20.1 INTRODUCTION jn 1925, de Broglie introduced the concept of matter waves and the idea of wave-particle ity. He suggested that the wave-particle duality observed in case of light should be ded to microparticles also. The combination of the idea of quantization with the idea of ‘yave-particle duality proved to be very fruitful for the development of quantum mechanics. The ‘whole apparatus of quantum mechanics was built in 1925-26. In 1925 Heisenberg. suggested hat any reference to conceptual pictures which are not amenable to direct experimental werification, should be discarded. He formulated matrix mechanics which is set in terms of the observable quantities alone. In 1926, Schrddinger developed wave mechanics. His theory is ‘ased on explicit use of a mental picture of matter wave which replaced the classical picture ofpoint particle. He developed the well-known differential equation for a wave function. The of calculating the energy levels of a bound microparticle was reduced by Schrodinger to the problem of finding eigenvalues. Heisenberg’s theory came to be known as matrix mechanics while that of Schrodinger as wave mechanics. In 1926, Max Bom proposed the lity interpretation of the wave function. In 1927 the wave behaviour of microparticles was confirmed by experiments on electron diffraction conducted simultaneously in several different laboratories. In 1927, Heisenberg introduced the uncertainty principle. Through this "principle Heisenberg showed how the concepts of coordinate, momentum, energy etc should be applied to microparticles. The uncertainty principle marked the final break of quantum mechanics from classical determinism and established quantum mechanics as a statistical theory. In quantum mechanics, the waves and particles are not classes of objects. They are distinct modes of behaviour shared by all atomic particles. Every microparticle can behave like a particle and like a wave too, In 1930, P,A.M.Dirac proposed a general formalism which is aunifying concept of the matrix mechanies and wave mechanics. The new laws applicable for atoms and subatomic particles constitute quantum janics. The laws of conservation of momentum, angular momentum and energy are id but we are not in a position to obtain on their basis a detailed description of the 1 of the subatomic particles, New ideas such as quantization of physical quantities and xd values of physical quantities are required to be incorporated into the theory. Planck’s is of energy quanta, Einstein's ideas on photons, de Broglie’s visualization of the rties of micro-particles and the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle provided the the development of quantum mechanics.In 1924, Louis de Broglie extended the wa ‘cle dualism of light to the material partic He reasoned out that nature exhibits a great amount of symmetry. Therefore, if a light way, can act as a wave sometimes and as a parti mes, then particles such a8 electong should also act as waves at times. This js known as de Broglie hypothesis. ‘According to de Broglic hypothesis any moving particle is associated with a wave ‘The waves associated with particles are known as de Broglie waves or matter waves, The + of matter waves associated with @ particle moving with velocity v is inversely proportional to the magnitude of the momentum of the particle. Thus, A eo co) De Broglie deduced the connection between the particle and wave properties as follows De Broglie wavelength of Matter waves ‘As a photon travels with the velocity c, we can express its momentum as E_w_h prcle M “Thus, the wavelength and momentum p of a photon are related to each other through the 554 A Textbook of Engineering Phy, 20.2 DE BROGLIE HYPOTHESIS expression h aes 20.2 P (20.2) De Broglie proposed thatthe relation (20.2) between the momentum and the wayelens ofa photon is a universal one and must be applicable to photons and material particles 3s well. “The quantities v and 2 are wave properties and the quantities and p ate partic properties. They are tied to each other through the relations E=hvandp=hh | which demonstrate that the wave and particle natures of a photon are intimately tied up tach other, These equations reflect the wave-particle dualism of light Now let us consider a moving particle. A particle of mass “m moving with a velocity carries » momentum p = mo and it must be associated with a wave of ‘wavelength h_h “ pe 3) p mv Or de Broglie ‘The waves associated with moving particles are called m: waves. ‘The relation 2 = h /mvv is known as de Broglie equ ‘wavelength 2. is called the de Broglie wavelength. From equ.