MODERN PHYSICS

EXPERIMENT (I)

TAMKANG UNIVERSITY
PHYSICS DEPARTMENT
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Balmer series of hydrogen atom

Determine the wavelengths of 𝐻𝛼 , 𝐻𝛽 , and 𝐻𝛾 from the Balmer series of
hydrogen atom

Objects of the experiments

 Observe the spectral lines of atomic hydrogen with high-resolution gratings
 Measure the wavelengths of 𝐻𝛼 , 𝐻𝛽 , and 𝐻𝛾 from the Balmer series
 Determine the “frequency version” of Rydberg constant 𝑅∞

Principles
In the range of visible light, the emission spectrum of atomic hydrogen has the
lines 𝐻𝛼 , 𝐻𝛽 , and 𝐻𝛾 . These lines belong to a complete series which extends
into the ultra-violet range. In 1885, Balmer stated the following empirical formula
for the frequencies of this series:
1 1
𝜈 = 𝑅∞ ( 2
− 2 ) , 𝑚: 3, 4, 5, … (I)
2 𝑚
𝑅∞ = 3.2899 ∙ 1015 𝑠 −1 : Rydberg constant.
Later the Balmer formula was explained in the framework of the Bohr atom
model (see Fig. 1). In the experiment, the emission spectrum is excited by
means of a Balmer lamp which is filled with water vapor. The water molecules
are decomposed by electric discharge into excited atomic hydrogen and a
hydroxyl group. The wavelengths of 𝐻𝛼 , 𝐻𝛽 , and 𝐻𝛾 are determined with a
high-resolution grating. In the first order of the grating, the relation between the
wavelength 𝜆 and the angle of observation 𝜗 is
𝜆 = 𝑑 ⋅ sin𝜗 (II)
𝑑: grating constant
The measured values are compared with
the frequencies calculated according to
the Balmer formula (I).
𝐻𝛾

𝐻𝛽

𝐻𝛼

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of the Bohr atom model

of hydrogen with transitions from the Balmer series.

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Apparatus
1 Balmer lamp
1 Grating, 𝑔 = 300 lines/mm
1 Grating, 𝑔 = 600 lines/mm
1 Holder with spring clips
1 Lens, f = + 50 mm
1 Lens, f = + 100 mm
1 Adjustable slit
1 Translucent screen
1 Small optical bench
1 Stand base, V-shape, 28 cm
5 Multiclamps
1 Precision vernier calipers
1 Scissor lift

Setup
Remark: The spectral lines can only be observed in a completely dark room.
The experimental setup is illustrated in Figs. 2 and 3.
Mounting:
1. If necessary, mount the Balmer lamp in the holder as explained in the
instruction sheet.
2. Set the small optical bench up, and fasten the multiclamps as shown in Fig.
2. The second multiclamp has to be rotated by 180°.
3. Mount the holder with the Balmer lamp on the optical bench, connect the
power supply unit to the mains, and switch it on.
4. Mount the two lenses, the adjustable slit and the holder with spring clips,
and align them in height.
5. Mount the translucent screen as shown in Fig. 3.
Fine adjustment:
1. Align the Balmer lamp with the optical axis by turning the holder in the
multiclamp and by vertical displacement.
2. Displace the lens, f = 50 mm, parallel and orthogonal to the optical axis until
the Balmer lamp is sharply imaged on the adjustable slit.
3. Image the slit on the translucent screen sharply by displacing the lens, f =
100 mm.

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Safety note
 The lamp holder generates dangerous contact voltages accessible at the
contacts of the holder as long as the Balmer lamp has not been mounted.
 Do not connect the power supply unit as long as the Balmer lamp has not
yet been mounted.

Fig. 2 Experimental setup for

studying the Balmer series of
atomic hydrogen (the figure
indicates the positions of the
left edges of the multiclamps
on the optical bench).

a Balmer lamp
b imaging lens f = 50 mm
c adjustable slit
d imaging lens f = 100 mm
e grating
f screen

Fig. 3 Detail drawing with

grating and translucent
screen

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Experimental procedure
1. Move the grating (𝑔 = 300 lines/mm) into the ray path.
2. Darken the experiment room completely, and observe the translucent
screen in transmission.
3. Reduce the adjustable slit until separate lines are visible on the screen.
4. If necessary, block unwanted light from the Balmer lamp with a masking
plate made from cardboard.
5. Mark the positions of the zeroth order lines on the screen.
6. Measure the distances b between the lines and the zeroth order on the
screen.
7. Determine the distance a between the grating and the translucent screen
(see Fig. 3).
8. Replace the grating with the one of 𝑔 = 600 lines/mm and repeat the above-
mentioned procedures.

Relevant Information for Data Analysis

Grating constant:
1
𝑑= (III)
𝑔
Distance of the grating (see Fig. 3):
𝑑1
𝑎 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + + 𝑑2 (IV)
2
From Fig. 4,
𝑏
sin𝜗 = (V)
√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
follows.
Together with (II), this gives
𝑏
𝜆=𝑑 . (VI)
√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
or
𝑐 √𝑎2 +𝑏2
𝜈=𝑑 , (VII)
𝑏

respectively.
c: speed of light in vacuum

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Fig. 4 First order diffraction at a grating.

Problems and discussions

1. In addition to 𝐻𝛿 and 𝐻𝜖 , the Balmer series actually contain even more
spectral lines. Can you observe them experimentally? Explain your answer.
2. Suppose that there is water vapor only in a Balmer lamp. Should we obtain
the emitting spectral of water molecules instead of hydrogen atoms? Why
or why not?

References
1. Eisberg, R. M., & Resnick, R. (1985). Quantum physics of atoms, molecules,
solids, nuclei, and particles (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley. 96-107.
2. Rydberg, J. R. (1890). Recherches sur la constitution des spectres
d'émission des éléments chimiques. Kungliga vetenskapsakademiens
handlingar; Vol. 23, No. 11. Kungliga Vetenskapsakademien.
3. Bohr, N. (1913). On the constitution of atoms and molecules, Part I, Philos.
Mag.0031-8086 26, 1–25.

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Fine structure
Observe the fine structure of Na by measuring the spectral lines

Objects of the experiments

 Calibrate the spectrometer using the He spectrum and determine the
constant of the grating
 Measure the spectrum of Na
 Determine the fine structure splitting

Principles
A level energy calculation with the Schrödinger equation predicts a level energy
degeneracy for all electron states inside an atom belonging to the same shell
having main quantum number, and same orbit with orbital angular momentum
quantum number 𝑙. This ignores the effects of magnetic spin-orbit interactions
and relativistic effects which shift the energy of levels in atoms causing the fine
structure thus lifting this level degeneracy.

