2 CELL BIOLOGY

For NSEJS

CELL
• All living forms are composed of microscopic units called as “Cells”. The word cell was derived
from a Greek word “Cellulae” which means small room.
• A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all life forms.
• Study of structure and composition of cell is called as “Cytology”.
• Cell was first observed by “Robert Hooke” in a dead cork slice in the year 1665. He described
about this in his book “Micrographia”.
• First living cell was discovered by A.V. Leeuwenhoek.
• The term protoplasm was coined by Purkinje in 1839.
• Protoplasm was discovered by “Felix Dujardin” and named as sarcode.
• It’s consistency differs under different conditions. It exists in sol-gel states.
• Protoplasm is an aggregate of various chemicals such as water, ions, salts and other organic
molecules like proteins, carbohydrates, fats, nucleic acids, vitamins etc.

(a) Cell theory:

• In 1839, Schleiden and Schwann studied and concluded that all animals are also composed of cells
but are different from plant cells.
• In 1855, Rudolf Virchow further expanded the cell theory as “omnis cellula e cellula” i.e. all cells
arise from pre-existing cells, just as an animal arises only from an animal and a plant only from a
plant.
• Cells are the morphological and physiological units of all living organisms except viruses.
• New cells originate only from the pre-existing cells and continuity is maintained through the
genetic material.
• The smallest unit of life is the cell, i.e. every organism starts its life as a single cell. All living
organisms are composed of cells and their products.

❖ Modern cell theory:

• It is also known as cell doctrine or cell principle.
• All living organisms are made up of cells having cytosol, nucleus, organelles and a covering
membranes.
• Functions of living organisms are the sum total of the activities of their cells.
• Cell can survive independantly but organelles cannot do so.
• Any cell arises from pre-existing cell.
• It is unit of structure, function and heredity.
• Life exist in cells.
• Growth of an organism is due to increase in size and number of cells.

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(b) Types of Organisms On the basis of Number of Cells:
(i) Unicellular organisms: These are the organisms which are made up of single cell only. This single
cell performs all the vital body functions of an organism. e.g. Amoeba

(ii) Multicellular organisms: These are the organisms which are made up of numerous cells. These
cells then combine to form an organ and group of organs performing different functions forms an
organ system which further forms an organism. e.g. Plants and animals

(c) Types of cells On the basis of type of organization:

(i) Prokaryotic cells: Prokaryotic cells (pro - primitive; karyon - nucleus) are without an organized
nucleus and membrane bound organelles. These are primitive and incomplete cells. They have less
developed nucleus without nuclear membrane and nucleolus. e.g. Bacteria. They have following
characters:-
• Like eukaryotic cells, they are different in shape and size but smaller than eukaryotes & divide
rapidly.
• Naked genetic material is called genophore / Nucleoid.
• Genomic DNA is circular & termed as single chromosome.
• Beside genomic DNA, small circular DNA is also present in many bacteria called plasmid which
make them antibiotic resistant & also responsible for bacterial transformation.
• Prokaryotic cell envelope consists of three layers–outer glycocalyx, middle cell wall and innermost
cell membrane.
• If these envelopes are stained by Gram stain then they are called Gram positive bacteria while other
those don’t have are called Gram negative bacteria.
• Glycocalyx, a polysaccharide envelope forms either loose sheath slime layer or thick and tough
structure capsule.
• Plasma membrane extensions like vesicles, tubules and lamellae not only help in cell wall
formation, DNA replication, secretion, increase in surface area but also form some specific
structure for specific function like mesosome for respiration (analogous to mitochondria) and
chromatophore for photosynthesis (analogous to chloroplast).
• Cell wall form some filamentous extensions called flagellum. It consists of filament, hook & basal
body and helps in locomotion.
• Besides flagella, Pili and Fimbriae are also surface structures of the bacteria but do not play a role
in motility. The pili are elongated tubular structures made of a special protein pilin. The fimbriae
are small bristle like fibres sprouting out of the cell that provides attachment to substratum or host
tissue.

Fig.: Ultrastructure of Prokaryotic cell

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(ii) Eukaryotic cells: Eukaryotic cells (eu - true; karyon - nucleus) have an enveloped nucleus and
membrane bound organelles.
• These are well developed cells. They have advanced nucleus with nuclear membrane and nucleolus.
e.g. Plants & animals.
• Organisms are grouped into prokaryotes and eukaryotes based on their cellular organisation.

Fig.: A typical plant cell, A typical animal cell

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(d) Cell shape:

• The shape of a cell is related to its functions. Some of the cells (e.g., Amoeba and leucocytes)
exhibit change in their shapes, while others do not exhibit such change and in such cases cell shape
is more or less fixed.
• Cells may be oval, round, plate-like, tubular, cylindrical, branched and so on. The cell shape is said
to be controlled by several factors like function, age, cell wall, external pressure, location, tension,
viscosity, etc.

Fig.: Cells of various shapes

(e) Cell size:

There is a great variation in the size of cells of the living world. The most common type of cells
measure from  to 100 
• Mycoplasma, a bacterium known as PPLO (Pleuropneumonia-like organism) is the smallest known cell.
• An ostrich egg is the biggest animal cell.
• The nerve cells are the longest in human body, measuring up to 90 cm in length.
• In plant kingdom, Acetabularia (an alga) consists of a single cell which measures about 6 to 10 cm
in length.
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STRUCTURE OF A GENERALISED CELL

• Though various kinds of cells show specific differences, yet they all show some basic structural
plan of a “generalized cell”. A generalized cell consists of three essential parts:
(a) Cell coat (b) Cytoplasm (c) Nucleus

(a) Cell coat:

(i) Cell Wall:
• It was first studied by Robert Hooke in cork cells.
• It is outer most dead covering around plant cell. That is secreted by cytoplasm / (Protoplasm).
• Cell wall not only gives shape to the cell and protects the cell from mechanical damage and infection, it
also helps in cell-to-cell interaction and provides barrier to undesirable macromolecules. Algae
have cell wall, made of cellulose, galactans, mannans and minerals like calcium carbonate.
• It is found in plant cells (cellulose) fungi (chitin), prokaryotes like bacteria and cyanobacteria
(Peptidoglycan), few protists. It is absent in Animals, Mycoplasma.

I. Structure of the cell wall:

• The diameter of cell wall varies from 0.1–10m.
• In plant cell it is usually composed of cellulose, but in bacteria & BGA it is composed of
peptidoglycan & DAPA. In fungi it consists of chitin.

II. Chemical Compostion of cell wall:

• A cell wall contains:
– Matrix – Fibrils – Depositions

• Matrix: Water–60%. Hemicellulose–5–15%. Pectic Substances–2–8%. Lipids–0.5–3.0%.

Proteins–1–2%
• Microfibrils: Cellulose / fungus cellulose–10–15%.Other depostions 0.025%. Cellulose is a main
component of cell wall.
• The cell wall is formed of following layers
1. Middle Lamella 2. Primary wall 3. Secondary Wall 4. Tertiary wall
1. Middle Lamella: It is thin amorphous cementing layer for joining of two adjacent plant cells. It is
composed of pectin as calcium and magnesium pectate. It is absent on the outer free surface of cell
and plasmodesmata. Retting of fibres and softening of fruits are due to dissolution of calcium
pectate in middle lamella by pectinase enzyme.
2. Primary wall: It is elastic, permeable, thin, single layered outer most wall layer of plant cell. Its
diameter is 0.1–3m Cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin contents are roughly in equal amount in
primary wall.

Fig.: Parts and layers of cell wall

Root hairs, parenchymatous cells and meristematic cells are formed of only primary wall. Its
growth takes place by intussusception (Addition of materials with in the existing wall).