(20.3), we may draw the following 1.1 > @ when the velocity, of the detectable only for moving articles: sma the value of mass m and hence the longer is the wavelength associated with it, Therefore, wave behaviour ‘of micro-particles will as waves associated with macro-bodies can never be detected. fe is zero. It means that matter waves are ~ ; iB ¢Fe Soi e 3a a ee Mechanics ‘he smaller the velocity of the micro-particle, the longer is the wavelength of the matter 3 ave associated with i, : if photon is considered to be a particle, then the corresponding electromagnetic ba ie Broglie wave for the photon. Similarly, atomic particles also can be viewed @ ist ed with matter waves, which do not have any similarity to any known waves. It is ‘understood that the waves associated with particles are not real three dimensional waves es way sound waves are, but are probability waves related to the probabilities of finding in Marites in various places and with various properties. i wavelength associated with an accelerated charged particle ya charged particle, say an electron is accelerated by a potential difference of V volts, ants int ener i given by KE. = jm =e 555 Or (20.4) De Broglie Wavelength expressed in terms of K.E. i aie Ifa pict has kinetic energy KE, then KE, = 5m? = "7 = o p= \Pm(KE) a- (20.5) [2m(K.E) De Broglie wavelength associated with particles in thermal equilibrium Ifpaticles are in thermal equilibrium at temperature T, then their kinetic energy is given by 3 KE. = at h h a= = . m(KE) VamkT 206) 20.3. DE BROGLIE’S JUSTIFICATION OF BOHR’S POSTULATE. Bolr’s theory of atomic structure was successful in explaining a large body of experimental sbservations concerning atomic behaviour but the three adhoc postulates underlying his theory remained without a valid theoretical justification for a long time. In support of his hypothesis of matter waves, de Broglie demonstrated that it could provide an explanation for i fe eal regarding quantization of angular momentum of electron in Bohr’s model of reCh eo ee oe 20.4 DE BROGLIE WAVES ARE INSIGNIFI MACRO-BODIES CANT IN CASE OF According to de Broglie hypothesis a moving body i : . wavelength of the waves is given by ig body is cited with matter waves and the ae mv where v is the velocity with which the body moves. As the mass m of the body increases, the wavelength tends to be insignificant. Therefore, the wavelength associated with macroscopic bodies become insignificant in comparison to the size of the bodies themselves even at very low velocities. Because of the smaller magnitude of Planck’s constant h, the wavelength A will be significant only in case of micro-particles. For example, if we consider a cricket ball of mass 500 gm flying with a velocity of 50 knV/hr, its wavelength comes to = 662x10™* Js 0.5kg x13.9m/s It is easy to see that this wavelength is insignificant in comparison to the size of the ball. On the other hand, if we consider the case of an electron, having energy 100 eV, the de Broglie wavelength of the electron is given by h 2meV =104m=10 A. A= 7 6.62 x10 J.s 7 2x 9.11 x10" kg x11.602 x10". Cx 1007 ‘The size of an electron is about 105A, which is far smaller than the wavelength of 1.33A. Itmeans that the electron behaves more as a wave than a particle under the circumstances, =133A.558 A Textbook of Engineering Physics 20.5 PROPERTIES OF MATTER WAVES 1. Matter waves are produced by the motion of the particles and are independent of the charge. Therefore, they are neither electromagnetic nor acoustic waves but are new kind of waves. ) . They can travel through vacuum and do not require any material medium for their propagation. The smaller the velocity of the particle, the longer is the wavelength of the matter wave associated with it. The lighter the particle, the longer is the wavelength of the matter wave associated with it. The velocity of matter waves depends on the velocity of the material particle and is not a constant quantity. The velocity of matter waves is greater than the velocity of light. They exhibit diffraction phenomenon as any other waves.SPI eae Skee Sota STS TT esate SRR Te TEM Geet e er pikecel 20.6 DAVISSON-GERMER EXPERIMENT Waves exhibit diffraction, If the de Broglie hypothesis is valid, then the matter waves should exhibit diffraction effects. Diffraction is observed when the wavelength is comparable to the size of the object causing diffraction. The wavelength of 100 eV electrons is of the order of A and the interatomic spacing in a crystal is of the order of 2 to 3 A. Therefore, we expect that the wave behaviour of a micro-particle such as an electron becomes noticeable when a beam of particles interact with crystals. In 1927, Davisson and Germer observed the diffraction of an electron beam incident on a nickel crystal. The experiment provided a convincing proof of the wave nature of matter. Apparatus The experimental arrangement of Davisson and Germer is shown in Fig. 20.2. The apparatus consisted of an electron gun, which produced collimated beam of electrons. An anode, A, connected to’a variable voltage source accelerated the electrons. The energy of the electrons can be computed from the accelerating potential. These electrons were scattered by a nickel crystal located at C. The crystal can be rotated on the axis. The number of electrons scattered by the crystal in different directions was measured with the help of a detector D, which can be moved on a scale. Nick crystal Fig. 202 Fig. 20.3Pe ee ee Mechanics experimental arrangement of Davisson and Germer is shown in Fig. 20.2. An electron ses is generated from a hot tungsten filament F and an anode A connected to a variable verge sue® accelerated the electrons. The energy of the electrons can be computed from the accelerating potential, V applied between the filament F and the anode A. The electrons through an opening in the anode