Fig. 1 Spectrum of sodium.

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By observing the wavelength of light from transitions between atomic levels,

this energy shift can be determined. To determine the wavelength, a
spectrometer-goniometer is used. It consists of a grating, which deflects light
through an angle depending on the wavelength, and a goniometer to determine
the angle of deflection of the light beam.

Apparatus
1 Spectrometer-goniometer with vernier
1 Grating, 𝑔 = 50 lines/mm
1 Grating, 𝑔 = 300 lines/mm
1 Grating, 𝑔 = 600 lines/mm
1 Grating, 𝑔 = 1200 lines/mm
1 Spectral lamp He
1 Spectral lamp Na
2 Lamp holders
1 Power supply for spectral lamps
1 Magnifier
1 Flashlight

Fig. 2 The setup of the grating spectrometer.

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Setup
Remark: The spectral lines can only be observed in a completely dark room.
The experimental setup is illustrated in Fig. 2.
Mounting:
1. Align the grating on the spectrometer table according to the operating
instructions of the spectrometer-goniometer.
2. Align the slit vertical and the reticule parallel to the slit image.
Be sure to check that the vertical position of the slit image is equal on both
sides of the undeflected beam. Otherwise, any deviations from verticality of
the slit cause angle errors. Be aware that because of the dispersion of the
lenses the slit image has to be focused for every spectral line.
3. Turn the focusing knob back and forth to bring the movable part to its
reproducible neutral position to avoid lateral movement of the focusing
mechanics after exerting lateral force to slit or eyepiece.

Experimental procedure
Repeat the following steps with each of the 4 gratings.
a) Determine the grating constant
1. Connect the helium lamp to the power supply and turn it on. Record the
reticule angle position on the outer scale where the undiffracted light
(zeroth order) appears, use this as reference for the angle you measure
to both sides of the zeroth order.
2. Identify the strong spectral lines in the visible spectrum and measure the
first order deflection angles to both sides. Be aware that relative line
intensities vary with the specific conditions in the glow discharge of the
lamp, that is pressure, temperature, and position inside the lamp. For
ease of line identification, a spread sheet calculating the expected angle
from the wavelength by assuming an ideal grating constant could be
helpful.
b) Determine sodium spectral line wavelengths
1. Turn off the power supply to cool down the lamp, then exchange the He
lamp with the sodium lamp.
2. Measure the angle of the first order diffracted light for the yellow double
lines for both sides, and if possible, also for the lowest order (except for
the first order) of diffraction that the double lines are observed.
Depending on the quality of the specific grating in use, second order light
may not be equally intense on both sides, if the transmission function of
the grating is not precisely a rectangular one.

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3. Measure the other spectral lines listed in the data sheet.

Relevant Information for Data Analysis
Grating equation:
𝑛𝜆 = 𝑑sin𝜃 (I)
Wavelength of the He Spectrum:
Color Red Yellow Green Bluish Green Greenish Blue Blue
Wavelength
667.8 587.6 501.6 492.2 471.3 447.1
(nm)

Problems and discussions

1. According to Fig. 1, what is the energy difference between the fine-structure
energy levels of 3 2P3/2 and 3 2P1/2 , and what is the ratio between them?
2. Describe in detail how the orbital angular momentum interacts with the
electron spin angular momentum in an atom.

References
1. Eisberg, R. M., & Resnick, R. (1985). Quantum physics of atoms, molecules,
solids, nuclei, and particles (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley. 114-117, 278-281.
2. Michelson, A. A., & Morley, E. W. (1888). On a Method of making the Wave
Length of Sodium Light the Actual and Practical Standard of Length.
Scientific American, 25(633supp), 10115–10115.
3. Shankar, R. (2014). Principles of quantum mechanics (2nd ed.). N.Y.:
Springer. 466-470.

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Electron diffraction (A)

Demonstrate diffraction of electrons in a polycrystalline lattice (Debye-Scherrer
diffraction) to provides evidence for the wave nature of electrons

Objects of the experiments

 Determine wavelength of the electrons
 Verify the de Broglie’s equation
 Determine the lattice plane spacings of graphite

Principles
Louis de Broglie suggested in 1924 that particles could have wave properties
in addition to their familiar particle properties. He hypothesized that the
wavelength of the particle is inversely proportional to its momentum:
ℎ
𝑝= (I)
𝜆
𝜆: wavelength
ℎ: Planck constant
𝑝: momentum
His conjecture was confirmed by the experiments of Clinton Davisson and
Lester Germer on the diffraction of electrons at crystalline Nickel structures in
1927. In the present experiment, the wave character of electrons is
demonstrated by their diffraction at a polycrystalline graphite lattice (Debye-
Scherrer diffraction). In contrast to the experiment of Davisson and Germer
where electron diffraction is observed in a reflection manner, this setup uses a
transmission diffraction type similar to the one used by G.P. Thomson in 1928.

Fig. 1 Schematic representation of the

observed ring pattern due to the diffraction of
electrons on graphite. Two rings with diameters
𝐷1 and 𝐷2 are observed corresponding to the
lattice plane spacings of 𝑑1 and 𝑑2 (see Fig.
3).

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From the electrons emitted by the hot cathode, a small beam is singled out
through a pin diagram. After passing through a focusing electron-optical system
the electrons are incident as sharply limited monochromatic beam on a
polycrystalline graphite foil. The atoms of the graphite can be regarded as a
space lattice which acts as a diffracting grating for the electrons. On the
fluorescent screen appears a diffraction pattern of two concentric rings which
are centered around the undiffracted electron beam (Fig. 1). The diameter of
the concentric rings changes with the wavelength 𝜆 and thus with the
accelerating voltage 𝑈 as can be seen by the following considerations:
From energy equation for the electrons accelerated by the voltage 𝑈
1 2
𝑝2
𝑒𝑈 = 𝑚𝑣 = (II)
2 2𝑚
𝑈: accelerating voltage
𝑒: electron charge
𝑚: mass of the particle
𝑣: velocity of the particle
the momentum 𝑝 can be derived as
𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 = √2𝑚𝑒𝑈 . (III)
Substituting equation (III) in equation (I) gives for the wavelength:
ℎ
𝜆= . (IV)
√2𝑚𝑒𝑈

