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M3. Lecture 1: Representation in Various Media
M3. Lecture 2, Part 1: Forming Informed Opinions or Thesis
Statements
M3. Lecture 2, Part 2: The Thesis Statement and Its Purposes
M3. Lecture 2, Part 3: Paragraph Development Techniques and
Parts of a Selected Reference to Support Them
• In the field of media studies, representation is the way
aspects of society, such as gender, age, or ethnicity,
are portrayed to the viewers or readers. Playing a pivotal
role in shaping people’s perceptions of diverse social
groups and their identities, it is how media texts deal with
and present gender, age, ethnicity, national and regional
identity, social issues, and events to an audience.
Furthermore, media texts have the power to shape an
audience's knowledge and understanding about these
important topics. In order to analyze media texts to
determine how they have represented ideas and issues;
it is important to be familiar with some of the key terms.
• This is the way a media text is put together. In a film or
television programme, this includes the editing and
choice of camera angles; in a magazine or newspaper, it
includes the layout and writing as well as the choice of
images.
• This is the process everything goes through before it
reaches an audience. This can be how a film script is
written and re-written before it makes it to
production, how newspaper or magazine photographs
are cropped and captioned, or how real-life events—like
a protest or a speech by a politician—are portrayed in a
news report.
• This refers to what has been selected for inclusion in a
media text. This can be particularly important in
newspaper articles, where selecting certain facts over
others can change the angle of a story; what is omitted
is sometimes as important as what is included.
• These are the words that go along with images to give
those pictures a certain meaning in a specific context.
This includes captions and headlines in newspapers and
taglines in adverts or on film posters.
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• These are a simplified representation of a person,
groups of people or a place, through basic or obvious
characteristics—which are often exaggerated.
Stereotypes can be used to describe characters quickly,
relying on existing audience recognition. They are
dangerous as they can lead audiences to generalize
about people or places.
• These are ideas and beliefs, held by media producers,
which are often represented in their media texts.
• In a newspaper, the ideology of the owner or senior
editors could influence the way certain stories are
represented such as lending support to a particular
political party.
• In a documentary about asylum seekers, the
representation of their story could be influenced by the
ideology of the filmmaker or producer.
• A low angle camera shot can make someone seem
more powerful and in control than they really are.
• A high angle shot of the same person may make them
seem less important or influential.
• Media producers can manipulate the emotions of the
audience by representing certain characters or situations
through editing. For a documentary style reality show,
like Don't Tell the Bride, many hours of film footage may
have been recorded, but this footage is edited down to fill
a one-hour broadcast. How it is edited will determine how
the characters are represented and how the audience
respond to them.
• Reality shows like 'Don't Tell the Bride’ edit down many
hours of footage to create a one-hour programme.
• The representation of a person or fictional character can
be influenced through their dialogue; if they use slang
or speak with a strong accent, audiences will respond to
that person in a very different way than someone who
speaks perfect English without the trace of an accent.
Music can also influence representation in a media text.
In a film scene, where a character is walking down a
street, a slow, sombre piece of music will create a very
different representation to a cheerful, upbeat tune.
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Bridge - this represents Eilis' life in Amercia and maybe

• Iconography (the visual images or symbols that appear
in a scene) can influence representation. For example,
iconography can have a big impact on a representation
of femininity – a character carrying a briefcase and
wearing a smart suit creates a very different
representation of femininity than a character carrying a
changing bag and pushing a buggy.
her future as well.
• The tag line at the top of the poster - ‘Two countries, two
loves, one heart’ - anchors (anchorage) the images
and gives the audience an idea of what the film is
representing: romantic love.
• The representation of gender is a powerful code in media
texts.

• Representations of women in the media have developed

and changed with time to reflect the cultural and
sociological changes in society. However, female
1. Layout and Design stereotypes continue to appear in some media texts.
2. Language and Mode of Address
3. Camera shots and angles in any photographs
• Representations of women are often defined by how men
4. Visual codes
see women (termed the 'male gaze'), or by how society
5. Anchorage
expects women to look and behave.

