MEDICAL PARASITOLOGY LABORATORY Parts Function

1. Eyepiece This is the part used to look

MICROSCOPY through the microscope.
2. Diopter Compensates for focusing
Compound Microscope differences between your eyes.
3. Stereo Head Moveable top portion of the
microscope that holds the two
adjustable eyepieces.
4. Bottom Lighting Shines up through transparent
objects
5. Stage Plate Platform where you place the
specimen for observation.
Large, flat stages that can
accommodate a variety of
specimens, including 3D
objects.
‘ 6. Focus Knob Moves the head of the
microscope up and down to
bring the object sharply into
view.
7. Top Light Shines down and reflects off
opaque or solid specimens
Parts Functions 8. Power Switch/ Used to turn on or off the
Lighting Control microscope
Eyepiece This is the part used to look through
the microscope. 9. Stage Clips Hold and secure the specimen
in place
Arm It gives support to the head of and
attaches it to the base.
Rack Stop Controls how far the stages should LIGHT MICROSCOPY
move to keep the objective lens from
going closer to the specimen slide. Many types of microscopes fall under the category of
Stage Clips Secure the microscope slide on the light microscopes, which use light to visualize
stage.
images.
Coarse Helps bring the specimen into general
Adjustment Knob focus. Moves the stage up and down. TYPES OF LIGHT MICROSCOPY
Fine Adjustment Rapidly moves the stage for focusing
Knob at low magnification Brightfield Microscopes are commonly used and
Revolving Holds and allows switching between produce a dark image on a bright background. They
Nosepiece objective lenses consist of ocular and objective lenses that work
Objective Lens Help magnify the specimen and forms
an enlarged, inverted image together to magnify images. Total magnification is
Mechanical Stage Platform for placing the specimen. the product of the ocular and objective
Condenser Concentrates and directs light onto the magnifications.
specimen
Illuminator Light source for specimen illumination Darkfield microscopy modifies the condenser to
Base Provides stability to the microscope. create a hollow cone of light that is focused on the
specimen. This technique produces bright objects on
a dark background, enhancing contrast.
Stereo Microscope/Dissecting Microscope
Phase-contrast microscopes use refraction and
interference to create high-contrast, high-resolution
images without staining. They alter the wavelengths
of light passing through the specimen.
Differential Interference Contrast (DIC)
Microscope enhance contrast between different
features of a specimen using interference patterns.
They are similar to phase-contrast microscopes.
Advantages of Phase-Contrast and DIC
Microscopy: These techniques provide high-
contrast images without the need for staining,
making them suitable for live and unstained
specimens.
Fluorescence microscopes use fluorescent BACTERIA CELLS VS. HUMAN CELLS
chromophores (fluorochromes) to visualize
Characteristic Bacterial Cells Human Cells
specimens. These fluorochromes absorb energy from
a light source and emit visible light, allowing for the
Size Smaller (0.5 - 5 Larger (10 - 30
detection of specific molecules or structures within a µm) µm)
specimen. Cell Type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Confocal microscopes use lasers to scan multiple z-
planes successively, producing high-resolution two- Nucleus Nucleoid (no True nucleus
membrane) (membrane)
dimensional images at various depths. These images
Membrane- Largely absent Present (e.g.,
can be reconstructed into three-dimensional images
Bound Organelles mitochondria,
by a computer. Confocal microscopy is best suited endoplasmic
Cell Wall Present Absent (except in
for specimens requiring detailed 3D visualization. (peptidoglycan) reticulum)
some cell types,
Two-photon Microscopes utilize scanning Reproduction Binary fission e.g., plant
Mitosis cells)
(somatic
techniques, fluorochromes, and long-wavelength cells) and meiosis
Genetic Material Single circular (gametes)
Multiple linear
light (such as infrared) to visualize specimens. They
chromosome chromosomes
are particularly useful for studying live and delicate
specimens, including biological tissues. Metabolism Autotrophic or Heterotrophic
heterotrophic (relying on
ELECTRON MICROSCOPY Motility Flagella or pili external
Generally non-
(some) nutrients)
motile
Electron Microscopy uses short-wavelength electron Evolutionary (exceptions
Domain Bacteria Domain Eukarya
beams instead of light to achieve higher Relationship include sperm)
magnification and resolution. This is advantageous
for examining ultrastructural details of
microbiological specimens but has limitations such TERMS
as specimen preparation complexity.
Magnification: The increase in apparent size of an
There are two main types: object.

Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)
transmits a beam of electrons through a thin
specimen. The electrons interact with the specimen
and are used to form an image.
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) uses a
focused electron beam to scan the surface of a
specimen. The emitted secondary electrons and
backscattered electrons are detected and used to form
an image.
SCANNING PROBE MICROSCOPY
Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM) uses sharp
probes that interact directly with the specimen's
surface to produce high-resolution images. There are
two main types: Scanning Tunneling Microscopy
(STM) and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM).
Advantages of SPM: Extremely high magnification
(up to 100,000,000⨯), ability to observe individual
atoms.
Limitations of SPM: Requires a conductive specimen
(STM), limited to surface imaging, slow scanning
process.
Resolution: The ability to distinguish between two
closely spaced points as distinct.
Numerical Aperture: A measure of a lens's ability
to gather and resolve light.
Contrast Techniques: Methods to enhance the
visibility of specimen details (e.g., phase contrast,
staining).
Field of View: The area visible through the
microscope.
Working Distance: The distance between the
objective lens and the specimen while still being in
focus.
Parfocal: is a term used in microscopy to describe a
set of microscope objectives or lenses that maintain
nearly the same focus or point of sharpness when
switching between them.
PROPER WAY OF TAKING GOOD CARE OF
MICROSCOPE
Cleanliness: Keep the lenses and eyepieces clean
using lens paper. Avoid touching the lenses directly.
Covering: Always use the microscope's dust cover
when it's not in use to prevent dust accumulation.
Proper Handling: Hold the microscope by its arm and
base. Avoid placing excessive weight on the stage or
focusing knobs.
Power Off: Turn off the light source and lower the
stage before turning off the microscope.
Storage: Store the microscope in a dry, dust-free
environment.
Lens Changes: When changing objectives, always
use the coarse focus knob first to ensure the objective
doesn't hit the slide.
Cord Handling: Be careful with cords and cables to
avoid tripping or damaging them.
CLASSES OF PARASITE:
“THE PROTOZOANS”
• Protozoans, a diverse group of single-celled
eukaryotic microorganisms found within the
kingdom Protista, occupy a wide range of
habitats, including soils, aquatic systems, and
the internal tissues of plants and animals.
• Within ecosystems, protozoans play essential
roles as both predators and prey, participating
in nutrient cycling and shaping microbial
populations. However, their influence
extends beyond beneficial ecological
functions, as some protozoans adopt parasitic
lifestyles that can inflict diseases upon
humans, animals, and plants.
A. HOST an organism that provides a habitat and
resources for parasite and allows it to live within or
on its body.
TYPES OF HOSTS
Definitive Host: Where a parasite matures and
reproduces.
Intermediate Host: Hosts a parasite during
development.
Paratenic Host: A temporary carrier without
development.
Reservoir Host: Carries a parasite without harm or
symptoms.
Accidental Host: Infected by a parasite by mistake.
B. PARASITE an organism that lives on or inside
another organism (the host) and gets its nourishment
there.
TYPES OF PARASITES
Endoparasite: Lives inside the host.
Ectoparasite: Lives outside the host.
Obligate Parasite: Cannot survive without a host.
Facultative Parasite: Can live independently but
may parasitize when possible.
Free-living Parasite: an organism that spends part
of its life cycle in a free-living state outside of a
host organism.
C. VECTOR an organism, often a mosquito or tick,
that carries disease-causing pathogens from one host
to another. There are two types:
Biological Vector: Part of the pathogen's life cycle.
Mechanical Vector: Transfers pathogens
mechanically.
DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES
AMOEBA a unicellular protozoan that primarily
reproduce asexually through a process called binary
fission. During binary fission, the amoeba's nucleus
divides, followed by the division of the cell into two
daughter cells.
Under favorable conditions, multiple fission can
occur. The process begins with the division of the
amoeba's nucleus, followed by the simultaneous
division of the cytoplasm. This results in the
formation of multiple daughter cells within the parent
amoeba. Once the daughter cells are fully formed, the
parent amoeba ruptures, releasing the daughter cells
into the surrounding environment.
PARAMECIUM is a single-celled organism that
primarily reproduce asexually through a process
called binary fission, where one cell divides into two
identical daughter cells.
Paramecia can also engage in sexual reproduction
through a process called conjugation. During
conjugation, two paramecia exchange genetic
material, contributing to genetic diversity.
In unfavorable conditions, some paramecia can form
cysts, which are resistant structures that protect the
cell from adverse environmental conditions. Cysts
can later excyst, allowing the paramecium to return
to its active state.
Plasmodium vivax a protozoan parasite responsible
for causing malaria in humans. It begins when an
infected female Anopheles mosquito bites a human
host and injects sporozoites into the bloodstream.
Sporozoites travel to the liver, where they infect
hepatocytes and undergo a developmental stage.
Merozoites are released from the liver and enter the
bloodstream, where they infect red blood cells
(RBCs). Within RBCs, they undergo further
development, leading to the rupture of RBCs and the
release of more merozoites. When another mosquito
bites an infected human, it ingests the merozoites,
continuing the life cycle.
 Characteristic Amoeba Paramecium Plasmodium
vivax

