NATIONAL AND STRATEGIC STUDIES

UNIT 1

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit the student should be able to:

 Define National and Strategic Studies

 Compare and contrast the democracy in the pre-colonial states and the democracy in
America
 Examine the level of civilization of the pre-colonial states in the following areas:
i) Medicine
ii) Governance
iii) Democracy
iv) Culture
v) Technology

1.1 ZIMBABWEAN HISTORY, NATIONAL INTERESTS, AND HERITAGE,1:

INTRODUCTION
NASS- The background
There is no educational system that is silent on the values that are accepted and cherished by that
society. Education is about values in other word behaviour change in all the domains of
education that is the psychomotor, the cognitive and the affective. A skilled artisan or accountant with
no sense of his position in society at the family level or at work or society in general is a social misfit and
a drain to national wealth because of the need to either hospitalise him because he has AIDS or
incarcerate him because he is a criminal and a danger to that society. A strong sense of belonging or
identity, responsibility and accountability are the things that can be defined as patriotism. Economic
giants today and in the past are and were the most patriotic. In Zimbabwe today the sense of belonging
has eluded both young and old and this is due to selfishness, greed and the collapse of the extended family

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due to western values. A culture of greed or a mafia and mercenary attitude pervades all sectors of society
in the banking, retailing, manufacturing and civil service. The need to change attitudes and the need to
inculcate correct values is not only urgent but imperative now and in the future.

NASS -Definition
NASS can be defined as civic education designed to make all Zimbabweans who go through tertiary
institutions become responsible citizens who are patriotic and can therefor be mobilised to participate in
national development. .
Civic education is typical of and in all educational systems and is not unique to Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe
was the odd case in that it did not have this kind of emphasis in its education as much as Zimbabwe
was the odd case in relation to National Service.

NASS-Purpose
NASS therefor is about positively changing or enhancing the attitudes of participants with respect to their
national identity and with respect to translating the political gains of the Second Chimurenga into
economic gains in the Third and Fourth Chimurenga.

1.1.1: ZIMBABWEAN HISTORY…

Zimbabwe has a beginning in the distant past as witnessed and testified by the Zimbabwe ruins as well as
in the recent past as embodied in the ethos of the Second Chimurenga war. The second chimurenga in
essence establishes our „enduring political tradition” and ethos. Standing on a hill allows one to see as far
behind as he is able to see as far ahead. Mathematically expressed this would be, “one is able to see as far
ahead proportional to the distance he/she is able to see as far backward.‟ History is therefor relevant not
only for today‟s events and policies, but allows us to shape our future and avoid the pitfalls of yester -
year.

1.1.2 PRE COLONIAL HISTORY

1.1.2.1 The GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE

 State was most powerful before the 14th century i.e. 1500.
 It was called a state because it could raise an army and force the payment of tribute and was involved
in international relations.
 The state was built by a group of people and they were basically the shona people and who had much
wealth in the form of livestock.
 The Shona built the stone capital commonly called Great Zimbabwe which became the centre of
social, religious, economic and political life..
 The king was termed “Mambo”. The name of Great Zimbabwe means “house of stones” that is
“Dzimba Dzemabwe”. Similar “dzimba dzemabwe” were built across the country for chiefs on
rulers who were loyal to the “mambo” at Great Zimbabwe.

Historical evidence

 Historians have used the oral traditions to try to explain the history of the Great Zimbabwe state.
However, there is little that we normally get from the oral traditions because the Shonas have no
written records.
 Documentary evidence written during the Mutapa state by the Portuguese and records found in Arab
writings have an account on the Changamire and Mutapa states.

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Archaeological Evidence

 Archaeology in the form of clothing found at the Great Zimbabwe and some of the evidence
including bones, copper and iron tools.
 These have been used by historians to show the social economic and political activities of the people
at Great Zimbabwe.
 The structure at the ruins consist of 2 complexes “the Acropolis”or temple area and the external
enclosure which consisted of a large number of stone buildings.
 Excavations in the external enclosure yielded stone, glass, bead, and brassware,
 Sea shells, iron ware, iron axes and hoes.
 Local goods included ivory, gold, beads, soapstones, chisels etc.