In 1913, H. W. and W. L. Bragg realized that the regular arrangement of atoms

in a single crystal can be understood as an array of lattice elements on parallel
lattice planes. When we expose such a crystal lattice to monochromatic x-rays
or mono-energetic electrons, and, additionally assuming that those have a
wave nature, then each element in a lattice plane acts as a “scattering point”,
at which a spherical wavelet forms. According to Huygens’ principle, these
spherical wavelets are superposed to create a “reflected” wave front. In this
model, the wavelength 𝜆 remains unchanged with respect to the “incident”
wave front, and the radiation directions which are perpendicular to the two wave
fronts fulfil the condition “angle of incidence = angle of reflection”.
Constructive interference arises in the neighboring rays reflected at the
individual lattice planes when their path differences
𝛥 = 𝛥1 + 𝛥2 = 2𝑑sin𝜗 are integer multiples of the wavelength 𝜆 (Fig. 2):
2𝑑sin𝜗 = 𝑛𝜆 = 1, 2, 3, … (V)
𝑑: lattice plane spacing
𝜗: diffraction angle

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Fig. 2 Schematic representation of the Bragg condition.

This is the so called ‘Bragg condition’ and the corresponding diffraction angle
𝜗 is known as the glancing angle.
In this experiment a polycrystalline material is used as diffraction object. This
corresponds to a large number of small single crystallites which are irregularly
arranged in space. As a result, there are always some crystals where the Bragg
condition is satisfied for a given direction of incidence and wavelength. The
reflections produced by these crystallites lie on a cones whose common axis is
given by the direction of incidence. Concentric circles thus appear on a screen
located perpendicularly to this axis. The lattice planes relevant to the electron
diffraction pattern obtained from this setup possess the lattice plane spacings
(Fig. 3): 𝑑1 = 2.13 × 10−10 m and 𝑑2 = 1.23 × 10−10 m.

Fig. 3 Lattice plane spacings in graphite

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We can deduce the relationship from Fig. 4

𝐷
tan2𝜗 = (VI)
2𝐿
If we approximate tan2𝜗 = sin2𝜗 = 2sin𝜗 for small angles, we obtain
𝐷
2sin𝜗 = (VII)
2𝐿
The substitution of equation (VII) in (V) leads the first order diffraction (n = 1) to
𝐷
𝜆=𝑑 (VIII)
2𝐿
𝐷: ring diameter
𝐿: distance between graphite and screen
𝑑: lattice plane spacing
The wavelength 𝜆 is determined by the accelerating voltage 𝑈 from equation
(IV). By combining the equation (IV) and equation (VIII), we can show that the
diameters 𝐷1 and 𝐷2 of the concentric rings change with the accelerating
voltage 𝑈:
𝑘
𝐷= (IX)
√𝑈
with
2𝐿ℎ
𝑘= . (X)
𝑑√2𝑚𝑒
Measuring diameters 𝐷1 and 𝐷2 as a function of the accelerating voltage 𝑈
allows us to determine the lattice plane spacings 𝑑1 and 𝑑2 .

Apparatus
1 Electron diffraction tube
1 Tube stand
1 High-voltage power supply 10 kV
1 Precision vernier calipers
1 Safety Connection Lead 25 cm red
1 Safety Connection Lead 50 cm red
1 Safety Connection Lead 100 cm red
1 Safety Connection Lead 100 cm blue
2 Safety Connection Lead 100 cm black

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Fig. 4 Schematic sketch for determining the diffraction angle.

L = 13.5 cm (distance between graphite foil and screen)
D: diameter of a diffraction ring observed on the screen
𝜗: diffraction angle
For meaning of F1, F2, C, X and A, see Fig. 5.

Fig. 5 Experimental setup (wiring diagram) for observing the electron diffraction on graphite.
Pin connection:
F1, F2: sockets for cathode heating
C: cathode cap
X: focusing electrode
A: anode (with polycrystalline graphite foil see Fig. 4)

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Setup
The experimental setup (wiring diagram) is shown in Fig. 5.
1. Connect the cathode heating sockets F1 and F2 of the tube stand to the
output on the back of the high-voltage power supply 10 kV.
2. Connect the sockets C (cathode cap) and X (focusing electrode) of the tube
stand to the negative pole.
3. Connect the socket A (anode) to the positive pole of the 5 kV/2 mA output
of the high-voltage power supply 10 kV.
4. Ground the positive pole on the high-voltage power supply 10 kV.

Safety note
When the electron diffraction tube is operated at high voltage over 5 kV, X-rays
are generated.
 Do not operate the electron diffraction tube with high voltage over 5 keV.
 The connection of the electron diffraction tube with grounded anode given
in this instruction sheet requires a high voltage enduring voltage source for
the cathode heating.
 Use the high-voltage power supply 10 kV (52170) for supplying the electron
diffraction tube with power. Danger of implosion: the electron diffraction
tube is a high vacuum tube made of thin-walled glass.
 Do not expose the electron diffraction tube to mechanical stress, and
connect it only if it is mounted in the tube stand.
 Treat the contact pins in the pin base with care, do not bend them, and be
careful when inserting them in the tube stand.
 The tube may be destroyed by extremely high voltage or current.
 Keep the operating parameters given in the section on technical data.

Experimental procedure
1. Apply an accelerating voltage 𝑈 ≤ 5 kV and observe the diffraction pattern.
Hint: The direction of the electron beam can be influenced by means of a
magnet which can be clamped on the neck of tube near the electron
focusing system. To illuminate another spot of the sample, an adjustment of
the magnet might be necessary if at least two diffraction rings cannot be
seen perfectly in the diffraction pattern.
2. Vary the accelerating voltage 𝑈 between 3 kV and 5 kV in a step of 0.5 kV
and measure the diameter 𝐷1 and 𝐷2 of the diffraction rings on the screen
(Fig. 1).
3. Measure the distance between the graphite foil and the screen.

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Electron diffraction (B)

Illustrate optical analogy to diffraction of electrons in a polycrystalline lattice

Objects of the experiments

 Understand how the spot diffraction pattern deforms into a ring-shaped
pattern
 Determine the ring diameter as a function of the wave length

Principles
This experiment illustrates the Debye-Scherrer method used for instance in the
electron diffraction method by means of visible light.
To show the optical analogy to diffraction parallel, monochromatic light passes
through a cross grating. The diffraction pattern of the crossed grating at rest
consists of spots of light which are arranged around the central beam in a
network-like pattern (Fig. 1 (a) left). By rotating the cross-grating, the diffraction
pattern is deformed into rings arranged concentrically around the central spot
(Fig. 1 (b) right). Thus, the rotation of the cross grating simulates a powder
situation where all possible orientations of the cross grating in one plane
contribute to the diffraction pattern.