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3. Secondary wall: It lies inside the primary wall. Its diameter is 3–10m. Its growth takes place by
Accretion+ interssusecption (deposition of materials over the surface of existing structure). It
consists of at least three layers–S1, S2, S3, This wall is made up of cellulose, hemicellulose &
pectin. Number of different materials may be deposited in the secondary cell wall.
❖ Depositions:
• Lignin: It is formed by polymerisation and dehydrogenation of aldehydes and alcohols of coniferyl
and coumaryl. It reduces the water content of the wall matrix and increases its hardness. The
deposition of lignin on the cell wall is called lignification that provides strengthening to the cell
wall.
• Suberin: It is fatty substance that makes the wall impermeable. It reduces the transpiration rate in
plants. It is found in the cork and casparian strips of endodermal cells. The deposition of suberin is
called suberisation.
• Cutin: It lies as a distinct layer on the outside of the epidermal cell wall. It is fatty substance that
reduces the rate or epidermal or surface transpiration. Other substances may also be deposited in the
cell wall such as silica (Eg: grasses), minerals waxes, tannins, resins, gums.

(ii) Cell Membrane:

• Cell membrane is the outer living boundary of the cell. This is also called Plasma membrane or
plasmalemma.
• The term cell membrane was coined by C. Nageli.

I. Structure of Cell Membrane:

• Cell membranes are not visible under optical microscope due to its extreme thinness. It can be observed
in electron microscope. It appears trilaminar or tripartite layer under electron microscope.
• Chemically a cell membrane contains proteins (44–76%), Lipids (20–53%), carbohydrates (1–5%),
water (20%). DNA, RNA are absent. In human beings, the membrane of the erythrocyte has
approximately 52 per cent protein and 40 per cent lipids.
• Proteins are globular in nature including structural, enzymatic, carrier, permease and receptor proteins.
• Lipid are usually phospholipids (55% of total Lipids) that are amphiatic / amphipathic containing polar
hydrophilic heads and nonpolar hydrophobic tails. Other lipids present in cell membranes are
cholesterol, cerebrosides, gangliosides and sphingomyelins. Cholesterol provides regidity and stability
to the cell membrane.
• Carbohydrates of cell membranes are small unbranched or branched chains of oligosaccharides. They
combine with both lipids and protein molecules on outer surface of the membrane and form glycolipids
and glycoproteins respectively.

Fig.: Fluid mosaic model

II. Fluid mosaic model: It was proposed by Singer and Nicolson (1972). It is most recognized model
for plasma membrane. they stated that plasmamembrane contains lipid bilayer in which protein are
found on both outer and inner side to form mosaic pattern. Thus they described it as protein
icebergs in sea of lipids.
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1. Lipid: Central viscous gel like, lipid bilayer is quasifluid and composed of phospholipids that
provide fluidity (quasifluid nature of lipid enables lateral movement of proteins within the overall
bilayer). Lipid provide elasticity and stability to the plasma membrane. The fluid nature of the
membrane is also important from the point of view of functions like cell growth, formation of
intercellular junctions, secretion, endocytosis, cell division etc.

2. Protein: Proteins are of two types.

• External or extrinsic proteins: It is peripheral protein (30% of total protein). It can be easily
removed Eg: Spectrin in RBC, ATPase.
• Integral or intrinsic proteins: It is about 70% of total protein. These can not be separated easily.
Eg: Cytochrome oxidase, Porin Proteins. They may function as carriers, permeases, enzymes,
receptors. Some large globular intrinsic proteins pass as a helix into the lipid bilayer from outside to
inside to form tunnel proteins or transmembrane proteins. The latter act as channels for passage of
water soluble materials and water.

Mind it: • The plasma membrane is asymmetric due to oligosaccharides which form glycolipids &
glycoprotein alongwith lipids & proteins respectively. Both glycolipids & glycoproteins form
glycocalyx. Oligosaccharide part in glycocalyx acts as recognition centre, site for attachment and
provides antigen specificity to cell membranes, blood grouping, immune response and matching of
tissues in transplantation of organs.
• Lipid molecules show flip flop movement (transverse diffusion or can move from one side to the
other side across the membrane). This type of movement is absent in protein molecules.

III. Functions of plasma membrane:

❖ Membrane transport: Cell membrane is considered as selective permeable membrane. Passage of
substances across biomembranes occur by following methods.
(I) Passive transport: It involves following methods
• Diffusion
• Osmosis
• Facilitated diffusion
(II) Active transport: In this method, movement of substances occur against their concentration
gradient by consuming ATP. It can be done by Na+- K+ exchange pump.

(III) Bulk transport: It take place by two methods.

• Endocytosis: The inward transport of material by means of carrier vesicles is called endocytosis. It
includes two types.
• Pinocytosis or Potocytosis (Cell drinking): Intake of fluid substances by plasmalemma in the
form of vesicles (Pinosome) is called pinocytosis.
• Phagocytosis (Cell eating): Intake of solid food substances by plasmalemma in the form of
vesicles (Phagosome) is called phagocytosis.
• Exocytosis (Cell vomitting or emiocytosis): It is reverse of endocytosis in which waste materials
are removed from the cell. It involves reverse pinocytosis.

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(b) Cytoplasm:
• It lies between the nucleus and cell membrane. The term Cytoplasm coined by Strasburger (1882).
• Cytoplasm is a site of metabolic processes like biosynthesis of fatty acids, sugars, proteins etc.
• It is also a storehouse of raw materials needed for metabolism in both cytoplasm and the nucleus.

❖ It consists of two parts:

(i) Cytosol / Hyaloplasm / Ground plasm: Liquid part of cytoplasm except cell organelles
• It can exist in sol and gel state called plasmasol and plasma gel. Plasmagel present towards
periphery called ectoplast and plasma sol is centre is called endoplast.

(ii) Trophoplasm: It involves cell organelles and cell inclusions

❖ Cell organelles:
I. Single Membranous Cell Oganelles:
1. Enodoplasmic Reticulum (E.R.):
• Garnier firstly observed it as Ergestoplasm.
• It was discovered by Porter and Thompson (1945) and the name Enodoplasmic Reticulum coined
by Porter.
• It is 3-dimensional and interconnected system of membrane-lined channels that run through the
cytoplasm, forms network. It divides the intracellular space into luminal (inside ER) and extra
luminal (Cytoplasm) compartments.
• It is found in plasmodesmata in the form of desmotubules.
• The membrane of endoplasmic reticulum is 50–60 Aº thick.

Fig.: Parts of Endoplasmic reticulum

• E.R. is found in three forms
• Cisternae: They are flat interconnected sac-like structures. The diameter of each cisternae is
40–50 nm.
• Vesicles: These are oval or rounded sacs and diameter of each vesicle is 25–500 nm.
• Tubules: They are tube like extensions that connect cisternae and vesicles. Diameter of each tubule
is 50–100 nm.
• Enzymes of E.R.: NADH-Cytochrome C-reductase, glucose - 6 - phosphatase, Nucleotide
diphosphatase, Mg++ activated ATPase, Cytochrome b5, cytochrome P450, cytochrome P448.