and fall normally on the surface of a nickel crystal, These electrons are scattered by a nickel crystal located at C. The crystal can be rotated on Mais The detector D measured the number ‘of electrons scattered by the crystal in different Hae gas. The detector could be moved on a graduated semicircular scale. Thus, the intensity Jectron beam was determined as a function of the scattering angle, o 559 ofthe soattered el tions During their experiments Davisson and Germer moved the detector on the circular scale fo wariouS positions and the current was measured. The detector current is a measure of the rrmaity of te diffracted beam. A polar graph was then plotted between the detector current Je between the incident beam and the diffracted beam, Such polar curves were pained for electrons accelerated through different voltages. It was found that a hump in the polar curve when 44 eV electrons were incident on the crystal. The bump grew jn size as the accelerating voltage is increased and became most pronounced at 54 volts. The jar eurve corresponding to 54 V is shown in Fig, 20.3. Itis found that for the accelerating voltage of 54 volts, the electrons are scattered more pronouncedly at an angle of 50° with the direction of the incident beam. The maximum is an indication that electrons are being diffracted. Incident beam Ret beam is It may be interpreted that the rows of atoms at the surface of the nickel crystal act like rulings of a fatural diffraction grating and the de Broglie waves associated with the electrons underwent diffraction when they were incident on the crystal. The hump iuced at 50° in Fig. 20.3 then corresponds fp the first order diffraction maxima. Braggs’ law, applicable for X-ray diffraction by crystals, would be valid for electron wave diffraction also. Fig. 204 shows atomic planes and the incident and scattered beams. The interplanar spacing is obtained from X-ray analysis to be d= 0.91 A. From the Fig, 20.4, itis seen that the glancing angle 0 = 65°. Applying Brages’ equation, a= 2d sin 0 =2* 0.91 Ax sin 65° = 1.65 A. Jlectron wave is thus determined to be 1.65 A. The wavelength of potential V using de Broglie equation. ‘The wavelength of the e electron wave can be computed from the accelerating h he VameY 6.63x10- Js = 1.664. 9Cx54V Itis seen that the values obtained experimentally using Braggs’ equation and de Broglie equation agreed well. Therefore, Davisson-Germer experiment gave conclusive evidence that electrons exhibit diffraction property.molecular beams. 20.8 VELOCITY OF DE BROGLIE WAVES Any harmonic wave is characterized by a precise wavelength and constant amplitude. It is non-localized and has no beginning and end. It means that such a wave extends over a very large volume of space. 20.8.1 Phase Velocity If we consider a harmonic wave, the wave has a single wavelength and a single frequency. The velocity of propagation of the wave is given by v, = vA P Using, v = @/2n and 1 = 2n/k into the above equation, we get p= 2.2 ait POR VE Gulp v, is called the phase velocity. The velocity with which the plane of equal phase travels through a medium is known as the phase velocity. It thus represents the velocity of propagation of the wave front. As E=hvand p = h/, we get eh B Po hp p (20.12)} fu Mechanics 561 tomic particle velocity i ; } When the a city, 38 hon vetasivien i momentum p = mv. ; relativistic, the total energy E = me? and | Therefore, the phase velocity of the de Broglie wave associated with the particle is v, = Zame _e > Pom > (20.13) su | k- wave packet ->| Fig. 20.6: Formation of a Wave packet. (a) two waves of slightly different frequencies produce constructive interference. (b) three waves produce interference maxima of larger size separated by larger distance. (c) A large number of waves-having slightly different frequencies produces only one maxima and it is called a wave packet.Ps A Textbook of Engineering Physics The individual waves forming the wave packet propagate ata velocity known as the phage velocity v,.. 20.9.1 Group Veloci : ; When a number tlie a of slightly different wavelengths travel in the same direction, they form wave groups or wave packets. The velocity with which the wave group advances in the medium is known as the group velocity v,- Each component wave has its own phase velocity, v, = vA. The wave packet has amplitude that is large in a small region and very smal] outside it. The amplitude ofthe wave packet varies with x and f. Such a variation of amplitude is called the modulation of the wave. The velocity of propagation of the modulation is known as the group velocity, U. Here, we should note that wave packets are only theoretical artifices to aid our visualization of various phenomena in the micro-world. Expression for the Group Velocity Fig. 20.7 Beats are formed when two waves of We derive now an expression for group slightly different frequencies combine velocity considering a group of waves (a) the individual waves (b) the resultant wave, consisting of two components of equal amplitude and slightly differing angular velocities ©, and @, . Let the waves in Fig. 20.7 (a) be represented by the equations : y, = Asin (o,f kx) y= Asin (thx) ‘The superposition of these two waves is given by dy +9) = Asin (@,t— kx) +A sin (ot kx) Using the trigonometric relation sina. + sin = asin 5? hil 252), we write the above * equation as eg aff +0), (Ki “Hd -o 2 2 2 = 2Asin(ot ts) eos( 22% (20.15) where @ = (0,+ @,Y/2, k= (k+ k)/2, Aw =, ~ @, and Ak = ky ~ ky, Equ.