Social and Political Organisation

 By 1200 a ruling class had emerged which was strong enough to organize almost the whole
population to build a high surrounding wall made of granite blocks.
 The Great Zimbabwe rulers exercised power a number of chiefdoms who paid tribute to the mambo
at great Zimbabwe.
 Other chiefdoms may have been independent but connected through marriage and trade.
 The ruling class controlled trade.

Purpose of the stone structure

1) Security
2) Religion
3) Prestige monument.
4) Occupy slave labour

Causes for the Decline or Collapse of the State

 The state had become overpopulated leading to a shortage of resources.
 There was increased emigration
 Shortage of resources i.e. salt
 Civil wars
 Declining soil fertility
 Some dispute that Nyatsimba Mutota left Great Zimbabwe because he had failed to succeed and left
and formed the Mutapa state..
1,1.2:2. THE MUTAPA STATE

 The founder of the Mutapa state was Nyatsimba Mutota who left Zimbabwe in search of salt or after a
succession dispute according to oral history. Mutota went to the Zambezi Valley where he defeated
some weak communities who were already settled there such as the Tavara or the Dzivaguru people.
Mutota As a result earned the title „ Munhu-mutapa‟ a praise name which means Lord of
Conquering.

 Before the succession dispute, King Chibatamatosi, Mutota‟s father had ordered Mutota to find salt.
 Initially the king had sent his servant Nyakatondo who had returned with salt and reported on the
abundance of elephants in the area.
 Prince Mutota traveled north leading a large army. He built his capital a “Zimbabwe” on the slope of
Chikato hill near the Utete River.
 Part of this Zimbabwe remains to this day at the bottom of the escapement north of Guruve.

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 Mutota formed an alliance with the Tavara High Priest, Dzivaguru. Upon the death of Mutota, his
son, Nyanhenhwe Matope took over and co-ruled with his half sister Nyamhita who occupied the
district of Handa hence she is often referred to as Nyamhita Nehanda. The two ruled the Mutapa
Empire stretching from the Anngwa and Manyame Rivers, north to the Zambezi and west to the
Musengezi and Mukumbura Rivers.

The Mutapa Language eschatology and customs

 The people had the same shona language, customs and culture similar to the peoples of the Great
Zimbabwe state. The term “Shona” was not used until the 19th century. The Ndebele people
described the Karanga ie. Mutapa language and area of control as “entshona langa” which means a
place where the sun sets or a place to the west.
 Nowadays the term Shona is representative of a number of related dialects (in Zimbabwe) one of
which is Karanga.
 They believed in a god whom they called „mwari‟ who is claimed to have spoken through the spirits
of the ancestors and they listened carefully to spirit mediums i.e. the Mhondoros.
 Religious ceremonies were held to honour the spirit mediums where music dancing and feasting
occurred (Bira). The senior spirit mediums were Dzivaguru in the north east, Nehanda in the central
and Chaminuka in the west.
 At the cultural level the society was closely knit with the family being the nucleus of society as well
as being the foundation of the nation. The basis of this arrangement was a high degree of morality
with crime, starvation, delinquency, prostitution, divorce and almost all known present day social ills
being unknown. The law was highly developed to deal with cultural issues and less defined in terms
of commerce. Criminals even murderers were rehabilitated with the law seeking to reconcile the
injured and the culprit and compensate the victim or his relatives in the case of murder. When a
person was murdered life had to be paid with life and invariably a young woman from the murderers‟
family had to be given to the victim‟s family. Inevitably, this created a bond between the two
considering that at birth or death there are things that no one could or can do except the relatives of a
woman. This is in stark contrast to equivalent European law which was and remains punitive and
divisive.

The Mutapa Economy

The state existed for almost 500 years in one form or the other. During its peak it was the heart of a
powerful empire which controlled the Zambezi River trade route and received taxes from foreigners. Not
only was the economy based on trade and taxation, tribute was also part of their economy. The people of
the Mutapa provided a variety of goods for trade. Trade made the Mutapa ruling class wealthy and the
state became strong.