❖ Types of Endoplasmic reticulum: On the basis of nature of its membranes, endoplasmic eticulum is
of two types.
• RER – Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
• SER – Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

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❖ Functions:
• ER increases the surface area of the cytoplasm for various metabolic activities of the cell.
• It gives internal support to the colloidal matrix i.e. cytoplasm.
• It functions as an intracellular transport system for various substances.
• Materials synthesized can be stored in different parts of ER.
• Protein synthesis occurs on the surface of rough ER by ribosomes. These proteins are either used
within the cell or exported outside the cell.
• Synthesis of lipids in collaboration with Golgi complex occurs on the surface of the smooth ER.
Smooth ER helps in the synthesis of sex hormones like testosterone in the testis and estrogens in
ovary.
• Many membranous cell organelles are co-ordinated in their functions like ER, GB, Lysosome and
vacuole so they are considered together as endo membranous system.
2. Golgi Complex:
• It was first observed by George but the credit of discovery was given to the Camillo Golgi.
• Golgi complex is also Known as Dictyosome (plant golgi body), Lipochondria (Rich in lipids),
traffic police of cell, Idiosome, Baker’s body, Dalton complex, Golgisome, export house/ middle
man of cell. A plant cell has 10–20 dictyosomes.
❖ Structure of Golgi complex:
• The shape and size of Golgi complex depend upon the physiological state of the cells. Structurally
golgi complex is composed of three parts:
• Cisternae: Golgi complex is madeup of stack of generally 4–8 membrane bound saccules or
cisternae. in fungi, a dictyosome is unicisternal. Cisternae show asymmetry and polar-two faces.
concave or Distal or maturing trans face is near cell membrane and cis or convex or Proximal or
forming (F) face is towards RER and nuclear membrane.
• Tubules: They form a complex network towards the periphery and trans face of the Golgi
apparatus. they interconnect the different cisternae.

Fig.: Structure of Golgi apparatus, Golgi apparatus

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• Vesicles: They are small sacs that arise from tubules. They are of two types smooth and coated. Out
of them smooth vesicles contain secretory substances hence these are called secretory vesicles.
❖ Functions:
• Secretion: Golgi complex is a centre of reception, finishing, packaging and secreting for a variety
of materials in the cells. After modifications materials are packed in vesicles, the latter are budded
off from maturing face of golgi body and released out side the cell that is called Exocytosis or
revevrse pinocytosis.
• Formation of new cell wall: Pectic compounds of middle lamella and various polysaccharides of
the cell wall are secreted by Golgi complex.
• Glycosidation & Glycosylation: Golgi complex cause glycosidation (addition of oligosaccharides
to phospholipids of membranes) of lipids and glycosylation of protein synthesized on RER to form
glycolipids and glycoproteins.
• Formation of acrosome: Acrosome of sperms is synthesised by Golgi complex during
spermiogenesis.
• Formation of Lysosome: Vesicles of Golgi complex and ER take part in the synthesis of primary
lysosomes ( GERL system).
• Vitellogenesis: Golgi complex acts as the centre around which yolk is deposited.
3. Lysosomes:
• Discovery: Christian de Duve (Lyso = digestive, soma = body)
• These are tiny sac like granules containing enzymes of intracellular digestion.
• They are bounded by a single membrane.
• They occur in animal cells and a few plant cells.
• They do not have a definite shape or size.
• They contain hydrolysing enzymes called acid hydrolases.

Fig.: Lysosomes

❖ Functions:
• Their main function is phagy = digestion
• They are kind of waste disposal system.
• They help in digesting foreign materials and worn out cells.
• During disturbances in cellular metabolism i.e. in case of cell damage lysosomes burst and their
enzymes are released into the cytoplasm and they digest their own cell so they are also called as
“Suicidal Bags”.

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Mastery Point

4. Peroxisomes:
• These structures were first described from liver and kidney cells by Rodhin (1954). In plant cells,
they were first observed in germinating seeds by Tolbert (1969)The term ‘peroxisome’ was first
used by de Duve and also called as uricosomes.
• Peroxisomes are ovoid or granular structures, limited by a single unit membrane and have a
diameter of 0.5 to 1.0 m.
• In green leaves of C3 plants, peroxisomes carry out photorespiration.
• In animal cells they carry out lipid metabolism.
• They contain important enzymes as oxidases (peroxide producing enzyme), peroxidases and
catalases (which break down toxic peroxides to water and oxygen).

5. Glyoxysomes: Beavers (1961) was the first person to discover these organelles and were described
later by R.W. Briedenbach (1967). They are about 0.5 to 1 m in size and are surrounded by a
single unit membrane. They are found in plant cells, particularly, in germinating fatty seeds e.g.
Ricinus (castor) and groundnut where fat is being converted into carbohydrates by a process called
glyoxylate cycle. Glyoxysomes contain important enzymes, isocitrate, lyase, maltase and synthetase
along with several others. Structure of glyoxysome is similar to peroxisome.

II. Double Membranous cell organelles:

1. Mitochondria:
• It is a rod shaped structure found in cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells except mammalian RBC’s.
These are also absent in prokaryotes.
• It is also called as “Power House of the Cell” or the “Storage Battery”.
• It is double membranous structure where outer membrane has specific proteins while inner
membrane is folded inside to form projections called “Cristae”. ATP synthesizing units are called
Oxysomes or F1 Particles are present on cristae. Space between inner and outer mitochondrial
membranes is called as perimitochondrial space.
• The fluid present in mitochondria is called as matrix. It is site of Kreb Cycle.

Fig.: Mitochondria

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❖ Functions:
• Its main function is to produce and store the energy in the form of ATP.
• Oxysome contains enzymes for ATP production.
• Matrix contains enzymes for Kreb cycle.
2. Plastids:
• It is a double membranous discoidal structure, found only in plant cells.
• Term plastid was given by Haeckel.
• Besides being discoidal or rhombic in plant cells they occur in variable shapes like in algae they
can be ‘U’ shaped, spiral, coiled, ribbon shaped etc.
• Depending upon the type of pigment present in them they are of following three types:

• Chloroplast have following two parts:

Fig.: Internal structure of chloroplast of higher plants.

❖ Grana: It constitutes the lamellar system. These are found layered on top of each other, these
stacks are called as Grana. Each granum of the chloroplast is formed by super imposed closed
compartments called Thylakoids.

❖ Functions:
• They are the sites of light reaction of photosynthesis as they contain photosynthetic pigment
chlorophyll.
• In each thylakoid Quantasomes are present which are called as Photosynthetic units.
• Each quantasome possesses 230 chlorophyll molecules.

❖ Stroma: It is a granular transparent substance also called as matrix. Grana are embedded in it.
Besides grana they also contain lipid droplets, starch grains, ribosomes & double stranded circular
DNA etc.

❖ Function: This is the site of dark reaction of photosynthesis. Also helps in protein synthesis due to
presence of ribosomes.
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II. Membranelles cell organelles:
1. Ribosomes:
• The ribosomes were first observed in plant cells by Robinson and Brown in 1953 in bean roots.
They were observed by George Palade in animal cells in 1953.
• Ribosomes are found both in prokaryotes and eukaryotes with the exception of mature sperm and
RBCs. Ribosomes are also found mitochondria and chloroplasts.
❖ Structure: All structural and functional proteins (enzymes) coded by the nuclear DNA, are
synthesized upon cytoplasmic ribosomes. The DNA codes of chromosomes are transcripted into
messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules in the nucleus. mRNA molecules diffuse out into the
cytoplasm and each becomes attached to several ribosomes which thus form a group called
polysome or polyribosomes. In this way each mRNA molecule brings about polymerization of
amino acids to form specific protein molecules, with the help of ribosomes in the cytosol.
❖ Types Of Ribosomes:
• 70S ribosomes are comparatively smaller in size with two subunits (30S + 50S). These are found in
prokaryotic cells as well as in the mitochondria and plastids of eukaryotic cells (Mitochondrial
DNA is now found to be 55S).
• 80S ribosomes have two subunits (40S + 60S). They occur in eukaryotic cells of the plants and animals.

Fig.: Ribosomes
❖ Functions
• Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis. They provide space and enzymes for the synthesis of
proteins. Hence, they are known as protein factories.

