.

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Encyclopedia Britannica. “Curie Point”. Last modified July 20, 1998.
https://www.britannica.com/science/Curie-point.

Geology.com. “Plate Tectonics and the Hawaiian Hot Spot”. Accessed May 11,
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Hartai, Èva. Geology. Miskolc: Digitális Tankönyvtár, 2011. Accessed May 11,
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TT600120-EN/ sco_08_01.scorm.

Hefferan, Kevin, and John O’Brien. 2010. Earth Materials. UK: Wiley-Blackwell.

Levin, Harold L. The Earth Through Time, 8th Edition. Compiled by Pamela Gore.
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chap_tut/chaps/.

Marshak, Stephen. 2009. Essentials of Geology 3rd Edition. New York: W.W.
Norton & Company.

Oxford University Press. “Early Warning System”. Accessed May 10, 2017. https://
en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/early_warning _system.

Park, Graham. Introducing Tectonics, Rock Structures, and Mountain Belts.

Edinburgh: Dunedin Academic Press, 2012.
http://app.knovel.com/hotlink/toc/
id:kpITRSMB0C/introducing-tectonics/introducing-tectonics.

Prothero, D.R. and R.H. Dott, Jr. Evolution of the Earth 7th Edition. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 2003.

Tarbuck, Edward J., and Frederick J. Lutgens. Earth Science, 11th Edition. New
Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2015.

49