(20.15) represents the resultant wave which is seen to have the followin two parts, Pah ia (A wave of angular frequency © and propagation constant k , moving with a velocity =VA and oe (ii) A second wave of angular frequency Ac/2 and propagation constant AK/2 moving ‘ : 40 i with a velocity Vaarre When Aw and Ak are very small, we can write the above equation as do aE (20.16)“_— v= - = _2ndv a2 of & Qmd(l/a) Gn 92 Relation between Phase Velocity and Group Velocity oe ‘locity of the individual component wave of the wave packet is given by ie =va Using, v= /2nand=2n/ & into the above equation, we get v= 2.2%_@ , (20.17) PANE vey @= hoy ~ sqhe group velocity is given by the relation (20.16) as _~do_d dv, Bi 7 alte) = 0p thE 2n k= =. But Xn 2n coeur dk = ~Fadh kl Lh and dk dn v,= vp ae (20.18) . . ity i i ituent waves travel velocity will be the same as phase velocity if the entire constituent spasoate velocity. It means that in a nondispersive medium, v, = v,. However, the waves vr different wavelengths travel in a medium with different velocities. Therefore, the group velocity is in general less than the phase velocity.VelOCIty 1S ut Beursas woo wanes aw puusow verity, 20.9.3 The Velocity of a Particle Equals the Group Velocity of the Associated Matter Waves A particle moving with a velocity v is supposed to consist of a group of de Broglie waves. The group velocity of a wave packet is given by which we can write as Dy (2\Z\2) (20.19) AS E.= Wah =o = ho, B= 2 and p= Fabia ke ak, Bey (BELE)AGG) om For a particle, =5m? ~ Lo 2564 A Textbook of Engineering Phy, 1 dE Pay; (202 o,- = & dpm Thus, the de Broglie wave group associated w: velocity as that of the particle itself. 20.9.4 Relation Between the Group Velocity Non-dispersive Medium) A particle moving with a velocity v is suppos an atomic particle of rest mass m, moving with a are given by 2 mv E= me? “as and p = maar respectively. =v" /e —v* /c’ ‘The frequency of the associated de Broglie wave is ‘ith an atomic particle travels with the same and Particle Velocity (in g ed to consist of a group of de Broglie waves, Fo, velocity v, the total energy and momentu, 2 2 Bn a Se igs oy gy a us mi-v/e Wi-v?/e Therefore, do = 2s v.dv. (20.22) (1-0? /e*) The wavelength of the de Broglie wave is h a(t-v?/e) - eblisvile). cag 5 an 2nm,v Pp mv. a a(l-v? 12)" = 2a 0? 12 Dieter? | a= We) ( vc) do+0- (1 we) dv 2nm,dv or dk = eo (20.23) z n(i-v? ey Dividing eq. (20.22) by (20.23), we get v,- ev dk ‘Thus, the de Broglie wave group associated with an atomic particle travels with the same velocity as that of the particle itself in a non-dispersive medium. (20.24)structure of the sample. Example 20.1: An electron beam is accelerated from rest through a potential difference of 200K. (i) Calculate the associated wavelength. (ii) This beam is passed through a diffraction grating of spacing 3 A. At what angle of deviation from the incident direction will be the first maximum observed? Solution: The wavelength of the waves associated with the electron beam is given by i= A 2meV _ 6.631074 Js f2x9.11x 107g x 1.602 x10-C x 2007 = 0.86 A. The diffraction is governed by the equation 2d sin 8 =m) For first order m= 1 and 2dsin@=1. -af%)_. 1 0.86x1071°m = si 1 —|= 1 ——_—_——————] = oO nine Cry om [eee eeBl Example 20.2. An enclosure filled with helium is heated to ste A beam of He-atoms emerges out of the enclosure. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength corresponding to He atoms. Mass of He atom is 6.7x10°?7kg. h 2mkT W Solution. De Broglie wavelength 4 6.631074 Js © P2x6:7 x10" kg x 1376x101 / degx 409 = 0.769A Example 20.3: Find the de Broglie wavelength of (® an electron accelerated through a potential difference of 182 volts, and (ii) a 1 kg object moving with a speed 1 m/s. Comparing the results explain why the waye nature of matter is not more apparent in daily observations. Solution: @ edhe 6.626x10 Js . “ enV «f2(0-602%10" c)(9.11% 107g) 1827 6.626 x 1074 Js. 10 kgm? /'s 1 = = 0.91 x 1071 SA = 9.1107" m= 05 7.29104 kgm/s * kgm/s 91% mrvots . h_ _ 6626x104 J.s kgm? | (ii) Ay = = 82610 Sg yg 34 Kg Is 34 Mv lgxim/s 7OOx10 lemis 6.6x10™ m . It is seen from the above that the wavelength of the accelerated electron is about 10° aaa then its own size (~10-!5 m) and is therefore significant. On the other hand, the wavelength associated with the macroscopic object is negligibh i in its interactions with other objects. ’ Pane ita wegen aton eee eee enue ULE UUJELLS. 