2. Centrioles (Centrosome):
• It is submicroscopic membraneless, cylindrical structure.
• Centrioles are usually found in all the animal cells except Amoeba. Centrioles are absent in higher plants.
• Each centriole is composed of 9 peripheral triplet fibrils of microtubules but in the central part these
are absent. Thus centriole has 9 + 0 arrangement of tubules.

Fig.: Ultrastructure of centrioles in T.S.

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• Centriole is surrounded by amorphous structures called massules or perecentriolar satellite.
Massules act as nucleating centre for the growth of microtubules during Aster formation. Formation
of new centriole starts in S-phase but completes in G2-Phase of Interphase.
• Thus new centriole arises from pre-existing centriole in G2-phase without presence of DNA due to
massules Centrioles take parts in synthesis of Basal bodies, cilia, flagella, spindle poles.
❖ Functions:
• At the time of cell division, centrioles move to the opposite poles and form asters that organize into
spindle fibres during the process of cell division.
• Centrioles give rise to cilia and flagellae in animal cells.

3. Cilia and Flagella:

• The basic structure of cilia and flagella is similar. Structure of cilia or flagella was given by
Engleman. The diameter of cilia or flagella is 0·15 Structurally cilia or flagella is composed of
four parts

Fig.: Ultrastructure of flagellum in T. S. & Cilia or flagella

(a) Electron micrograph (b) Diagrammatic representation
4. Microtubules: These are very fine microscopic tube-like structures which may be present
independently or as parts of some organelles such as centrioles, basal bodies, cilia, flagella etc.
❖ Fuctions of Microtubules:
• The microtubular structures provide strength and
• They also help in bringing about various movements inside the cell.

❖ Cell Inclusions:
1. Vacuoles:
• Vacuoles are single-membrane-bound, fluid-filled spaces found in the cytoplasm of plant cells.
• In animal cells vacuoles are smaller in size and lesser in number compared to plant cells.
• In some plant cells, only one large prominent vacuole is present.
• The major portion of a mature plant cell is occupied by vacuole.

❖ Structure: In plants, the vacuoles are bound by a thin semi-permeable membrane called tonoplast.
Vacuole contains cell sap which includes water, dissolved mineral salts, carbohydrates, proteins,
etc. The cell sap keeps the cell turgid. The vacuole of a mature plant cell is formed by enlargment
and fusion of small vacuoles present in the meristematic cells. These small vacuoles arise from the
ER and Golgi apparatus.

❖ Functions:
• Plant cell vacuoles store organic compounds.
• Vacuoles also store inorganic ions like K+ and Cl−
• They contain hydrolytic enzymes that help in digestion of stored macromolecules.
• Vacuoles are used to deposit metabolic wastes of plant cells.
• Vacuoles store pigments like anthocyanins responsible for the colour of the flowers.
• In animal cells, vacuoles are often associated with the maintenance of water balance.

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2. Granules:
• These are also non-living cytoplasmic inclusions. These are small particles, crystals or droplets.

❖ Function:
• Starch grains, fat droplets help in the storage of food in cells.

(c) Nucleus:
• The nucleus is the most conspicuous and largest organelle
controlling all the vital activities of eukaryotic cells. The
nucleus was first discovered and named by Robert Brown.
• In a young cell, it occupies a central position. In mature plant
cells with the formation of the vacuole, it is shifted to one side.
Usually, a single nucleus is present in each cell (uninucleated),
but some cells may have more than one nucleus
(multinucleated). In bacteria and blue-green algae, a true
nucleus is absent, but nuclear material is present.
• The nucleus is absent in mature mammalian RBCs and in the sieve
tube cells in phloem tissue of plants.
Fig.: Nucleus
❖ Nucleus consists of following parts:
(i) Nuclear membrane: Nucleus is bounded by two envelopes outer and inner membrane. The broad
perinuclear space lies between these two membranes.
• Ribosomes are present on the outer surface of nuclear membrane.
• 10% part of nuclear membrane bears pores that are called nuclear pores formed by the fussion of its
two membranes.
• Pores help in exchange of various substances (RNA and proteins) between cytoplasm &
nucleoplasm in both directions.

(ii) Nucleoplasm (Karyolymph–Strasburger): It is jelly like fluid, Its pH is 7·4 ± 0·2. It is reservoir
of nucleosides, enzyme of DNA and RNA synthesis.
• Its peripheral part is dense jelly like fibrous part that lies below nuclear membrane it is called
fibrous lamina or nuclear lamina (Harris & Porter 1952).
• Nuclear lamina provides strength to the nuclear membrane. It also performs reformation of nuclear
membrane during Cell division.

(iii) Chromatin network: It consists of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid).

• It is stained by Acetocarmine after that two types of regions are formed.
I. Euchromatin: It is light stained, fibrous, uncoiled transcriptionally active DNA.
II. Heterochromatin: It is dark stained tightly coiled, granular, transcriptionally less active.

(iv) Nucleolus: It was discovered by Fontana.

• It is absent in RBC, sperm, Yeast, muscle fibres, young embryo cells and Procaryotes.

❖ Functions:
• The nucleus is the storehouse of genes. Genes control the production of enzymes without which
there cannot be any metabolic activity.
• It regulates the cell cycle.
• It is related to the transmission of hereditary characters from parent to offspring.
• The nucleolus synthesizes molecules necessary for the production of ribosomes.

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(v) Chromosomes:
• They represent physical basis of inheritance.
• In a young cell, it occupies a central position.

I. Size: Size of chromosomes is variable in different organisms, different tissues and at different
stages of the cell cycle.

II. Composition of Chromosomes:

• Chemically the eukaryotic chromosomes are composed of DNA, Proteins (basic - Histones) and
small amounts of RNA.

III. Number of Chromosomes:

• Each species has a fixed number of chromosomes in it’s cells. In an ordinary human cell 23 pairs of
chromosomes are present. So, there are two chromosomes, of each kind. These two chromosomes
of same kind are called as homologous chromosomes.
• A cell which has the complete set of chromosomes with two of each kind is called as diploid cell. In
other words a diploid cell has two sets of chromosomes, thus having two chromosomes of each
type.
• The gametes (or sex cells) of human beings are different from their other body cells because they
contain only half the number of chromosomes. A cell which has half the number of chromosomes,
is called as haploid cell. In other words a haploid cell has only one copy of each type of
chromosomes.
• Human gametes called sperm and egg have only 23 chromosomes which is half the number of
chromosomes than other body cells. So, a gamete is a haploid cell.
• On the basis of position of the centromere, chromosomes are of following types.
1. Metacentric: Centromere is found in middle and at anaphase chromosome is V-shaped.
2. Sub-metacentric: The position of the centromere is subcentral. Anaphasic stage L-shaped.
3. Acrocentric: The position of the centromere is subterminal. Anaphasic stage J-shaped.
4. Telocentric: Centromere terminal, anaphasic stage is I- shaped.

Fig.: Types of chromosomes on the basis of position of centromere

IV. Properties of Chromosomes: The chromosomes must possess five important properties:
1. Replication: Synthesis of new DNA molecule which is identical to the parent DNA molecule.
2. Transcription: Synthesis of RNA molecule which is complementary to the DNA molecule.
3. Change in appearance.
4. Repair: It means correction of damaged parts of DNA.
5. Mutation: Sudden development of genetic changes.

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V. Structure of Chromosomes:
• Chromosomes are the vehicles of heredity which possess DNA and are enclosed inside the nucleus.
They are capable of self reproduction and maintaining morphological and physiological properties
through successive generations.
• Each chromosome consists of two strands which are called as chromatids. The two chromatids of a
chromosome are joined together at a point called as centromere.