• Many representations of women concentrate on sexuality

and emotions. Others focus on their relationships with
their children or romantic partners.

In this poster for the film Brooklyn, there are

representations of gender, place, and the past.

• The style of font used (design) along with the costumes

worn by the three characters (visual codes), and the
colors used reflect the 1950s when the film is set. Taken
together, the colors and images are soft and warm, and
represent the past in a nostalgic way; this is a romantic,
idealized representation of the past (mode of address).
• Gender is represented by the positioning of the three
characters (layout): the main character Eilis (Saoirse • Magazine front covers often include stereotypical
Ronan) is in the middle of the poster and shown from a representations of women.
low angle (camera shots), and she looks directly ahead
of her, over the heads of anyone looking at the poster. • Although there are representations of women in the
• These elements combine to represent her as a strong, media that conform to society's expectations there are
confident female who is at the center of this story. also representations that aim to subvert and challenge
• The layout also emphasizes that the story has two sides these constructions.
which is represented by the two men pictured and the
images behind them. • These positive representations offer a more realistic and
• The left-hand side of the poster features a picture of Jim refreshing view, showing women as active rather than
(Domnhall Gleeson): he is pictured against the rugged passive, as heroes not victims.
Irish coast and is looking down and to the left (visual
codes). In this way, he represents Eilis's past in Ireland.
• The right-hand side features Tony (Emory Cohen),
Eilis’ love interest in America, and he is looking up and
to the right. He is pictured against the towering Brooklyn