Morphological Varies in shape Slipper-shaped Sporozoite,

Characteristics (typically with cilia for merozoite stages
irregular movement in life cycle
pseudopodia)
Diagnosis Stool Microscopic Blood smear,
examination, examination of PCR Test,
Stool Culture, wet mount or Physical
Serological stained slide Examination
Test, Mucosal
Scraping
Treatment Antiprotozoal N/A Antimalarial
medications medications (e.g.,
(e.g., chloroquine,
metronidazole, artemisinin,
tinidazole) mefloquine)
Management Proper hygiene N/A Malaria
and sanitation prevention
Avoidance of measures (e.g.,
contaminated bed nets,
water sources insecticide
spraying)

PARASITIC HELMINTHS: THE NEMATODES

Characteristic Ascaris Trichinella Wuchereria Enterobius Trichuris

lumbricoides spiralis bancrofti vermicularis trichiura
Morphological Large Tiny Thread-like Small Whipworm
Characteristics roundworm roundworm nematode pinworm Thread-like,
Long, Coiled, Microfilariae in Small, thin
cylindrical, spiraled blood thread-like Whitish or
tapered Tiny and Adult worms in White, pink color
Pinkish or transparent lymphatics thread-like
white color
Disease Ascariasis Trichinellosis Lymphatic Enterobiasis Trichuriasis
(Trichinosis) Filariasis
(Elephantiasis)
Mode of Ingestion of Ingestion of Bite of infected Ingestion of Ingestion of
Entry/ contaminated undercooked mosquito eggs via fecal- eggs via fecal-
Transmission food or water pork containing (lymphatic oral route oral route
to Humans larvae filariasis)
Diagnosis Identification of Detection of Detection of Scotch tape Detection of
eggs in stool larvae in muscle microfilariae in test or eggs in stool
samples tissue or larvae blood (blood perianal swab samples
in smear)
Treatment Albendazole, Albendazole Diethylcarbamazine Mebendazole Mebendazole
mebendazole
Management Improved Avoidance of Mosquito control Hygiene and Improved
sanitation and undercooked programs(to handwashing sanitation and
hygiene pork products prevent mosquito to prevent hygiene
practices bites) reinfection practices
 LIFE CYCLE
Ascaris lumbricoides:
• Eggs are passed in human feces.
• Eggs develop and become infective in the
soil.
• Humans ingest contaminated soil or food.
• Larvae hatch in the small intestine and
migrate to various tissues.
• Larvae return to the small intestine, mature
into adult worms.
• Adults reproduce, and eggs are passed in
feces to continue the cycle.
Trichinella spiralis:
• Humans ingest undercooked pork containing
encysted larvae.
• Larvae are released in the stomach and
mature into adult worms in the small
intestine.
• Female worms release larvae that penetrate
the intestinal wall.
• Larvae migrate through the bloodstream to
muscle tissues.
• Larvae encyst in muscle tissue, forming
cysts.
• Cycle continues when infected meat is
consumed.
Wuchereria bancrofti (Lymphatic Filariasis):
• Mosquitoes transmit microfilariae from an
infected human to another human during a
blood meal.
• Microfilariae migrate to the lymphatic
system.
• Adult worms form in lymphatic vessels.
• Male and female worms mate, and
microfilariae are released into the
bloodstream.
• Cycle continues when infected mosquitoes
bite humans.
Enterobius vermicularis (Pinworm):
• Eggs are ingested via the fecal-oral route.
• Larvae hatch in the small intestine and
migrate to the large intestine.
• Female worms exit the anus at night to lay
eggs on the perianal skin.
• Eggs become infective.
• Humans scratch the perianal area,
transferring eggs to hands and surfaces.
• Cycle continues when eggs are ingested or
enter the body.