20.11 HEISENBERG UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE The wave nature of atomic particles leads to some inevitable consequences. Classically, the state of a particle can be defined by specifying its position and momentum at any given time t, If a body is moving along x-direction with a velocity v, its position is given by x = v fand its momentum by p = mv. From this, x= 24 (20.28) m At each instant, the position and momentum can be measured to a very high accuracy. When an atomic particle is conceptualized as a de Broglie wave packet such a precision becomes restricted. Schrédinger postulated that a moving microparticle is equivalent to a wave packet. A wave packet spreads over a region of space. Therefore, it is difficult to locate the exact position of the microparticle. Although the particle is somewhere within the wave packet, it is impossible to know where exactly the particle is at a given instant. If the linear spread of the wave packet is Ax, the particle would be located somewhere within the tegion Ax. The probability of finding the particle is a maximum at the centre of the wave packet and falls off to zero at its ends. Therefore, there is an uncertainty Ax in the position of the particle. As awr i, the momentum of the particle at that instant cannot be determined precisely. It means pt the location and momentum of a microparticle cannot be simultaneously determined with ai: Any attempt to determine these variables will lead to uncertainties in each of ables. tbe "1927 Heisenberg showed that the product of uncertainty Ax in the 2-coordinate of a qa icle and the ‘uncertainty 4p, in the x-component of the momentum would always ie the order of Planck's constant i. Thus, Ax: Ap. sh ; A or more precisely Ach Ape (20.29) ‘This is known as Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle for position and momentum, which oe stated as follows: ‘sy is not possible to know simultaneously and with exactness both the’position and the ium of a microparticle”. ‘The Uncertainty Principle implies a built-in, unavoidable limit to the accuracy with which ‘ye can make measurements. Classically, it is thought that the precision of any measurement vrs limited only by the accuracy of the instruments the experimenter used, Heisenberg showed that whatever may be the accuracy of the instruments used, quantum mechanics limits the precision when two properties are measured at the same time. These are not just any two properties but pairs of measurable quantities whose product has dimensions of energy * time. Such quantities are called conjugate quantities in quantum mechanics, and have a special relation to each other. Positionlinear momentum, energy-time, time-frequency and angular momentum-angular displacement are conjugate pairs of variables. ‘The uncertainty principle asserts that it is physically impossible to know simultaneously the exact position (Ax = 0) and exact momentum (Ap, = 0) of a micro-particle. According to it the more precisely we know the position of the particle, the less precise is our information about its momentum. To localize a wave packet, we have to add more wavelengths to form the wave packet. More wavelengths mean larger Ad, and more uncertainty in momentum (note that Ap « AA). Conversely, in order to have more precise value of momentum, the wave packet should contain less number of waves. Less number of waves produces a longer wave packet. Thus, the momentum of a particle cannot be precisely specified without our loss of knowledge ofthe position of the particle at that time. Similarly, a particle cannot be precisely localized in a particular direction without our loss of knowledge of momentum in that particular direction. We can at best specify that certain momentum of the particle is more probable than the other or that the particle is more likely to be here than there. We cannot use classical notions like coordinates and momentum to describe the motion of quantum particles. Thus, the uncertainty principle implies that we can never define the path of an atomic particle with the absolute precision indicated in classical mechanics. Therefore, concepts such as velocity, position, and acceleration are of limited use in quantum world. Relations similar to (20.29) hold good for other components of position and linear momentum. Thus, Ay Ap, = (20.292) wis Rls Az: Ap, = (20.29)me ia iin | 20.11.1 Energy - Momentum Uncertainty os The uncertainty relation for the simultaneous measurement of energy E and time # is expresseq i } AE- Ate 2 (20.30) | ‘The physical significance of the energy-time uncertainty relation is hare from that of | the position -momentum uncertainty. If AE is the maximum Anorrinty in the determination | of the energy of a particle, then the minimum time interval for which the particle remains in that state is given j state is given by yt 4 § i And, if a particle remains in a particular energy state for a maximum time Af, then the minimum uncertainty in the particle energy is given by 2 wt Derivation: We can obtain the result (20.30) as follows. Let us consider a microparticle of mass m moving with a velocity v. Its kinetic energy will be 1 nn E ym” 1 If the uncertainty in the energy is AE, then a= 4] $m? |=mo Av=0 Ap . & As the velocity v=, the uncertainty in energy may be writen as AE = 7h Thus, AE At = Ax- Ap But ar dp2 4 | i | Therefore, AE- Ar 2 > | The above relations are to be supplemented by the following uncertainty relation | AM, - Ag, > 4 (2031) where AM, is the uncertainty in the projection of the angular momentum on the x-axis and A®, is the uncertainty in the angular coordinates of the microparticle, By analogy with (20.28a) and (20.28b), we may write down relations for other projections of momentum and angular momentum as follows: | AM, - Ag,2 h/2 and AM, - Ag,> h/2 (20318) | Tn general if and p denote two canonically conjugate variables, the uncertainty relation | is given by | Aq - Ap 2 hi2 (2032) | The above relations do not mean that the uncertainty principle creates certain to the understanding of the atomic phenomena; it only objective properties of a quantum particle. obstacles reflects certain peculiarities of the30.12 ELEMENTARY PROOF OF UNCERT BROGLIE WAVE CONCEPT Te ee USEC DE) Awave packet produced by a superposition of large number of harmonic waves is shown in Fig. 20.10. Since a wave packet is not an infinite harmonic wave, it has a range of wave numbers Ak instead of one definite wave number. 