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• Representations of men have changed over the past two
decades with the emergence of the 'new man' or
'metrosexual', a man in touch with his feminine side and
interested in romance, fashion, health, and fitness.
• However, the main focus is still on the traditional idea of
masculinity which is strong, heroic, with the ability to
outsmart life's problems and survive against all odds.
• This kind of masculine representation is seen in action-
adventure characters such as James Bond or Indiana
Jones. Sometimes this heroic representation of
masculinity is challenged in action-adventures. In Skyfall,
we see an ageing James Bond, a more vulnerable hero.
This is a more realistic representation of masculinity and
age.
• The Big Bang Theory stars a group of scientists who are
hyper-intelligent, geeky, and weedy. The show
represents how Leonard, one of the weedy scientists,
manages to win the heart of Penny – despite him not
being the stereotypical tough, handsome guy who always
gets the girl.
• David Beckham combines traditional and modern male
values.
• David Beckham is a good example of someone who
combines the aspects of a 'new man' (he is interested in
fashion and is an active father to his children) with the
more traditional masculine values (his strength,
attractiveness and sporting skills).
• Today many men are faced with unrealistic and
aspirational representations of masculinity in the media.
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• The front cover of men's lifestyle magazines can offer an
unrealistic representation of masculinity
• The front covers of men's lifestyle magazines often depict
a 'perfect man' with great hair and a six pack of abs. As a
result, many men are now under a similar pressure to
women, trying to conform to an ideal image.
• Representations of age can influence how audiences
respond to a character or real-life person in a media text.
• When media texts represent people, they can be
categorized according to age, however it is easy to fall
into stereotypical caricatures of lazy teenagers or grumpy
old people. Today it can be difficult to pigeon-hole people
into age groups, as the boundaries are becoming more
blurred – for example, video games are just as likely to be
played by middle-aged adults as teenagers.
• Young people are often represented negatively in media
texts, which can cause controversy and stimulate debate.
During the London riots, British young people were
portrayed by the print media as dangerous and hostile.
This representation was based on the actions of a small
number of people and created an unfair stereotype.
• When young people appear in positive representations in
newspapers, it is often because they have done
something out of the ordinary, such as a heroic act or an
impressive sporting achievement. In comedy
representations, like Vicky Pollard in Little Britain, young
people are often shown as lacking in education and of low
social class. This is reflected in their clothes, the way they
speak and the language they use.
• This representation suggests that this is generally
considered the dominant representation of young people
in the media, enough to encourage a parody.
• Positive representations of young people in the media are
much less frequent because positive representations are
not as dramatic or entertaining.
• The main media texts which offer positive representation
of young people are usually situations which allow them
to represent themselves, within a specific context. For
instance, auditions on talent shows such as Britain's Got
Talent and The X Factor or celebrations of their good
deeds on charity programmes like Children in Need.
• Ethnic, national, or regional identity is reinforced or
undermined by how it is represented in the media. The
United Kingdom is an ethnically diverse country;
however, this diversity is not always reflected in the
media. On TV, film, and on the front of glossy magazines,
non-white faces are often under-represented.
• Many people confuse ethnicity and race. Ethnicity is
defined by culture, national customs, language, or beliefs.
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Race can mean physical characteristics that may be
related to skin color or other physiological features. The
media’s representation of ethnicity can prove very
powerful as it could be the only experience of other
cultures that some audiences will encounter.
• If all representation of ethnicity in the media were
balanced this would not be a problem. However, many
representations can rely on negative stereotypes which
may adversely affect the way others then perceive a
particular ethnic culture.
• National identity is based on the features of a specific
country - its culture, traditions, language and politics.
Regional identity is also based on geographical area but
can be quite broad (someone could be from the North or
the South of England) or more specific (they could be
Glaswegian or Cornish).
• Representations of national and regional identity often
focus on certain stereotypical characteristics and
customs associated with the nation or region. For
example, that the French are romantic, Italians are the
best cooks, or the Irish are friendly.
• The topic of under-representation of minority groups
in various media, as discussed previously, is intricately
connected to the act of viewing a documentary about
minority groups. Watching such a documentary serves as
a means of increasing awareness and understanding of
the issues related to under-representation. It can provide
you with valuable insights into the experiences,
challenges, and perspectives of these marginalized
communities.
• In turn, viewing a documentary about minority groups can
be a pivotal step in forming informed opinions and
thesis statements. It equips you with the knowledge and
context necessary to analyze and reflect on the issues
presented in the documentary. It encourages you to
critically examine the under-representation of these
groups in media and how this lack of representation
perpetuates stereotypes and inequality. In this part of the
module, you are to use your knowledge of concepts on
representation and under-representation in preparation
for gaining refined knowledge about how informed
opinions or thesis statements may best be made.
• In the process of crafting a well-structured argument or
research project, formulating an informed opinion or
thesis statement is a foundational task. It encapsulates
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the core argument or perspective that the entire work will
revolve around, providing clarity and purpose to the
endeavor. A thesis statement is a concise and clear
statement that articulates the main argument or point of
view in an essay, research paper, or any written work. It
serves the following purposes:
it is like a road sign that serves as a guide that tells what the
focus of the whole text is.
it tells readers about the overall message of the whole text.
However, do note that while the main idea provides the topic
or summary of each paragraph, the thesis statement is
responsible for providing the main point of the whole text, not
just a single paragraph.
To get a clearer picture of what a thesis statement
is, consider the following essential components of
a thesis statement. These components must be
satisfied, achieved, or found in a statement before
it can be considered a thesis:
1. Length - it must be 1 to 2 sentences in terms of length.
2. Location - it is embedded or found in the first paragraph
of the whole paper.
3. Topic - it announces the topic, issue, or area of concern
to be tackled.
4. Argument/ side/ opinion/ claim - it contains an
argument, informed opinions/ beliefs, sides or claims
about the topic
5. Testable/ defendable - it can be proven as or defended
to be true or false depending on evidence; it is NOT a
fact that can no longer be negated (e.g., the sun can be
found at the center of the solar system, being orbited by
planets).
• The persistent issue of food insecurity in urban
communities emphasizes the urgent need for
comprehensive policies, community-driven
initiatives, and equitable access to nutritious and
affordable food sources. These measures aim for
the reduction of dependency on food aid programs
and promotion of long-term food sovereignty.
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Topic: It clearly identifies the topic, which is "the

persistent issue of food insecurity in urban (1) identify what the topic and the thesis statement/s are;
communities." and