Trichuris trichiura (Whipworm):
• Eggs are ingested via contaminated soil,
food, or water.
• Eggs hatch in the small intestine.
• Larvae mature into adult worms in the large
intestine.
• Adult worms attach to the intestinal wall.
• Eggs are passed in feces to the environment.
• Cycle continues when eggs are ingested
from contaminated sources.
HOOKWORMS
Hookworms are parasitic nematode worms that
belong to the family Ancylostomatidae. They are
called "hookworms" due to a distinctive feature in
their morphology—the presence of hook-like
structures in their buccal cavity (mouthparts). These
worms are intestinal parasites that can infect a variety
of animals, including humans.
Morphological characteristics of Hookworms
• Adult hookworms typically range from 8 to
13 millimeters in length.
• The color is typically translucent to pale pink
or brown.
• They have a segmented body, and their
cuticle is covered in fine transverse striations.
• The buccal cavity of these hookworms
contains cutting plates used for attaching to
the host's intestinal mucosa.
• Hookworms have a simple digestive system,
consisting of a mouth, esophagus, intestine,
and anus.
• Male and female hookworms can be
differentiated based on their reproductive
organs. The male has a copulatory bursa at
the posterior end, while the female has a
prominent vulva.
LIFE CYCLE
Ancylostoma duodenale, Ancylostoma ceylanicum,
and Necator americanus (Human Hookworm)
• Eggs are passed in human feces.
• Eggs develop into infective larvae in the
soil.
• Humans come into contact with
contaminated soil.
• Infective larvae penetrate the skin (usually
through the feet) and enter the bloodstream.
• Larvae migrate to the lungs and are coughed
up, then swallowed.
• Larvae reach the small intestine, mature into
adult worms, and attach to the intestinal
wall.
 • Adult worms feed on blood, causing
intestinal bleeding.
• Eggs are produced by adult worms and
passed in feces, continuing the cycle.
Ancylostoma caninum and Ancylostoma
braziliense (Dog/Cat Hookworm)
• Adult female hookworms in a dog's intestine
produce eggs.
• Eggs are passed in dog feces.
• Eggs hatch in the soil and develop into
infective larvae.
• Dogs come into contact with contaminated
soil.
• Infective larvae penetrate the skin or are
ingested.
• Larvae migrate to the lungs, are coughed up
and swallowed.
• Larvae reach the small intestine, mature into
adult worms, and attach to the intestinal
wall.
• Adult worms feed on blood, causing
intestinal bleeding.
• Eggs are produced by adult worms and
passed in dog feces, contaminating the
environment.
Characteristic Hookworm Creeping Eruptions
Anemia (Cutaneous Larva
Migrans)
Cause Chronic blood Penetration of the skin
loss due to by hookworm larvae,
hookworms typically Ancylostoma
feeding on braziliense.
blood in the
intestines.
Symptoms Fatigue, Itchy, winding or
weakness, serpentine tracks under
pallor, shortness the skin, local
of breath, heart inflammation, itching.
palpitations,
fainting.
Diagnosis Stool Clinical diagnosis based
examination to on skin lesions and
detect history of exposure to
hookworm eggs contaminated soil.
or larvae.
Treatment Anthelmintic Topical or oral
medications to antiparasitic medications
eliminate (e.g., thiabendazole,
hookworms, ivermectin) to kill larvae
iron and relieve symptoms.
supplementation
for anemia.
Prevention Proper Avoiding contact with
sanitation, contaminated soil or
avoiding sand, practicing good
contact with hygiene. Deworming
contaminated pets to prevent zoonotic
soil, wearing infections.
footwear.