Fig. 1 Schematic illustration of the diffraction pattern of a cross-grating at rest for

monochromatic light (a), rotating the cross-grating changes the spot-like pattern into a ring
pattern (b). The rotation corresponds to diffraction of light on randomly orientated 2-dimensional
lattices in a plane.

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At rest the diffraction pattern of the cross grating is comparable to a Laue

diagram of single crystals. The lattice constant 𝑔 can be determined by the
following equation:
𝑥𝑘 = 𝑔𝑘𝜆𝑑 (XI)
𝜆: monochromatic wave length
g: slit or lattice spacing (the same in 𝑥- and 𝑦-direction)
d: distance between the screen and the cross grating
𝑥𝑘 : distance of the 𝑘-th spot from the center beam in 𝑥- or 𝑦-direction
For a rotating cross grating, the lattice constant 𝑔 of the “randomly orientated
2-dimensional lattices in one plane” can thus be determined by measuring the
diameter 2𝑟 of the rings.

Apparatus
1 Cross-grating, rotatable, 𝑔 = 1000 lines/cm
1 Halogen lamp, 12 V/90 W
1 Halogen light
1 Picture Slider
1 Transformer 2 to 12 V
1 Lens, f = +100 mm
1 Holder with spring clips
1 Translucent screen
1 Tape measure 1m / 1mm
1 Pair of cables 1m, red and blue
1 Small optical bench
5 Leybold multiclamp
1 Stand base V-shape
1 Precision vernier caliper

Fig. 2 Optical setup for observing a light

spot pattern and a ring-shaped pattern.
Using a halogen lamp and a red or
green color filter allows to compare the
rings for different wave lengths at the
same time.
Setup

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1. Mount the halogen light and the translucent screen on opposite sides of the
optical bench according to Fig. 2.
2. Adjust the halogen light in such a manner that the light from the lamp is
parallel.
3. Insert the 1 mm diaphragm into the image slider of the halogen light.
4. Place the lens f = +100 mm on an optic rider between halogen lamp and
translucent screen, and move the lens until the aperture is focused on the
screen sharply.
5. Place the cross grating on an optic rider between lens and translucent
screen. The flywheel has to be on the side of the translucent screen.
6. Place the holder with spring clips between the translucent screen and the
cross-grating, and insert the red color filter.
7. It might also be necessary to adjust the halogen lamp or the lens to obtain
sharp spots.

Safety note
 Do not touch the halogen lamp while it is operating at high temperature.

Experimental procedure
1. Insert the red color filter into the holder with spring clips.
2. After the optical adjustment, which usually includes also the rotation of the
cross-grating, a red-light spot pattern as displayed in Fig. 1 (a) should be
visible.
Hint: Only the solid rings depicted in Fig. 1 (b) are visible. The dotted rings
are hardly visible.
3. Now gently turn the cross-grating and observe how the red spots start to
move on a circular path as depicted in Fig. 1 (b).
4. Put the cross-grating into rapid rotation and measure the diameter of the red
rings and the distance d between the cross grating and the translucent
screen.
Hint: For direct observation of red and green rings at the same time the red
and the green color filter has to be inserted according to Fig. 2. Putting the
cross grating into rapid rotation allows to observe a ring pattern of green and
red half rings.
5. Repeat the experiment with the green color filter.

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Problems and discussions

1. Describe how the diffraction pattern changes if a graphene replaces the
graphite in this experiment. Why is the ring-shaped pattern observed when
a graphite is used?
2. Does this experiment convince you that electrons do not behave like
classical particles, or can you come up with a classical explanation for your
results?

References
1. Eisberg, R. M., & Resnick, R. (1985). Quantum physics of atoms, molecules,
solids, nuclei, and particles (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley. 56-62.
2. Davisson, C. J., & Germer, L. H. (1928). Reflection of Electrons by a Crystal
of Nickel. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 14(4), 317–
322.
3. Thomson, G. P., & Reid, A. (1927). Diffraction of Cathode Rays by a Thin
Film. Nature, 119(3007), 890–890.

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d1 = nm
d2 = nm

𝑔 = lines/m

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Millikan oil-drop experiment

Determine the electric unit charge after Millikan and verify the charge
quantization

Objects of the experiments

 Determine the electric unit charge by float method and fall/rise method
 Observe the quantization of electric charge

Principles
In 1910, R. A. Millikan succeeded in demonstrating the quantized occurrence
of smallest amounts of electrical charge using his famous oil droplet method.
He observed charged oil droplets in a vertical electrical field of a plate capacitor
with the plate distance 𝑑 and determined the charge 𝑞 of a floating droplet
𝑈
from its radius 𝑟 and the electrical field 𝐸 = 𝑑 . In the experiment, he found that

𝑞 only occurs as integral multiples of an elementary charge 𝑒, i.e. 𝑞 = 𝑛𝑒.

When an oil droplet with radius 𝑟0 falls with the velocity – 𝑣1 , this droplet is
subject to Stokes friction, which leads to the upward directed force
𝐹1 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑟0 𝑣1 . (I)
𝜂 = viscosity of air
When the oil droplet rises with the velocity 𝑣2 in an external electrical field 𝐸,
the downward directed force due to Stokes friction is
𝐹2 = – 6𝜋𝜂𝑟0 𝑣2 . (II)
The difference between these two forces is exactly the force 𝑞0 𝐸 exerted by
the applied electrical field 𝐸, i.e.
𝑞0 𝑈
𝑞0 𝐸 = = 𝐹1 − 𝐹2 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑟0 (𝑣1 + 𝑣2 ) (III)
𝑑
or
6𝜋𝜂𝑟0 𝑑(𝑣1 + 𝑣2 )
𝑞0 = . (IV)
𝑈
In order to determine the charge 𝑞0 , only the radius 𝑟0 of the oil droplet under
consideration is required, which, however, is easily obtained from the
equilibrium of forces between its resultant gravitational force 𝐹 = – 𝑉𝛥𝜌𝑔 and
the Stokes frictional force 𝐹1 in the case of the falling droplet, where 𝛥𝜌 is the
difference between the densities of oil and air.
Thus we have:

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4
0 = 𝐹 + 𝐹1 =– 𝜋𝑟03 𝛥𝜌𝑔 + 6𝜋𝜂𝑟0 𝑣1 (V)
3
or

9𝜂𝑣1
𝑟0 = √ . (VI)
2𝛥𝜌𝑔

For a more precise determination of the charge 𝑞 , it has to be taken into

account that Stokes friction has to be corrected for very small radii 𝑟 because
these are on the order of magnitude of the mean free path of the air molecules.
The corrected formula for the frictional force, which depends on the air pressure
6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣
𝑝, reads 𝐹 = 𝑏 with 𝑏 = 80 μm·hPa (constant). With the abbreviation
1+
𝑟𝑝

𝑏
𝐴 = 𝑝 , the corrected radius

𝐴2 𝐴
𝑟 = √𝑟02 + – (VII)
4 2

and the corrected charge

𝑞0
𝑞= .
𝐴 3 (VIII)
√(1 + )
𝑟
For the floating method, the voltage 𝑈 at the plate capacitor is adjusted such
that a particular oil droplet floats, i.e. the rising velocity is 𝑣2 = 0. The falling
velocity 𝑣1 is measured after switching off the voltage 𝑈 at the capacitor.
Because of 𝑣2 = 0, the above formulas are slightly simplified. However, 𝑣2 =
0 cannot be adjusted very precisely for fundamental reasons. Therefore, the
floating method leads to larger measurement errors and broader scattering in
the frequency distribution than in the case of the following method. On the other
hand, in the fall/rise method, the two velocities 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 , and the voltage 𝑈
are measured. This method obtains more precise measured values than the
floating method because the velocity 𝑣2 is really measured.

Apparatus
1 Millikan apparatus
1 Millikan supply unit
1 Pair of cables, 50 cm, red and blue
1 Video camera

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1 PC with Windows XP
1 Thermo-hygrometer

Setup
The experimental setup is illustrated in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Experimental set up for determining the elementary charge with the Millikan apparatus.

Experimental procedure
a. Float method
The float potential 𝑈 and the fall speed 𝑣 are determined from the fall time
𝑡 for a pre-selected distance 𝑠. The following applies for the radius 𝑟 and
the charge 𝑞 of the droplet:

9𝜂𝑣1 𝐴2 𝐴 9𝜋𝑑 2𝜂3 𝑣13

𝑟=√ + – , 𝑞= .
2𝛥𝜌𝑔 4 2 𝑈 √ 𝐴 3 (IX)
(1 + 𝑟 ) 𝛥𝜌𝑔

𝑑: plate spacing
𝜂: viscosity of air
𝜌2 : density of oil, 𝜌1 : density of air
𝛥𝜌 = 𝜌2 − 𝜌1
𝑔: gravitational acceleration
1. First turn switch U downward.

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2. Use switch U to turn on capacitor voltage, then adjust it using a rotary

potentiometer so that a selected oil droplet floats.
3. Use switch U to turn off the capacitor voltage.
4. As soon as the oil droplet is next to a selected scale graduation mark,
start the time measurement.
5. As soon as the oil droplet has fallen over a pre-selected distance, stop
the timer.
6. Read falling time 𝑡, capacitor voltage 𝑈, and record with the falling
distance 𝑠.
b. Fall/rise method:
The fall velocity 𝑣1 and the rise velocity 𝑣2 are determined from the falling
time 𝑡1 and rising time 𝑡2 for a pre-selected distance 𝑠. The following
applies for the radius r and the charge q of the droplet

9𝜂𝑣1 𝐴2 𝐴 9𝜋𝑑(𝑣1 + 𝑣2 ) 2𝜂3 𝑣1

𝑟=√ + – , 𝑞= √ .
2𝛥𝜌𝑔 4 2 𝑈 𝐴 3 (X)
(1 + 𝑟 ) 𝛥𝜌𝑔

1. First turn switch U and switch t downward.

2. Use switch U to turn on capacitor voltage, then adjust it using a rotary
potentiometer so that a selected oil droplet rises.
3. As soon as the oil droplet is in the upper area of the capacitor, use switch
U to turn off the capacitor voltage.
4. When the oil droplet falls with constant velocity, record 𝑡1 , the time it
takes to drop a pre-selected distance 𝑠.
5. Use switch U to turn on the capacitor voltage.
6. When the oil droplet rises with constant velocity, record 𝑡2 , the time it
takes to raise a pre-selected distance 𝑠.

Relevant Information for Data Analysis

Oil density at 25℃ = 871 kg/m3
Oil density at 15℃ = 877 kg/m3
Distance between the plates 𝑑 = 6.00 mm
Viscosity of dry air at 20℃ = 18.3 μPa．s
Viscosity of dry air at 30℃ = 18.7 μPa．s

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Fig. 2 The histogram of the observed corrected droplet charges 𝑞.

Problems and discussions

1. Why do we not record the falling/rising times from the beginning?
2. Is it unusual to observe an oil droplet falling in the presence of a vertical
electrical field? Give an explanation.

References
1. Millikan, R. A. (1968). The electron: Its isolation and measurement and the
determination of some of its properties. Chicago: The University of Chicago
Press.
2. Millikan., R. A. (1913). On the Elementary Electrical Charge and the
Avogadro Constant. Physical Review, 2(2), 109–143.

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Electron spin resonance

Illustrate the interplay between the electron spin moment and the applied magnetic
field

Objects of the experiment

 Measure the resonance magnetic field 𝐵0 as a function of the selected
frequency 𝜈
 Resolve 𝑔DPPH , the 𝑔-factor of DPPH
 Determine the line width 𝛿𝐵0 of the resonance signal

Principles
Since its discovery by E. K. Zavoisky (1945), electron spin resonance (ESR)
has developed into an important method of investigating molecular and crystal
structures, chemical reactions and other problems in physics, chemistry,
biology and medicine. It is based on the absorption of high-frequency radiation
by paramagnetic substances in an external magnetic field in which the spin
states of the electrons split.
Electron spin resonance is limited to paramagnetic substances because in
these the orbital angular momenta and spins of the electrons are coupled in a
way that the total angular momentum is different from zero. Suitable
compounds are, e.g., those which contain atoms whose inner shells are not
complete (transition metals, rare earths), organic molecules (free radicals)
which contain individual unpaired electrons or crystals with lattice vacancies in
a paramagnetic state.
The magnetic moment associated with the total angular momentum 𝐽⃑ is
𝜇𝐵
𝜇⃑𝐽 = −𝑔𝐽 𝐽⃑ . (I)
ℏ
𝑒ℏ ℎ
(𝜇𝐵 = ,ℏ = , 𝜇 : Bohr magneton,
2𝑚𝑒 2𝜋 𝐵
ℎ: Planck constant, 𝑔𝐽 : Landé splitting factor,
𝑚𝑒 : mass of the electron, 𝑒: electronic charge)
⃑⃑0, the magnetic moment 𝜇⃑𝐽 gets the potential energy
In a magnetic field 𝐵
⃑⃑0 .
𝐸 = −𝜇⃑𝐽 ∙ 𝐵 (II)
𝐸 is quantized because the magnetic moment and the total angular momentum
can only take discrete orientations relative to the magnetic field. Each
orientation of the angular momentum corresponds to a state with a particular