Fig.: A metaphase chromosomes

CELL DIVISION
• Cell division was first observed by Prevost and Dumas (1824) in zygote of frog and also by Nageli
in plant cell (1842).
Mastery Point:
 A typical human cell divide once approximately 24 Hr. But duration of cell cycle is variable from one
organism to another like yeast divided in approx 90 minutes & bacteria in every 20 mins.
• One of the multiple chromosomes in a eukaryotic cell is represented here, not yet duplicated.
Normally it would be a long, thin chromatin fiber containing one DNA molecule and associated
proteins; here its condensed form is shown for illustration purposes only.
• Once duplicated, a chromosome consists of two sister chromatids connected along their entire
lengths by sister chromatid cohesion. Each chromatid contains a copy of the DNA molecule.
• Molecular and mechanical processes separate the sister chromatids into two chromosomes and
distribute them to two daughter cells.

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CELL CYCLE
It is a series of programmed cyclic changes by
which the cell duplicates its contents and
divides into two parts.
It was described by Howard and Pelc's (1953).
It is divided into two phases:
(i) Long non dividing (I – phase) or interphase.
(ii) Short dividing M – phase.

The cell cycle: In a dividing cell, the interphase

starts with G1, is followed by the S phase, when
the chromosomes duplicate; G2, is the last part
of interphase. In the M phase, mitosis
distributes the daughter chromosomes to
daughter nuclei, and cytokinesis divides the cytoplasm, producing two daughter cells. The relative
durations of G1, S, and G2 may vary.
(i) Long non dividing (I – phase) or interphase: It is a complex of changes that occurs in a newly
formed cell before it is able to divide. It involves replication of DNA and synthesis of nuclear
proteins and duplication of centriole. Synthesis of energy rich components also takes place. This
occurs in three stages i.e.
• G1 (First growth phase): In this phase the cell increases in size and synthesis of RNA,
carbohydrates, proteins and lipids occur.
• S (Synthesis phase): This is DNA replication and centriole replication phase.

Mastery Point:
 In S-phase
2C = 4C
2N = 2N
 Where, 2C – Amount of DNA
2N – No. of chromosome
• G2 (Second growth phase): This is the phase of DNA repair, synthesis of RNA and spindle
proteins (tubulin), duplication of cell organelle.
(ii) Short dividing M – phase: It is the phase of cell division. It consists of karyokinesis (nuclear
division) and cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division).

THE CELL CYCLE CONTROL SYSTEM

Check point in cell cycle are control mechanism that ensure the fidelity of cell division.
(i) G1-checkpoint or restriction checkpoint.
(ii) G2-checkpoint.
(iii) M-checkpoint or mitotic spindle checkpoint.

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Mastery Point:
 G0 stage is also called as Quiscent stage or Resting stage. In this stage cell neither prepares to divide nor
it divides
 Differentiated cell eg. Heart cell, muscle cell & nerve cell are arrested at G0 phase.
• Functuation of MPF activity and cyclin concentration during the cell cycle:

TYPES OF CEL DIVISION

Cell Division

Mitosis Meiosis Amitosis

❖ MITOSIS
• Term mitosis was given by Flemming (1882)
• It is also called as somatic division as it occurs in somatic cells.
• It is studied in plants, in meristems and in animals in bone marrow, skin and base of nails.
• It is an equational division in which a parent cell divides into two identical daughter cells, each of
them contains the same number and kind of chromosomes as are present in parent cell.
It occurs in two steps:
(a) Karyokinesis (nuclear division)
(b) Cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division)
(a) Karyokinesis:
Division of nucleus. It is divided in four steps:
(i) Prophase: Longest phase, In this Chromatin fibres condense to form chromosomes. They shorten
and become distinct with each having two chromatids attached to centromere. Centrosomes reach
the poles and form spindle fibres.Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappears.
Mastery Point:
 At the end of prophase all cell organelles also disappear & all cell organelles reform at telophase stage.
 Spindle has 3 types of fibres.
• Continuous fibres - These run from pole to pole.
• Discontinuous fibres – These run between pole to centromeres.
• Interzonal fibres – These run between two centromeres and also called chromosomal fibres.
 Centromere is assembly of kinetocore & spindle fibre attached to kinetochores of chromosome.

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(ii) Metaphase: Chromosomes attach to spindle fibres that arise from each pole and lie at the equator,
forming a metaphasic plate. Chromosomes are shortest and thickest in this stage.
(iii) Anaphase: Shortest phase, In this phase centromere of each chromosome divides to form two
daughter chromosomes. They remain attached to poles through spindle fibres and start moving
towards pole and become shortened. They appear in different shapes.
• V – Shaped (Metacentric)
• L – Shaped (Submetacentric)
• J – Shaped (Acrocentric)
• I – Shaped (Telocentric)
It is the best phase to study the shape of chromsomes
(iv) Telophase: Nucleus is reconstituted, chromosomes uncoil, elongate and form chromatin fibre.
Nucleolus and nuclear envelope reappears forming two daughter nuclei.
Significance of mitosis: It is essential for growth, repair, maintenance of chromosome number etc.

Mastery Point:
 At which end do kinetochore microtubules shorten during anaphase?
Experiment: Scientists wanted to determine whether kinetochore microtubules depolymerize at the
kinetochore end or the pole end as chromosomes move toward the poles during mitosis. First they
labeled the microtubules of a pig kidney cell in early anaphase with a yellow fluorescent dye.

Then they marked a region of the kinetochore microtubules between one spindle pole and the
chromosomes by using a laser to eliminate the fluorescence from that region, while leaving the
microtubules intact (see below). As anaphase proceeded, they monitored the changes in microtubule
length on either side of the mark.

Results: As the chromosomes moved poleward, the microtubule segments on the kinetochore side of
the mark shortened, while those on the spindle pole side stayed the same length.

Conclusion: During anaphase in this cell type, chromosome movement is correlated with kinetochore
microtubules shortening at their kinetochore ends and not at their spindle pole ends. This experiment
supports the hypothesis that during anaphase, a chromosome is walked along a microtubule as the
microtubule depolymerizes at its kinetochore end, releasing tubulin subunits.

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Fig: Mitosis in an animal cells

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(b) Cytokinesis: It is referred to the division of cytoplasm. It begins towards the middle of anaphase and
completes with the completion of telophase. By this the complete cytoplasm including matrix as well as
organelles divides equally.
• In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by a process known as cleavage. The first sign of cleavage is the
appearance of a cleavage furrow, a shallow groove in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate.
On the cytoplasmic side of the furrow is a contractile ring of actin microfilaments associated with
molecules of the protein myosin. The actin microfilaments interact with the myosin molecules,
causing the ring to contract. The contraction of the dividing cells ring of microfilaments is like the
pulling of a drawstring. The cleavage furrow deepens until the parent cell is pinched in two,
producing two completely separated cells, each with its own nucleus and share of cytosol,
organelles, and other subcellular structures.
• Cytokinesis in plant cells, which have cell walls, is markedly different. There is no cleavage
furrow. Instead, during telophase, vesicles derived from the Golgi apparatus move along
microtubules to the middle of the cell, where they coalesce, producing a cell plate. Cell wall
materials carried in the vesicles collect in the cell plate as it grows. The cell plate enlarges until its
surrounding membrane fuses with the plasma membrane along the perimeter of the cell. Two
daughter cells result, each with its own plasma membrane. Meanwhile, a new cell wall arising from
the contents of the cell plate has formed between the daughter cells.

Mastery Point:
 Astral mitosis is the process in which aster, a structure produced by the centrioles, is formed. Anastral
mitosis ( Amphiastral mitosis) is the process in which aster is not formed. It occurs in cells without
centrioles, such as plant cells (higher plants).
 C-mitosis: Colchicine induced mitosis.
Colchicine: Inhibits spindle formation at metaphase.
Mustrad gas: Agglutinates the chromosomes.