 The people paid tribute to the Mutapa tax collectors and elephant hunters paid tribute in the form of
tusks.
 The Mutapa encouraged the gold miners to do the dangerous mine work in return the miners had to
sell the gold to the Mutapa.
 He taxed all imports and exports, every trader paid tribute, every visitor gifts, people brought disputes
and complains to the Mutapa and paid fees for his judgement.

The Mutapa Political Structures

 They had many advisors and ministers to govern the state.
 Some of the emperors‟ wives were also officials, greeting visitors and handling their business and as
members of his royal court they became very powerful.

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 Munhumutapa, his wives and officials wore expensive jewellery and clothes made from cotton and
silk. Most people wore skin aprons.
 A large army was maintained which traveled long distances, patrolling and collecting taxes and cattle
and brought new communities into the empire.

The Portuguese Factor In The Mutapa State.

 When Matope died, succession disputes arose. In 1494 Chikuyo Chisamarengu became king and was
the first to receive a Portuguese visitor named Fernandes who brought rice, cloth and guns as gifts.
 The acquisition of more guns increased Mutapa‟s power such that he was in a position to assist his
ally Makombe of Barwe to take control of Manyika.
 In 1530 Neshangwe became the new king after Chisamarengu had died. He took over Mbire province
earning the praise name Munembire.
 He introduced the old custom of chiefs sending their ambassador to rekindle fires at the king‟s palace.
 In 1550 Chivero Nyasoro succeeded Neshangwe and after him Nzou or Ntemba an unmarried youth,
took over and ruled with his mother Chiuya.
 Negomo and his mother Chiuya received a Catholic priest Father Goncalo da‟ Silveira who wanted
to convert them to Christianity. Muslim traders at the king‟s court (vamwenyi) did not like this and
plotted to kill Da‟ Silveira. They subsequently strangled him and dumped him in a pond.
 Goncalo‟s death angered the Portuguese and when they sent an army to revenge his death, it was
defeated.
 In 1607 Gatsi Rusere asked the Portuguese‟s for assistance to fight his rival for the leadership and in
return they were given mines.
 The people of Mutapa refused to tell them where the mines were because of earlier experience with
Portuguese Prazeros(land/ prazo holders)(this is where the name purazi comes from) who took their
land.
 More Portuguese arrived and forced them to work in the fields. The Portuguese formed
private armies and became wild and lawless.

The Decline or Collapse of the Mutapa State

 The decline was precipitated by the Portuguese private armies and this led the Mutapa Nyambo
Kapararidze to try to expel them.
 He was unsuccessful in this and was overpowered and in his place a puppet Mamvura Mhande was
installed.
 After Kapararidze, the Portuguese chose other Munhumutapas who would obey them.
 An 18th century Munhumutapa moved his people to Mozambique where new chiefs were appointed to
restore order.
 Chioko was the last ruler to use the title Munhumutapa. He led a revolt against the Portuguese but
was however crashed in 1817 and so ended the legacy of the Mutapa state.

1.12:3. THE ROZVI STATE

 The state arose from plundered wealth by the Rozvi under Changamire Dombo (1634) believed to
having been a powerful ruler. He was very wealthy and claimed that his father was a mwari and his
mother a virgin. The Rozvi capital was at Thabazikamambo near Bulawayo.
 By 1680 he was at his peak and his state was spread between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers and
even into areas like Mozambique e.g. Sena.
 The Rozvi Changamire received tribute from smaller chiefs.
 By 1830 – 1860 the state existed in name only.

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 Decline and Collapse Of the State
Collapse of the Rozvi state was as a result of Mfecane „or time of trouble” caused by Nguni tribes
who had fled from Tshaka or broken away from the Zulu state in present day Natal
Zwangendaba crossed the Limpopo with his group and fought the Rozvi ruler Chirisamhuru.
 The state was further weakened when Kololo Sebitwane in 1836 fought and defeated the Rozvi.
Mzilikazi turned west into Gaza and then north with his group and finished the remnants of the Rozvi
state between 1837 – 1840.

1.1.2:4. THE NDEBELE STATE

The Founder of the State was Mzilikazi son of, Matshobane and grandson of Zwide. Mzilikazi joined
Tshaka under Zwide. He was a chief of a small clan called Khumalo. He suspected Zwide of the death of
his father Matshobane.