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potential energy in the magnetic field. The component 𝐽𝑧 of the total angular
momentum, which is parallel to the magnetic field, is given by
𝐽𝑧 = 𝑚𝐽 ℏ with 𝑚𝐽 = −𝐽, −(𝐽 − 1), … , 𝐽 (III)
where the angular momentum quantum number is an integer or a half-integer,
i.e. the potential energy splits into the discrete Zeeman levels
𝐸 = 𝑔𝐽 𝑚𝐽 𝜇𝐵 𝐵0 with 𝑚𝐽 = −𝐽, −(𝐽 − 1), … , 𝐽. (IV)
The energy splitting can be measured directly by means of electron spin
resonance. To perform this experiment, a high-frequency alternating magnetic
field 𝐵⃑⃑1 = 𝐵
⃑⃑𝐻𝐹 sin(2𝜋𝜈𝑡) which is perpendicular to the static magnetic field 𝐵 ⃑⃑0
is radiated into the sample. If the energy ℎ𝜈 of the alternating field is equal to
the energy difference ∆𝐸 between two neighboring energy levels, i.e., if the
conditions
𝛥𝑚𝐽 = ±1 (V)
and
ℎ𝜈 = 𝛥𝐸 = 𝑔𝐽 𝜇𝐵 𝐵0 . (VI)
are fulfilled, the alternating field leads to a “flip” of the magnetic moments from
one orientation in the magnetic field 𝐵0 into the other one. In other words,
transitions between neighboring levels are induced and a resonance effect is
observed which shows up in the absorption of energy from the alternating
magnetic field radiated into the sample.

Fig. 1 Energy splitting of a free electron in the presence of magnetic field and resonance
condition for electron spin resonance.

In numerous compounds, orbital angular momentum is of little significance, and

considerations can be limited to the spin of the electrons. To simplify matters,

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the situation is represented for a free electron in Fig. 1: here the total angular
momentum is just the spin 𝑠⃑ of the electron. The angular momentum quantum
1
number is 𝐽 = s = 2, and the Landé factor is 𝑔𝐽 = 𝑔𝑠 ≈ 2.0023.

In a magnetic field, the energy of the electron splits into the two levels
1 1
𝐸 = 𝑔𝑠 𝜇𝐵 𝐵0 𝑚𝑠 with 𝑚𝑠 = − , (IVa)
2 2
which correspond to an antiparallel and a parallel orientation of the electron
spin with respect to the magnetic field. In a transition between the two levels,
the selection rule (V) is automatically fulfilled: in analogy to Eq. (VI), the
resonance condition reads
ℎ𝜈 = 𝑔𝑠 𝜇𝐵 𝐵0 . (VIa)
If now the energy which is absorbed from the alternating field is measured at a
fixed frequency 𝜈 as a function of the magnetic field 𝐵0, an absorption line with
a half-width 𝛿𝐵0 is obtained. In the simplest case, this line width in a
homogeneous magnetic field is an expression of the uncertainty 𝛿𝐸 of the
transition. The uncertainty principle applies in the form
ℏ
𝑇𝛿𝐸 ≥ , (VII)
2
where 𝑇 is the lifetime of the level. Because of Eq. (V),
𝛿𝐸 = 𝑔𝑠 𝜇𝐵 𝛿𝐵0 . (VIII)
Thus the relation
ℏ
𝛿𝐵0 = (IX)
2𝑔𝐽 𝜇𝐵 𝑇
does not depend on the frequency 𝜈. In this experiment, the position and width
of the absorption lines in the ESR spectrum of the sample under consideration
are evaluated.
From the position, the Landé factor 𝑔𝐽 of the sample is determined according
to Eq. (VI). In the case of a free atom or an ion, the Landé factor lies between
𝑔𝐽 = 1 if the magnetism is entirely due to orbital angular momentum and 𝑔𝐽 ≈
2.0023 if only spins contribute to the magnetism. However, in actual fact the
paramagnetic centers studied by means of electron spin resonance are not free.
As they are inserted into crystal lattices or surrounded by a solvation sheath in
a solution, they are subject to strong electric and magnetic fields, which are
generated by the surrounding atoms. These fields lead to an energy shift and
influence the Zeeman splitting of the electrons. Thereby the value of the 𝑔-
factor is changed. It frequently becomes anisotropic, and a fine structure occurs
in the ESR spectra. Therefore, the 𝑔-factor allows conclusions to be drawn

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regarding electron binding and the chemical structure of the sample under
consideration.
From the line width, dynamic properties can be inferred. If unresolved fine
structures are neglected, the line width is determined by several processes
which are opposed to an alignment of the magnetic moments. The interaction
between aligned magnetic moments among each other is called spin-spin
relaxation, and the interaction between the magnetic moments and fluctuating
electric and magnetic fields, which are caused by lattice oscillations in solids
and by thermal motion of the atoms in liquids, is called spin-lattice relaxation.
In some cases, the line width is influenced by so-called exchange interaction
and is then much smaller than one would expect if there were pure dipole-dipole
interaction of the spins. ESR spectrometers developed for practical applications
usually work at frequency of about 10 GHz (microwave, X band).
Correspondingly, the magnetic fields are of the order of magnitude of 0.1 to 1
T. In this experiment, the magnetic field 𝐵0 is considerably weaker. It is
generated by means of the Helmholtz coils and can be adjusted to values
between 0 and 4 mT by appropriate choice of the coil current. A current which
is modulated with 50 Hz is superimposed on the constant coil current. The
magnetic field 𝐵, which is correspondingly modulated, is thus composed of an
equidirectional field 𝐵0 and a 50-Hz field 𝐵𝑚𝑜𝑑 . The sample is located in an
HF coil which is part of a high-duty oscillating circuit. The oscillating circuit is
excited by a variable frequency HF oscillator with frequency between 15 and
130 MHz. If the resonance condition (V) is fulfilled, the sample absorbs energy
and the oscillating circuit is loaded. As a result, the impedance of the oscillating
circuit changes and the voltage at the coil decreases. This voltage is converted
into the measuring signal by rectification and amplification. The measuring
signal reaches the output of the control unit with a time delay relative to the
modulated magnetic field. The time delay can be compensated as a phase shift
in the control unit. A two-channel oscilloscope in X-Y operation displays the
measuring signal together with a voltage that is proportional to the magnetic
field as a resonance signal. The resonance signal is symmetric if the
equidirectional field 𝐵0 fulfills the resonance condition and if the phase shift 𝜑
between the measuring signal and the modulated magnetic field is
compensated (see Fig. 2).
The sample substance used is 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH). This
organic compound is a relatively stable free radical which has an unpaired
valence electron at one atom of the nitrogen bridge (see Fig. 3). The orbital
motion of the electron is almost cancelled by the molecular structure. Therefore,