Arguments/sides/opinions/claims: It presents (2) prove the importance of the topic and validity of the
three arguments or claims, including: author’s thesis statement related to the topic

For an introduction to effectively serve its purposes, there

Comprehensive policies, community-driven are various techniques in paragraph development that
initiatives, and equitable access to nutritious writers can use separately or in combination:
and affordable food sources: This argument
emphasizes the need for multi-pronged solutions to
address food insecurity. It is arguable because different
• this technique comes in the form of including details that
stakeholders may have varying opinions on the most
have already been proven and tested to be true or
effective strategies to achieve food security. The
deemed to be logical.
discussion can center around which policies and
initiatives are most suitable and effective.

Reduction of dependency on food aid

programs: This argument raises questions about the
effectiveness of existing food aid programs and whether
they are contributing to long-term solutions or
perpetuating dependency. It's arguable as opinions may
differ on how best to transition away from reliance on
aid programs.

Promotion of long-term food sovereignty: The

idea of food sovereignty is a subject of ongoing debate
in the field of food policy. Some argue that it empowers
communities, while others may have reservations about
its feasibility and impact. This argument is arguable
because it involves differing perspectives on what long-
term food sovereignty entails and how it can be
achieved.

Paragraph development techniques and parts of a

selected reference to support them

An informed opinion or thesis statement may be further

supported to become a complete academic paper
serving various purposes. These techniques of
supporting and developing the thesis statement are as
follows:
• this technique comes in the form of including retellings
of relevant personal experiences or experiences by
other people.

• these are the first few paragraphs in any academic

paper. It serves two purposes:

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• this technique comes in the form of including details

about past events.

• This technique comes in the form of giving meaning to,

providing examples of, or describing of relevant
concept/s.

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• this technique comes in the form of

using statements coming from other sources.

• This technique comes in the form of including recent

events or trends that are happening at the time of writing.

• this technique comes in the form of identifying unusual,

unexpected, or unknown pieces of information.

• this technique comes in the form of presenting and

interpreting numerical or mathematical data.

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• The Body—at this part of an academic paper, the
following functions must be served: (1) to explain, (2) to
provide examples, and (3) elaborate on reasons/
explore ideas.
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Since the body of an academic paper must explore an
idea, elaborate on a chosen topic, and support the
thesis statement, there are also various paragraph
development techniques a writer can use to do so other
than the one used previously. The common ones are
as follows:
• this kind of paragraph shows how events take place and
in what sequence.
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• this kind of paragraph provides readers with meanings,

descriptions, or examples of a given concept or topic.

• this kind of paragraph presents a series of actions that

lead to a result. In addition, it may provide
explanations about how concepts function or work.

• this kind of paragraph groups things or individuals

together based on a certain standard or rule and
by specifying their shared characteristics.

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• this kind of paragraph focuses on similarities and

differences between and among identified groups.
• this kind of paragraph simply describes what is given
(e.g., a table, an illustration, a person, an experience,
etc.) by identifying its contents or appearance and
telling what they mean; it does not involve personal
interpretation.

• this kind of paragraph specifies reasons or sources and

results, telling how an event takes place and why.

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All the previously identified paragraph development

techniques/ methods fall under what is called expository
writing, a form of writing aimed at explaining ideas and
educating or informing readers about them. As opposed to
other forms of writing, expository writing is informational and
backed with facts and is technical.

• In an academic paper, there must be a part called

conclusion which must serve the following functions: (1)
to summarize/ restate the main point/ thesis
statement or (2) challenge readers to do certain
action/s related to the thesis statement.

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