Fig.: Cleavage of an animal cell Fig.: Cell plate formation in a plant cell

❖ MEIOSIS
• Term meiosis was given by Farmer and Moore (1905).
• It occurs only once in the life cycle of organisms during gametes formation.
• It is a double division in which a diploid cell divides twice to form four haploid cells.

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Mastery Point:
 Prophase is the longest phase. Anaphase is the smallest phase. Leptotene is the longest phase of
prophase I & also known as bouquet stage.

• It can be studied in anthers of unopened flowers in plants and in testis of grasshopper in animals.
• It comprises of two divisions (with short or no interphase between them).

Fig.: Overview of meiosis

(a) Meiosis – I (b) Meiosis – II

(a) Meiosis–I:
Also called as reductional division. Diploid state changes to haploid state. It occurs in four steps.
(i) Prophase – I: It is the longest phase of meiosis. It has following stages:
• Leptotene: Chromatin fibres condense to form chromosomes. In diploid organisms there are two
chromosomes of each type which are called as “homologous chromosomes”.
• Zygotene: Homologous chromosomes join by synapsis and form bivalents which are actually tetrads.
Pairing proceeds in zipper like fashion forming synaptonemal complex.
• Pachytene: There occurs exchange of segments between non sister chromatids of bivalents and is
called as crossing over. Chiasmata is formed in this stage.

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Fig.: Behaviour of chromosomes in meiosis-1 including crossing over.

Mastery Point:
 Crossing over is also an enzyme mediated process & enzyme that is involved in crossing over for
breaking is endonuclease and for joining is ligase. (Both enzyme endonuclease and ligase are
collectively called Recombinase)

• Diplotene: Synaptonemal complex is dissolved. At some places non sister chromatids of two
homologous chromosomes remain attached forming, chiasmata.
• Diakinesis: Chiasmata shifts towards ends, and complete separation of homologous chromosomes
takes place (Terminalization) and nucleolus disappears.

(ii) Metaphase – I: Spindles are formed in bivalents which form a double whorl or double metaphase
plate.
(iii) Anaphase – I: Chiasmata disappears, homologous chromosomes separate by disjunction forming
dyads. They move towards poles and form two groups of haploid chromosomes.
(iv) Telophase – I: Chromosomes elongate, nucleoplasm & nuclear envelope reappears.
(b) Meiosis – II: It is also called as equational division and maintains the haploid number of
chromosomes. During interphase (if occurs) no replication of DNA takes place.
(i) Prophase – II: Chromatin fibers shorten and form chromosomes. Nuclear envelope and nucleolus
start disappearing.
(ii) Metaphase – II: Chromosomes form single metaphasic plate by arranging themselves on equator.
(iii) Anaphase – II: Centromere divides into two and separates two chromatids of chromosome into
two independent daughter chromosomes or chromatids.
(iv) Telophase– II: The four groups of chromosomes organize themselves into 4 haploid nuclei.
Chromatin fibres are formed, nucleolus and nuclear envelope are reappeared.

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Fig.: Various Stages of Meiosis

Significance of meiosis: It produces variations, differentiation, and essential for sexual reproduction. It
maintains the chromosome number in each generation of living organisms.
Mastery Point:
 In Metaphase-I of Meiosis, homologous chromosomes align at either side of equator.
 In Metaphase II of meiosis, chromosomes align at equator.

Can you think why?

 Why meiosis-II is not called as mitosis?
 Which stage of mitosis and meiosis are same?
❖ AMITOSIS
• It is also known as Direct or Incipient cell division.
• First described by Remak (1841).
• It is a very simple cell division. It occurs without spindle formation and appearance of chromosomes,
also the nuclear membrane remains intact. Both cell and its nucleus elongate, constrict in middle
and break off into nearly equal halves.
• It occurs in abnormal case. It occurs in prokaryotes (E.g. Bacteria, cyanobacteria etc.) and
eukaryotes (E.g. Amoeba, Yeast, foetal membrane cells, endosperm cells of seed, diseased cell and
old tissues).
• It is the most primitive types of cell division.
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TYPES OF SEXUAL LIFE CYCLE

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EXERCISE # 1

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
CELL
1. The first person to observe a cell under microscope was –
(A) M. Schleiden (B) T. Schwann (C) Robert Hooke (D) A.V. Leeuwenhoek

2. Cell theory was propounded by –

(A) Morgan (B) Haldane
(C) Schleiden and Schwann (D) Robert Hooke

3. The word cell was coined by –

(A) Robert hooke (B) Weismann (C) Cuvier (D) Darwin

4. What is protoplast:
(A) Whole protoplasm of the cell (B) Plant cell without cell wall
(C) Cytoplasm of the cell (D) Cytosol of the cell

5. Smallest cells so far known are –

(A) bacteria (B) blue green algae (C) PPLOs (D) human egg

6. Which of the following is the longest cell of animal kingdom?

(A) Bacteria (B) Nerve cell (C) Virus (D) Muscle cell

7. Which one of the following is an example of prokaryotic cell?

(A) Typical plant cell (B) Typical animal cell (C) Bacteria (D) None of these

8. What is cytology?
(A) Study of cytoplasm (B) Study of structure and composition of cell
(C) Study of animal cell only (D) Study of plant cell only

9. Who coined the term protoplasm?

(A) Leeuwenhoek (B) Purkinje (C) Robert hooke (D) Robert Brown

10. Cell is -
(A) functional unit of life (B) structural unit of life
(C) hereditary unit of life (D) all of the above

STRUCTURE OF GENERALIZED CELL

1. Nucleus was discovered by
(A) Robert Brown (B) Robert Hooke (C) A.V. Leeuwenhoek (D) Schwann

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2. Plastids that are white in colour (pigment free)
(A) chloroplast (B) lysosome (C) leucoplast (D) chromoplast

3. Mitochondria are concerned with

(A) kreb cycle (B) C4 cycle (C) glycolysis (D) none of the above

4. Which of the following organelle is the site of kreb cycle?

(A) Ribosomes (B) Lysosomes (C) Mitochondria (D) Nucleus

5. Mitochondria are absent in

(A) prokaryotic cells (B) RBC of mammals (C) eukaryotic cells (D) (A) and (B) Both

6. Mitochondria stores energy in the form of

(A) heat energy (B) ATP (C) light energy (D) none of the above

7. Which of the following is called as ‘Suicidal bags’?

(A) Centrosome (B) Lysosome (C) Microsome (D) Mesosome

8. Tonoplast is the membrane surrounding the

(A) cytoplasm (B) vacuole (C) nucleus (D) mitochondria

9. Lysosomes are responsible for

(A) protein synthesis (B) digestion of organic molecules
(C) fat synthesis (D) fat emulsification

10. What is more abundant in smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

(A) Cisternae and vesicles (B) Tubules
(C) Tubules and vesicles (D) Cisternae

11. Lipid synthesis is performed by

(A) rough ER (B) smooth ER (C) both of above (D) none of the above

12. Main function of lysosomes is

(A) Secretion (B) Respiration
(C) Intracellular digestion (D) Extracellular digestion

13. Detoxification of body is done by

(A) mitochondria (B) lysosomes
(C) smooth endoplasmic reticulum (D) rough endoplasmic reticulum

14. Golgi apparatus is made of

(A) cisternae (B) vesicles (C) golgian vacuoles (D) all of the above

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15. The waste disposal system of cell is formed by
(A) lysosomes (B) peroxisome (C) mitochondria (D) glyoxysome

16. Cell organelle taking part in photorespiration is

(A) Glyoxysomes (B) Peroxisome (C) Dictyosome (D) E.R.