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the 𝑔-factor of the electron is almost equal to that of a free electron. In its
polycrystalline form the substance is very well suited for demonstrating electron
spin resonance because it has an intense ESR line, which, due to exchange
narrowing, has a small width.

Fig. 2 Oscilloscope display of the

measuring signal (CH2) and the
modulated magnetic field (CH1) left:
two-channel display with DC coupled
channel 1 right: XY display with AC
coupled channel 1
Fig. 2a phase shift 𝜑 is not
compensated, while equidirectional
field 𝐵0 is too weak.
Fig. 2b phase shift 𝜑 is compensated,
while equidirectional field 𝐵0 is too
weak.
Fig. 2c phase shift 𝜑 is not
compensated, whereas appropriate
equidirectional field 𝐵0 is applied.
Fig. 2d phase shift 𝜑 compensated,
whereas appropriate equidirectional
field 𝐵0 is applied.

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Fig. 3 Chemical structure of 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH).

Apparatus
1 ESR basic unit
1 ESR control unit
1 DPPH sample
3 plug-in coils
1 pair of Helmholtz coils
1 two-channel oscilloscope 303
2 BNC cable 1m
3 saddle bases
1 connection lead 25 cm black
1 Connection lead 50 cm red
1 Connection lead 50 cm blue

Fig. 4 Experimental setup for electron spin resonance at DPPH.

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Fig. 5 Arrangement of the Helmholtz coils viewed from above.

Setup
The experimental setup is illustrated in Figs. 4 and 5.
1. Set up the Helmholtz coils mechanically parallel to each other at an average
distance of 6.8 cm (equal to the average radius r).
2. Connect the Helmholtz coils electrically in series to each other and to the
ESR control unit, note the details in Fig. 5.
3. Connect the ESR basic unit to the ESR control unit via the 6-pole cable.
4. Connect the output “ESR Signal” of the ESR control unit to CH 2 (y-Axis) of
the two-channel oscilloscope and the output “𝐵-Signal” to CH 1 (x-Axis) via
BNC cables.

Experimental Procedures
Measure the resonance magnetic field 𝐵0:
1. Put on the plug-in coil 15-30 MHz (the biggest one of the three coils) and
insert the DPPH sample so that it is in the center.
2. Switch the ESR basic unit on and set it up so that the plug-in coil with the
DPPH sample is located in the center of the Helmholtz coils (see Fig. 5).
3. Set the resonance frequency ν = 15 MHz (potentiometer on top of the
ESR basic unit).
4. Set the modulation amplitude 𝐼~ to the middle.
5. Set the phase shift to the right (potentiometer Phase).
6. Select two-channel operation at the oscilloscope.
Dual on
time base 2 ms/DIV
Amplitude 1 and 2 0.5 V/DIV AC
7. Use the button on the control unit to switch the display of the control unit to
“A= ”, showing the value of 𝐼= . Slowly enhance the equidirectional field of
the Helmholtz coils with the current 𝐼= until the resonance signals are

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equally spaced (see Fig. 3). At a frequency of 15 MHz this will be at an

approximate current of 0.13 A.
8. Switch the oscilloscope to XY operation, and set the phase shift so that the
two resonance signals coincide (see Fig. 2).
9. Vary the direct current 𝐼= until the resonance signal is symmetric. Select a
modulation current 𝐼~ as small as possible.
10. Read the direct current 𝐼= through the pair of Helmholtz coils, and take it
down together with the resonance frequency ν, creating Table 1.
11. Increase the resonance frequency ν by 5 MHz, and adjust the new
resonance condition by increasing the direct current 𝐼= .
12. Again measure the current 𝐼= and take it down.
13. Continue to increase the high frequency in steps of 5 MHz (use the plug-in
coil 30-75 MHz for frequency greater than 30 MHz and the plug-in coil 75-
130 MHz (the smallest one) for frequency greater than 75 MHz) and repeat
the measurements.

Determining the half-width 𝛿𝐵0 :

1. Select XY operation at the oscilloscope.
Amplitude 1 0.5 V/DIV AC
2. Adjust the resonance condition for 𝜈 = 50 MHz (medium plug-in coil) once
more.
3. Extend the resonance signal in the X direction exactly over the total width
of the screen (10 DIV) by varying the modulation current 𝐼~ .
4. Switch the control unit display to 𝐼~ and read the RMS (!) value of the
modulation current 𝐼𝑚𝑜𝑑 , for example 0.282 A.
5. Spread the X deflection (changing to 0.2 V/ DIV), read the width Δ𝑈 of the
resonance signal at half the height of the oscilloscope screen, and take it
down, for example 1.5 DIV.

Relevant Information for Data Analysis

3
4 2𝑛 (X)
𝐵 = 𝜇0 ( ) 𝐼 with 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 ∙ 10−7 Vs/Am
5 𝑟
(𝑛: number of turns per coil, 𝑟: radius of the coils)
𝐼
With 𝑛 = 320 and 𝑟 = 6.8 cm, 𝐵 = 4.23 mT is obtained.
A
𝛿𝐼 𝛿𝑈𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝐼𝑚𝑜𝑑
𝛿𝐵0 = 4.23 mT = 4.23 mT (XI)
𝐴 𝑈𝑚𝑜𝑑 A
Value quoted in the literature: 𝛿𝐵0 (DPPH) = 0.15-0.81 mT.