7 : Aris thus the uncertainty in wave number. Further aera the position of the particle cannot be given with certainty. It will lie somewhere between the two consecutive nodes (see Fig, 20.7b and Fig. 20.10). Thus, the uncertainty in the position of the particle js equal to the distance between two consecutive nodes. Referring to equ. (20.15), the condition for formation of a node is (tea es Fig. 20.10 2. 2 Ao, Ak ie, Dane: Thus, if x, and x, are the positions of two consecutive nodes, then Ao Ak t ta Ont Aw Ak x and 3 (2n+3)>- Subtracting the above upper equation from the lower one, we find that Ak Ak Zh») =m or Aran where Ar = (x, — x) is the uncertainty in the position of the particle. Thus, 2n ars: i of 2m arp! Since a BAP, Therefore, A= % Ax Ap=h When we consider a group consisting of very large number of hi ously varying frequencies, the product of the uncertainties comes to 1 sh Ax: bp? 5 armonic waves of continu- 20.13 IMPLICATION OF UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE The uncertainty princi fundamental limitation in nature that also limits the rinciple expresses x ce Precision of ae Seen ‘According to classical mechanics the position and momentum20.14 UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE IS NOT SIGNIFICANT IN CASE OF MACRO-BODIES The Heisenberg Principle is of no practical importance for heavy bodies where the de Broglie wavelength is negligibly small. For example, let us take the case of a cricket ball in flight. The indeterminacy in the position of the ball is, say, 1 mm. We can determine the indeterminacy of velocity of the ball from uncertainty principle. Ax-Apeh Ax-mAv xh -34 Av = ah oeexleT s4 FS 210 m/s. mAx 0.5kg x10 m The above inaccuracy is negligible and not detectable. It implies that the uncertainties are of no importance in case of macro bodies; and the position and velocity of a macro body can be simultaneously determined with a high degree of accuracy. As a result, macroscopic body follows a well defined trajectory. In contrast if we take the example of an electron orbiting in a hydrogen atom, the inaccuracy in its position is + 1A. The uncertainty in its speed is csi 6.62104 Js C1) 8 GED ROM Figo 0os'04)) Seg max SA 1X10 hg x 2x10 my 21S which is of the same order as the velocity of the electron in the orbit. It means that it is not possible to determine the velocity and the position of a microparticle with certainty and 38 such we cannot talk of a specific trajectory. Instead we have to be content knowing only the probable values.ee 15 THOUGHT EXPERIMENTS fi ify Heisenber i inciple is « nat possible to verify rg uncertainty principle in the laboratory. Therefore, we ssh pe it with the help of two thought experiments. i 20 qreating the electron as a wave assume that an electron has wave character. ‘Suppose that we want to determine dinate of an electron moving the x-axis. We place a slit of width ‘a dicular to the direction of motion of the electron (Fig, 20.11). The precision of te postion of electron, Ay, in y-direction is limited by the size of the slit. That is, Ay = d. If the slit is narrow enough, it causes a Fig. 20.11 ctange in the motion of the electron after going through the slit and brings out the wave character of electron as evidenced from the diffraction pattern observed on the screen. The spoatainty inthe electron momentum parallel to y-axis depends on the diffraction angle 0. ‘According to the theory of diffraction at a single slit, the angle 0 is given by 1 along sin @ = Nd (20.33) ‘The uncertainty in the momentum of the electron parallel to y-axis is given by Ah_h_h - pe LP Any = RAMOS aT a Ay Ap, = h (20.34) _ < . y -_ . If we wish to determine the exact position of the electron along the y-axis, we have to use a very narrow slit. However, a very narrow slit produces a wider diffraction pattern, which leads to a larger uncertainty in our knowledge of the Y-component of the momentum. Conversely, if we attempt to reduce the uncertainty in our knowledge ‘of Y-component of momentum, the diffraction pattem should be very "3 narrow. Therefore, we have to use a very wide slit, which in tu results in a large uncertainty in the y-coordinate of the electron. Thus, our efforts to simultaneously reduce the uncertainties Ay and Ap Fi will get frustrated. 