CELL DIVISION
1. Karyokinesis is -
(A) Division of cytoplasm (B) Division of nucleus
(C) Both (A) and (B) (D) None of these

2. Which is the shortest phase of mitosis?

(A) Metaphase (B) Telophase (C) Anaphase (D) Prophase

3. Longest phase of prophase I -

(A) Leptotene (B) Zygotene (C) Pachytene (D) Diplotene

4. Amitosis occur in -
(A) Prokaryotes (B) Eukaryotes (C) Both (D) None of these
5. What comes in quiscent stage of Interphase?
(A) G1 (B) S (C) G2 (D) G0

6. In which stage of mitosis chromosomes are shortest and thickest?

(A) Prophase (B) Metaphase (C) Anaphase (D) Telophase

7. What is the number of chromosome in s-phase?

(A) 2N (B) 4N (C) N (D) 3N
N = No. of chromosome

8. At which stage all cell organelles disappear and reform in mitosis?

(A) Telophase and Prophase
(B) Prophase and Metaphase
(C) Prophase and Telophase
(D) Telophase and Metaphase

9. Which sub phase is known as Bouquet stage

(A) Leptotene (B) Zygotene (C) Pachytene (D) Diplotene

10. Shortest phase of prophase-I is -

(A) Leptotene (B) pachytene (C) Zygotene (D) Diplotene

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EXERCISE # 2

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Eukaryotic ribosomes are
(A) 30s (B) 50s (C) 80s (D) 70s

2. Striking difference between a plant cell and an animal cell is due to the presence of
(A) mitochondria (B) plasma membrane (C) cell wall (D) ribosome

3. In prokaryotic cell
(A) nucleus is developed
(B) membrane bounded organelles are present
(C) double membrane bounded organelles are absent
(D) none of these

4. A typical plant cell contains

(A) cell wall (B) plastids (C) large vacuole (D) all of the above

5. In which cell centriole is absent?

(A) Plant cell (B) Animal cell (C) Both of the above (D) None of above

6. The correct sequence of different phases of mitosis is

(A) Anaphase → Metaphase → Prophase → Telophase → Interphase
(B) Interphase → Telophase → Metaphase → Anaphase → Prophase
(C) Metaphase → Anaphase → Telophase → Interphase → Telophase
(D) Interphase → Prophase → Metaphase → Anaphase → Telophase

7. After mitosis, the number of chromosomes in the daughter cells shall be

1 1
(A) of parent cell (B) of parent cell
4 2
(C) double of parent cell (D) same as parent cell

8. Mitosis is usually studied in smears or sections of

(A) root tips (B) shoot tips (C) floral buds (D) all of the above

9. Cytoplasmic structures involved in cell division is

(A) mitochondria (B) ribosome (C) lysosome (D) centriole

10. The cell size doubles in a stage of cell cycle called as

(A) M (B) G1 (C) S (D) G2

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11. The stage at which DNA/chromosome replicates is
(A) prophase (B) interphase (C) metaphase (D) telophase

12. G1, S and G2 are stages of

(A) interphase (B) prophase (C) metaphase (D) anaphase

13. In plant cells, cytokinesis occurs by

(A) cell plate (B) invagination (C) furrowing (D) all of these are correct
14. Nuclear envelope reappears at
(A) metaphase (B) anaphase (C) cytokinesis (D) telophase

15. As compared to mitosis, meiosis has

(A) exchange of chromatid segments
(B) no telophase
(C) daughter cells similar to parent cells
(D) duplication of chromosomes occur during anaphase

16. Pairing of homologous chromosomes is called as

(A) chiasmata formation (B) synapsis (C) disjunction (D) crossing over

17. In acrocentric chromosomes, position of centromere is -

(A) terminal (B) middle (C) subterminal (D) none of these

18. Chromosomes having equal or almost equal arms are called

(A) metacentric (B) acrocentric (C) polycentric (D) acentric

19. Chromosomes other than sex chromosomes are called as

(A) allosomes (B) autosomes (C) microsomes (D) none of the above

20. In humans the number of chromosomes in a diploid cell is

(A) 23 (B) 46 (C) 44 (D) 30

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EXERCISE # 3

IJSO STAGE-I (PREVIOUS YEARS)

1. The signal for mitotic division is generated when the ratio of volume of nucleus to that of cell becomes
(IJSO/stage I/2010)
(A) less than a certain value. (B) greater than a certain value.
(C) reaches a certain value. (D) closer to one.

2. When a cell fails to communicate with other cells in multicellular organism, it (IJSO/stage I/2010)
(A) becomes cancerous (B) enters mitotic phase
(C) chooses to die (D) is eaten up by other cells

3. The process involved in healing of the wound is (IJSO/stage I/2011)

(A) Meiosis I and II (B) mitosis (C) Meiosis I (D) meiosis II

4. Considering the action of colchicine, it may be considered for the treatment of: (IJSO/stage I/2012)
(A) Hairfall (B) Anemia (C) Cancer (D) Bacterial infection

Read the following carefully and answer the questions from 5 to 6 student treats some onion root tips
with colchicine that is responsible arresting cell division at the metaphase stage (by dissolving spindle
fibres) and further prepared a slide of the root tip staining with acetoorcein (stains chromatin) and
observed under high power of compound microscope. He is well aware of the cell cycle given
alongside.

5. Which of the following is not true about his observation? (IJSO/stage I/2012)
(A) Most cells are in Interphase
(B) Most cells are in the metaphase
(C) No cells are in anaphase or telophase
(D) Chromosomes could be observed better than a slide prepared without colchicine treatment.

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6. Why did the student choose root tips of onion (IJSO/stage I/2012)
(A) Roots grow fast and considerable length of tips can be used.
(B) Root tips are easy to smear and stain.
(C) Root tips have meristematic tissue.
(D) Cell division occurs only at the root tips in plants

7. If Brain is controlling unit of an organism, then at cellular level which cell organelle can be comparable
to Brain? (IJSO/stage I/2013)
(A) Chloroplast (B) Ribosome (C) Nucleus (D) Lysosome

8. Most of the cellular RNA is synthesised and stored respectively in: (IJSO/stage I/2014)
(A) cytoplasm and ribosomes. (B) ribosomes and cytoplasm.
(C) ribosomes and nucleus (D) nucleus and ribosomes

9. The erythrocytes separated from human blood were mixed with certain fluids on a slide and observed
under the microscope. Which of the following will be the expected result? (IJSO/stage I/2014)
(A) With serum the cells clump and coagulate.
(B) With distilled water the cells swell and eventually burst.
(C) With sea water the cells undergo no apparent change.
(D) With tap water cells shrink and appear cremated.

10. In the cells of oil seeds which of the cell organelles have to more active: (IJSO/stage I/2014)
(A) Mitochondria (B) Rough endoplasmic Reticulum
(C) Smooth endoplasmic Reticulum (D) Nucleoli

11. Mitochondrial equivalent in prokaryotic bacterial cell is (IJSO/stage I/2015)

(A) ribosomes (B) thylakoid
(C) cytoplasmic plasma membrane (D) cyanosomes

12. Which of the following option is not true about the viruses? (IJSO/stage I/2015)
(A) Viruses have either DNA or RNA as these genetic material
(B) Viruses will not infect bacteria, fungi and algae
(C) Viruses use host machinery to produce their own proteins
(D) Viruses are useful in the preparation of vaccines

13. Gram positive bacteria will have one of the specific characters. Identify it. (IJSO/stage I/2015)
(A) They have more peptidoglycan in their cell walls
(B) They show red colour on gram staining
(C) Flagella found all over the body
(D) They will have mesosomes as the extension of cell membrane
14. When a red blood cell was placed in an animal cell (RBC) in 3 different solutions, the following
morphological observations were made under a microscope. The above three solutions can be classified
in the order of (IJSO/stage I/2015-16)