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The theoretical value of 𝑔DPPH = 2.0036.

Problems and discussions

1. Explain how the frequency 𝜈 is tuned by changing the plug-in coils and
turning the knobs on the basic unit.
2. What systematic error do you think results from the fact that the ESR Probe
Unit (metal!) protrudes into the region between the Helmholtz coils? Explain
whether your results show evidence for such a systematic effect.
3. The Landé 𝑔-factor of DPPH is very close to 2. What does that mean?
4. What are advantages of employing DPPH as the measuring sample?

References
1. Eisberg, R. M., & Resnick, R. (1985). Quantum physics of atoms, molecules,
solids, nuclei, and particles (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley. 369.
2. Zavoisky E (1945). Spin-magnetic resonance in paramagnetics. Fizicheskiĭ
Zhurnal. 9: 211–245.

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Franck-Hertz experiment
Demonstrate the concept of quantization of energy levels proposed by Bohr’s
model of atom.

Objects of the experiments

 Record the Franck-Hertz curves for mercury with the oscilloscope
 Measure the discontinuous energy emission of free electrons for inelastic
collision
 Interpret the measurement results as representing discrete energy
absorption by mercury atoms

Principles
In 1914, James Franck and Gustav Hertz reported an energy loss occurring in
distinct “steps” for electrons passing through mercury vapor, and a
corresponding emission at the ultraviolet line (𝜆 = 254 nm) of mercury. A few
months later, Niels Bohr recognized this as evidence for confirming his model
of the atom. The Franck-Hertz experiment is thus a classic experiment for
confirming quantum theory - the existence of discrete energy levels.

Fig. 1 Schematic I-U characteristics of the electron current flowing to the collector as a function
of the acceleration voltage in the Franck-Hertz experiment with mercury.

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In a previously evacuated glass tube, mercury atoms are held at a vapor

pressure of about 1.5 kPa, which is kept constant by temperature control. This
experiment investigates the energy loss of free electrons due to inelastic
scattering, and thus due to collision excitation of mercury atoms.
The glass tube contains a cylindrically symmetrical system of four electrodes
(see Fig. 2). The cathode K is surrounded by a grid-type control electrode G1 at
a distance of a few tenths of a millimeter, an acceleration grid G2 at a somewhat
greater distance and finally the collector electrode A outermost. The cathode is
heated indirectly, in order to prevent a potential differential along K.
Electrons are emitted by the hot electrode and form a charge cloud. These
electrons are attracted by the driving potential 𝑈1 between the cathode and
grid G1. The emission current is practically independent of the acceleration
voltage 𝑈2 between grids G1 and G2, if we ignore the inevitable punch-through.
A braking voltage 𝑈3 is present between grid G2 and the collector A. Only
electrons with sufficient kinetic energy can reach the collector electrode and
contribute to the collector current.
In this experiment, the acceleration voltage 𝑈2 is increased from 0 to 30 V
while the driving potential 𝑈1 and the braking voltage 𝑈3 are held constant,
and the corresponding collector current 𝐼A is measured. This current initially
increases, much as in a conventional tetrode, but reaches a maximum when
the kinetic energy of the electrons closely in front of grid G2 is just sufficient to
transfer the energy required to excite the mercury atoms (𝐸Hg = 4.9 eV) through
collisions. The collector current drops off dramatically, as after collision the
electrons can no longer overcome the braking voltage 𝑈3 .
As the acceleration voltage 𝑈2 increases, the electrons attain the energy level
required for exciting the mercury atoms at ever greater distances from grid G 2.
After collision, they are accelerated once more and, when the acceleration
voltage is sufficient, again absorb so much energy from the electrical field that
they can excite a mercury atom. The result is a second maximum, and at
greater voltage 𝑈2 further maxima of the collector currents 𝐼A .

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Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of the mercury Franck-Hertz tube.

Apparatus
1 Hg-filled Franck-Hertz tube
1 Socket for Franck-Hertz tube, Hg with multi-pin plug
1 Electric oven, 220 V
1 Franck-Hertz supply unit
1 Thermometer
1 Two-channel oscilloscope 303
2 Screened cables BNC/4 mm

Fig. 3 Experiment setup for the Franck-Hertz experiment with mercury.

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Setup
Fig. 3 shows the experiment setup.
Remark: The complete Franck-Hertz curve can be recorded manually. But for
a quick overview, e.g. for optimizing the experiment parameters, a two-channel
oscilloscope is recommended.
Setting on the oscilloscope:
1. Connect output sockets 𝑈2 /10 to channel 1 (0.5 V/DIV) and output sockets
𝑈𝐴 to channel 2 (2 V/DIV) of the oscilloscope. Operate the oscilloscope in
XY-mode.
2. Set the Y-position such that the top section of the curve is displayed
completely.
Heating:
1. Insert the thermometer in the corresponding blind hole of the heating oven
as far as it can go and slide the Franck-Hertz tube with copper sleeve into
the oven.
2. Turn the operating-mode switch to “Ramp” and switch on the supply unit.
3. Set the operating temperature at 180 ℃ and wait until the operating
temperature is reached.

Experimental procedure
1. Try different operating temperatures and record the Franck-Hertz curves.
2. Tune the “Gain” knob, record the Franck-Hertz curves.
3. Tune the “Reverse Bias” knob, record the Franck-Hertz curves.
4. Tune the “Va” knob, record the Franck-Hertz curves.
5. Tune the “Adjust” knob, record the Franck-Hertz curves.

Relevant Information for Data Analysis

The adopted value 𝐸Hg for the transition energy of the mercury atoms from
1 3
the ground state 𝑆0 to the first excited 𝑃1 state is 4.9 eV.

Problems and discussions

1. Should you use the positions of the peaks or of the valleys to determine the
excitation energy? Or both? Explain your answer.
2. How would the increase of temperature affect your observations? Justify
your answers according to the following instructions. Would there be a
higher or lower background current? Sharper or less sharp peaks? More
peaks?

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3. Explain the reason that the current significantly reduces as the accelerating
voltage reaches 4.9 V.

References
1. Eisberg, R. M., & Resnick, R. (1985). Quantum physics of atoms, molecules,
solids, nuclei, and particles(2nd ed.). New York: Wiley. 108-110.
2. Franck, J., & Hertz, G. (1967). Über Zusammenstöße zwischen Elektronen
und den Molekülen des Quecksilberdampfes und die Ionisierungsspannung
desselben. Physik Journal, 23(7), 294–301.

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