 Mzilikazi was sent to recover cattle and he did not surrender the cattle to Tshaka and fled north.
 He left Natal in 1821/ 1822 with 300 men. The name Ndebele was given as a nickname by Tswanas
and means people of long shields. Mzilikazi increased his side through conquering and incorporating
weak tribes such as the Tswana and Suthuland some people voluntarily joined Mzilikazi. He was
defeated by the Boers at Enthumbane in the Transvaal. The Ndebele crossed the Limpopo River in
1837 – 1846 and settled at Inyati near Matopo hills.
 They easily routed the weakened Rozvi and brought adjacent Shona areas under their control.
They conquered Shonas such as the Kalanga and Venda.
Political Structures
 King was pre-eminent in the Ndebele state. Mzilikazi was the supreme commander of the army,
highest judge with power over life and death. He was a religious leader who presided over important
religious ceremonies such as Incxwala.
 King however didn‟t rule alone but with two advisory counsels, the Mphakati and Izinkulu indicating
that king was not a dictator.
 The Mphakati was made up of original Khumalo chiefs i.e. those who had left Natal and knew Zulu
military tactics.
 These made the most important decisions although they could be vetoed by the king.
 The Izinkulu was made up of other chiefs especially those who were incorporated in the Ndebele
state..

The Ndebele Economy.

Many European historians misunderstood or deliberately distorted the bases of Ndebele economy. They
argued that the Ndebele were nomads and therefore had lots of time for raiding the Shona. This was not
entirely true. The following were the basis of Ndebele economy:

 Herding –This was the most important economic activity owing to the fact that Ndeng initially were
not permanently established in Matebeleland. The Ndeng kept large heads of cattle, sheep and goats.
 They acquired some of the cattle along the way while others were obtained through the conquered
Rozvi and others were received in the form of tribute from the Shona while others were obtained
through raiding.
 Agriculture- the Ndebele had fields in which they grew crops such as millet, sorghum, water melons
etc.

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 Agriculture was however, not very popular with the Ndebele because of climatic conditions.
 Hunting and gathering - Hunting was very popular in the Ndebele state. Their kills ranged from large
animals e.g. elephants and buffaloes to small species e.g. buck and rodents. Men usually hunted
while women concentrated on gathering.
 They gathered wild fruits, grass seed and insects. Gathering was important in the Ndebele state as far
as it supplemented organised agriculture.
 Trade - They traded internally i.e. amongst themselves and externally with the Shona
The Ndebele traded their cattle and gold for grain, corn, cloth, iron, jewellery, beads etc.

- Mining - The Ndebele occasionally carried out some mining activities to a limited extent. They traded
gold with the Portuguese. Mining was done mostly in winter- after harvest when people didn‟t have
much work in the field.

 Tribute - in the form of cattle, grain and to a certain extent women from those tribes under their
control
 Raids/plunder - They raided the unsubdued Shona tribes for cattle, women, young men and grain.
 However, it should be realized that the Ndebele didn‟t always raid the Shona. Only those
who lived near Ndebele settlements were raided occasionally such as the Shona in the
Masvingo, Mberengwa, Gweru and Kwekwe areas.

Ndebele- Shona relations

The myths and realities.

 Many European historians wrote that the Ndebele always raided the Shona and that the Shona were
on the verge of extinction when settler colonialists came to Zimbabwe. They used this as an excuse
to influence the British government to colonize this country and the missionaries used this argument
more than the ordinary settlers.
 The reason why missionaries encouraged the British government to occupy and destroy the Ndebele
Kingdom was because they had failed to convert a single Ndebele man.
 The truth of the matter is that there was co-existence between the Shona and the Ndebele had the
occasional raid as a common feature of this relationship.
 In the early stages of the Ndebele settlement i.e. between 1840 – 1870 the Ndebele were pre-occupied
with their own security, internal problems such that they could not always fight the Shona.
 It is also true that some Shona people never experienced Ndebele raids up to 1890 especially those
Shona people living north of Harare and Manicaland.
 Those Shona chiefs who refused to pay tribute e.g. Chief Chivi or Bere were major targets for raids.
Ndebele raids did not interfere with the economy of those Shona chiefs who paid tribute and
moreover some Shona chiefs aided the Ndebele and some stole or raided the Ndebele to recover
stolen cattle.
 The Ndebele actually encouraged good relations and there was some level of inter-marriage.
 The Ndebele adopted the Shona deity “mwari”/umlimu‟ and followed the Shona traditions of
ancestral worship..
 The state was divided into 3 district social groups based on history namely:

a) Abezanzi

These were the superior class which occupied most important positions. They formed the aristocratic
ruling class. These were the original Khumalo who had left Natal and constituted about 15% of
Ndebele population ie. The Hadebes, Khumalos, Mkwananzi.