2, Treating the Electron as a Particle We now consider that electron is a particle and attempt to measure its position, For the sake of convenience, we assume that the electron is at rest and use a microscope to locate it. We cannot use a optical microscope for this purpose. The act of observing an object requires that light from a source te reflected by the object and enter @ recording coe such as eye. An object reflects a wave when the size of the object is sufficiently larger than 1 the wavelength of the ie In the present case, if we ne FN ot en We li ; ; a light waves, they would pass on without getting Mie se Nanceacope, Tlected by the electron, since the size of the electroneons is about 10° times smaller than the wavelength of light. Therefore, we use a y-tay microso, to detect and locate'an electron. tba Let a free electron be directly-beneath the center of the y-ray microscope’s lens, Ty, circular lens forms a cone of angle 2c. from the electron. The electron is illuminated the left by y-rays. The microscope can resolve objects to a size of Ax. Ax is given by fe expression du 2sina To be observed by the microscope, the y-ray must be scattered into any angle within the cone of angle 2a. A y-photon carries a very large momentum. When the y-photon strikes the electron, part of the momentum and energy are transferred to the electron due to Compton scattering. Consequently, as the scattered photon enters the microscope, the electron hay already moved away in a certain direction (Fig. 20.12). The total momentum p is related tp the wavelength by the formula p = ‘ 20.35) In the extreme case of diffraction of the gamma ray to the right edge of the lens, the total momentum in the x direction would be the sum of the electron’s momentum p’, in the X direction and the gamma ray’s momentum in the x-direction: (fh sinw Bm + ~ } (2036 where 4’ is the wavelength of the deflected gamma ray. In the other extreme, the observed gamma ray recoils backward, just hitting the left edge of the lens. In this case, the total momentum in the X-direction is: z-(4 se) 203 Px 7” The final X-momentum in each case must equal the initial X-momentum, since momentum is conserved. Therefore, the final X-momenta are equal to each other: 1 (A sine) _ (sino Prt|—p Ps |e If is small, then the wavelengths are approximately the same, A’~ 2” = 2, And we have n_, 2h sina by Pam Fok 2h sina or I, Sa (20.38) Using eq.(20.35) into the above equation, we obtain h Ap, = 7cleus: (©) Electrons cannot be present in the nu , ; The radiation emitted by radioactive nuclei consists of 0, B and y-rays, out of which Brrays are identified to be electrons. We apply uncertainty principle to find whether ests se coming out of the nucleus. The radius of the nucleus is of the order o' es efor, if electrons were to be in the nucleus, the maximum uncertainty Ax in the position of th, electron is equal to the diameter of the nucleus. Thus, Ax =2* 104m. The minimum uncertainty in its momentum is then given by 34 Ap = 2 2 Oddo i JS 25210 kes, Ax 2x1074m The minimum uncertainty in momentum can be taken as the momentum of the electron Thus, p= 52x 107! kg-mis. The minimum energy of the electron in the nucleus is then given by Enin = Pmin © = (5.2 * 10°?! kg-m/s)(3 x 108 m/s) = 1.56 x 10-!2 = 9.7 Mev. It implies that if an electron exists within the nucleus, it must have a minimum energy of about 10 MeV. But the experimental measurements showed that the maximum kinetic energies of B-particles were of the order of 4 MeV only. Hence electrons are not present in the nucleus. It is subsequently established that emission of B-particles occurs due to transforma. tions in the nucleus. The transformation of a neutron into a proton produces an electron, Example 20.4: Uncertainty in time of an excited atom is about 10-8s, What are the uncertainties in energy and in frequency of the radiation? Solution: AB At 2n 1.054x10™J.s _ 1.054 10-26 AE = 10s Lenny g iY = 658x10%er AE _ 1.054x107% 7 is eS h 6626x1045 | 19-9 MHz. Example 20.5. An electron is confined to a potential well of width 10 nm. Calculate the minimum uncertainty in its velocity, Av = Solution. Ax Ap x orAr Apa 2n Qn Ay = — 4 2m m-Ax ne 6.63 x10™ Js 2%3.143x9.11 x10 Re xox 1oSps > Et kimfecnanics (uate 20.6: If the kinetic energy of an electron known to be about | eV, must be measured ple mein 0.0001 eV; what accuracy can its position be measured simultaneously? 2 ow. 2p =m ion: E= —_ Bs =a 2 Ap=—AE Solution: om Im \p ? h AxAp = = a 2n Age ee _hV2mE __h [E - 2n-Ap 2” mAE 2nmAE mAE ee 6.63 x10" Js _ pel.602x10°P 7 3.143 x 0,00011.602x10 7 ¥2x9.11x 10 1kg = 1.95 pm. Example 20.7: An electron and a 150 gm base ball are traveling at a velocity of 220 m/s, measured to an accuracy of 0.005 %. Calculate and compare uncertainty in position of each. Solution: The uncertainty in the velocity is Av = vx 0.065% = (220m /s) x ed (i) The uncertainty in the position of electron is h 1.05 x10 J.s = = —— = 04 mm. © 2mAv— 2x9.11x107 kg x 0.143 m/s (ii) The uncertainty in the position of baseball is a 105x104 J.s Meg FST 2S 103m. 8” I May ~Dx015kgx0.143m/s 71 ™20.17 WAVE FUNCTION AND PROBABILITY INTERPRETATION Waves represent the propagation of a disturbance in a medium. We are familiar with light waves, sound waves, and water waves. These waves are characterized by some quantity that varies with position and time. Light waves consist of variations of electric and magnetic fields in space, and sound waves consist of pressure