(A) isotonic, hypotonic and hypertonic (B) hypotonic, isotonic and hypertonic
(C) hypotonic, hypertonic and isotonic (D) isotonic, hypertonic and hypotonic

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15. Thin cuboidal strips are made by slicing a potato. They are all made to be exactly 8 cm long and 2 mm
wide. Each strip is placed in sugar solutions of different concentration. After soaking it for 5 hours,
their lengths are measured again. The following graph show the results of the experiment. What
concentration of sugar solution is isotonic with the contents of the cells of the potato.
(IJSO/stage I/2015-16)

(A) 0.2 (B) 0.4 (C) 0.6 (D) 0.1

16. Which amongst the following are not plastids: (IJSO/stage I/2017)
(A) Leucoplasts (B) Chromoplasts (C) Amyloplasts (D) Tonoplasts

17. Health is all about `eating-fasting' balance. When you fast for extended periods, your cells clean out and
recycle the intracellular garbage. The organelles responsible for this are: (IJSO/stage I/2017)
(A) Microfilaments (B) Lysosomes (C) Golgi Apparatus (D) Microtubules

18. The intracellular organelle that is responsible for formation of acrosomal vesicle is:
(IJSO/ Stage-I/2018)
(A) Endoplasmic reticulum (B) Golgi apparatus
(C) Mitochondrion (D) None of the above

19. A bacterium has a generation time of 50 minutes. A culture containing 108 cells per mL is incubated for
300 minutes. What will be the number of cells after 300 minutes? (IJSO/ Stage-I/2018)
(A) 64 × 103 cells (B) 6.4 × 108 cells (C) 64 × 109 cells (D) 6.4 × 109 cells

20. A student recorded the data for five types of cells as given below: (IJSO/ Stage-I/2018)

The five cell types P, Q, R, Sand Tare:

(A) P-Bacterium, Q-Plant, R-Virus, S-Animal, T-Fungus
(B) P-Bacterium, Q-Plant, R-Virus, S-Fungus, T-Animal
(C) P-Fungus, Q-Plant, R-Bacterium, S-Animal, T-Virus
(D) P-Plant, Q-Bacterium, R-Virus, S-Animal, T-Fungus
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21. A researcher centrifuged human blood at low speed to separate the red blood cells (RBCs) and white
blood cells (WBCs). She then suspended the pellet of RBC’s in saline (0.9% NaCI). She subsequently
put a drop of the RBS suspension into three different solutions as indicated below. What will be her
observations for solutions I, II and III respectively ? (IJSO/ Stage-I/2019-20)
Solution 1 Solution2 Solution 3
Detergent Distilled water 5% NaCI
(A) Lysis, lysis, swelling (B) Swelling, no change, shrinkage
(C) Lysis, Lysis, shrinkage (D) No change, shrinkage, swelling.

22. A stain was developed by a group of scientists to stain a particular cell organelle. The stain was tested
on various tissues derived from an autopsy sample from a mammal. The organelles were counted. The
results showed maximum number of the organelles in cells of brain, lesser in cells of heart, least in
mature sperms and absent in erythrocytes. Identify the organelles from following
Options. (IJSO/ Stage-I/2019-20)
(A) Nissl bodies (B) Mitochondria
(C) Golgi bodies (D) Endoplasmic reticulum

23. Pinus sylvestris grows at low temperatures in Russia. The plant survives under such freezing
conditions due to the presence of: (IJSO/ Stage-I/2019-20)
(A) Saturated lipids in plasma membrane
(B) Glycoproteins in plasma membrane
(C) Glycolipids in plasma membrane
(D) Polyunsaturated lipids in plasma membrane

24. An organism has 27 pairs of homologous chromosomes. In each daughter cell after completion of
mitosis and in each gamete after completion of meiosis II, _________ and _________ chromosomes
would be present respectively. (IJSO/ Stage-I/2019-20)
(A) 27 and 27 (B) 54 and 27 (C) 108 and 54 (D) 54 and108

25. Given below are four statements. (IJSO/ Stage-I/2019-20)

I. Prokaryotic cells are unicellular while eukaryotes are multicellular.
II. Histones are present in eukaryotes and absent in prokaryotes.
III. The nucleoid contains the genetic material in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
IV. Prokaryotic flagellum is composed of flagellin while eukaryotic flagellum is composed of tubulin.
Identify which amongst these are false.
(A) I and II (B) III and IV (C) II and III (D) I and III

26. long bacterial cell was magnified and drawn to a dimension of 6 cm. How many times has it
been magnified? (IJSO/ Stage-I/2019-20)
(A) 1.5 × 103 (B) 15 × 104 (C) 1.5 × 104 (D) 1.5

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27. Descriptions of four biological samples (I - IV) are given below. (IJSO/ Stage-I/2020-21)
I. Can be viewed using a light microscope with a total magnification of 1000X; possesses cell wall and
does not possess mitochondria.
II. Can be seen using a light microscope with a total magnification of 100X; possesses cell wall and
has a nucleus.
III. Needs electron microscope for viewing; can be found attached to the membrane system in
thecytoplasm.
IV. Needs electron microscope for viewing; cannot replicate on its own, needs other specific cells for
replication.
I, II, III, and IV respectively represent:
(A) virus; plant cell; ribosome; bacteria (B) plant cell; bacteria; vacuole; virus
(C) bacteria; plant cell; ribosome; virus (D) bacteria; protist; plant cell vacuole; mitochondria

28. Descriptions of four biological samples (I – IV) are given below:

I: Can be viewed using a light microscope with a total magnification of 1000X, possesses cellwall and
does not possess mitochondria.
II: Can be seen using a light microscope with a total magnification of 100X: possess cell wall and has a
nucleus
III: Needs election microscope for viewing, can be found attached to the membrane system in the
cytoplasm
IV: Needs electron microscope for viewing, cannot replicate on its own, needs other specific cells for
replication.
I, II, III and IV respectively represent (IJSO/ Stage-I/2020-21)
(A) Virus; plant cell; ribosome; bacteria
(B) Plant cell, bacteria, vacuole, virus
(C) Bacteria, plant cell, ribosome, virus
(D) Bacteria; protest; plant cell vacuole, mitochondria

29. Which of the following is not a function of mature RBCs? (IJSO/ Stage-I/2021-22)
(A) Help in classifying blood in different blood groups
(B) Helps in transport of gases
(C) Synthesis of immunoglobulins
(D) Help in maintaining acid base balance in the body

30. In temperature regions, woody plants undergo dormant condition to adapt for the extreme winter
season. Physiologically they show periodic changes in the cellular activity. For example cambium
tissue is actively dividing in normal condition. During winter dormancy, cells show changes in the
protoplasm, their metabolic activity and cellular content. Which of the following feature/s can be seen
in dormant cambium cell as compared to actively diving cell. (IJSO/ Stage-I/2022-23)
(A) Very few golgi bodies
(B) Lesser amount of rough endoplasmic reticulum
(C) Large vacuole occupying much of the cell volume
(D) Increased hydration of cellulose microfibrils of the cell wall

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Answer Key

EXERCISE # 1

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
CELL
1. C 2. C 3. A 4. B 5. C
6. B 7. C 8. B 9. B 10. D

STRUCTURE OF GENERALIZED CELL

1. A 2. C 3. A 4. C 5. D
6. B 7. B 8. B 9. B 10. C
11. B 12. C 13. C 14. D 15. A
16. B

CELL DIVISION
1. B 2. C 3. C 4. C 5. D
6. B 7. A 8. C 9. A 10. A

EXERCISE # 2

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. C C C D A D D D D B B A A D A B C A B B

EXERCISE # 3

IJSO STAGE-I (PREVIOUS YEARS)

Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. A C B C D C C D B C C B A A B D B B D A
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. C B D B D C C C C A,B

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