variations. We cannot specify in a similar way what is actually varying in de Broglie waves. Since microparticles exhibit wave properties, it is assumed that a quantity y represents a de Broglie wave. This quantity y is called a wave function. y describes the wave as a function of position and time. However, it has no direct physical significance, as it is not an observable quantity. In general, w is a complex-valued function. According to Heisenberg uncertainty principle, we can only know the probable value in a measurement. The probability cannot be negative. Hence y cannot be a measure of the presence of the particle at the location (x, y, z). But it is certain that it is in someway an index of the presence of the particle at around (x, y, z, 1). Probability Interpretation of Wave Function given by Max Born A Probability interpretation of the wave function was given by Max Bom in 1926. He Suggested that the square of the magnitude of the wave function \y\|? evaluated in a Particular region represents the probability of finding the particle in that region. In other words,Probability, P, of finding the particle in an infinitesimal volume dV (= dx dy qy ;, Proportional to |y(x, », 2)|? dk dy dz at time t. or Pox |y(x,y.2)|? aV _ (2045) lyP is called the probability density and y is the probability amplitude, Since the particle is certainly somewhere in the space, the probability P = 1 and ty integral of |y|?aV over the entire space must be equal to unity. That is Tive av =i (20.46) The wave function y is in general a complex function. But the probability must bere, erefore to make probability a real quantity, y is to be multiplied by its complex conjugate vy’. - Jyyray =1 Thus, y has no physical significance but |yi? gives the probability of finding the atomic particle in a particular region. 20.17.1 Normalization Condition If at all the particle exists, it must be found somewhere in the universe. Since we are sure that the particle must be somewhere in space, the sum of the probabilities over all values of xyz must be unity. If (x,y, z, #) is multiplied by a constant C such that Y,, (x,),2,1) = C ¥xyz, where Yy (x, y, z, #) satisfies the relation JivlsePadapae = |cf f (xy.20)f dedyde = 1 2047, then Y, (x,,z,0) is said to be normalized wave function and C the normalization constant. This condition (20.47) is known as the normalization condition. From equ.(20.47), Ic? = = 4 (2048) J ew e0)f aecds lye; », 2, OP dedydz is called the Probability density, Whenever wave functions are nonmalised, |y/’dV equals th ise oe will be found in an elemental volume dV. AV equals the probability that a pat Thus, Probability we have P= w(x y, 2)Pav An acceptable wave function y must be normalized and fulfill th i 4 e folk it ts: ( y function must be finite: The wave function must be finite Siehncee eae a © OF — 0, YF 0 OF — ©, Z—> © OF oo, the wavs 3 : are ¢ probability of ig the particle at ‘i eae " i nee that point. This would Violate the uncertaiatyil iy function must be single-valued: Any physical ii quastity can have only one value at a point. For this reason, the function related to a physical quantity cannot have more than one value at that 5 ? point. If it has more than one value at a Point, a 5 it means that there 1s more than one value of robability of finding the particle at that point (ig. 20. 14). (iV function must be continuous: wy function should be continuous across any boundary. Since y is related to a physical quantity, it cannot have a discontinuity at any point. Therefore, the wave function y and its space derivatives ov. oy ax’ dy and ~ should be continuous across any Fig. 20.14 boundary. Since y is related to a real Particle, it cannot have a discontinuity at any boundary where potential changes. Wave functions satisfying the above mathematical conditions are called well-behaved wave functions.20.18 SCHRODINGER WAVE EQUATION In 1926, Erwin Schrédinger, an Austrian physicist, reasoned that the de Broglie waves associated with electrons would resemble the classical waves of light and developed wave equation that describes the behaviour of matter waves. This equation, which has been named after him, defines the wave properties of electrons and also predicts particle-like behaviour. Time dependent Schrédinger Wave Equation Since the concept of de Broglie waves is not a result of previous physical theories, it is not possible to derive a wave equation for the wave associated with a particle. However, a wave equation can be developed. Let us assume that a particle of mass ‘m’ is in motion along the x-direction. Let the wave function w be the dependent variable of the de Broglie wave which is a function of the coordinates x and t. Analogous to the classical wave, we may expect that, y will be a function of (x — vf). As v = w / k, the wave function may be written as a function of (kx — wf). Using the relation p = Ak and E = ha, we can write we (25) (20.50) The more general wave would be a sum of a sine and cosine waves. Taking help of Euler’s identity, we write the above equation in an exponential form as follows: w=A exo "(ox (20.51) We assume that the energy and momentum of the particle are constant. Differentiating the above equation with respect to x, we get