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b) Enhla

These were 2nd most important groups in the Ndebele state. They were Sotho and Tswana who joined
the Ndebele on their way to Zimbabwe. They occupied important military positions in the Ndeng
state and they constituted about 25% of Ndebele population.

c) Amahole

These were the least important in the Ndebele state. They were made up of the Kalanga and other
Shona speaking people who were conquered and absorbed by the Ndebele and made up 60% of
Ndebele population. However, the hole who proved themselves in battle also occupied important
military posts in the Ndebele economy. Due to continued inter-marriage most of these groups lost
their identities ie the Moyos, Sibandas, Ncubes, Gumbos.

ACTIVITIES
 Define National and Strategic Studies
 Compare and contrast the democracy in the pre-colonial states and the democracy in
America
 Examine the level of civilization of the pre-colonial states in the following areas:
vi) Medicine
vii) Governance
viii) Democracy
ix) Culture
x) Technology

UNIT 2
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the unit the student should be able to:

 Discuss the major causes of slavery and its effects

 Analyse the major deliberations of the Berlin Conference of 1884-5

 Discuss the causes and effects of colonization of Zimbabwe

 Examine the colonisatioin process of Zimbabwe by Europe

 Analyse the causes and effects of Anglo-Ndebele War , the1st Chimurenga War and 2nd
Chimurenga.

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 THE EUROPEAN COLONISATION OF ZIMBABWE
 White settlement in the region was established as early as the 1650s at the Cape in South Africa. This
was a re-supply post for fresh water and food for the East India trade. The Dutch settlers at the Cape
were soon displaced by the British and pushed north. The discovery of gold on the Rand and
diamonds led to the continued jostling for control between the British and Dutch settlers for the good
part of the two centuries from 1700 through 1800. Hunters and missionaries who were the trail
blazzers for British colonisation spread the rumor that there was a bigger Rand in the area occupied
by the Ndeng across the Limpopo.

 Cecil John Rhodes who came to South Africa because of ill-health joined his brother at the Kimberly
diamond fields and became rich and directed his attention to the rumors of an “el dorado” or city of
gold to the north.

 Rhodes was an imperialist at heart. His aim was to bring under British Control all African territory
from South Africa to Egypt.

 Rhodes believed in British superiority and thought that it was a British responsibility to civilize
Africa the so called Dark Continent.

 Other imperialists were also interested in Zimbabwe namely; the Boers from the short lived Transvaal
Republic, Germans from South West Africa and especially the Portuguese.

 The Grobler Treaty

 In1887 the Transvaal government sent its representative Piet Grobler to negotiate a friendship treaty
with Lobengula assuming he was the ruler of all the territories north of the Limpopo. The agreement
- known as the Grobler treaty provided for a Boer Representative to be resident at Bulawayo and
Lobengula would assist the Boers ( in the face of British threats) if required to do so.

 In response to the treaty, Rhodes influenced the British government to send a representative to
Bulawayo to negotiate a counter treaty.

The Moffat Treaty

 John Smith Moffat representing the British government negotiated and signed the treaty in February
1888. According to this agreement Lobengula was to cancel the Grobler Treaty. He would also not
enter into any agreement with any European power without the consent of Britain.

 The Moffat Treaty was supposed to be a treaty of friendship between Lobengula and the British
government but in fact was the first step in the collapse and subjugation of the Ndeng state.

The Rudd Concession

 Agreed and signed in October 1888, it led to the occupation of Zimbabwe by the white settlers
through the British South African company. Rhodes had formed this commercial company to spear
head the occupation of this country.

 The Rudd Concession was entered into between Charles Rudd representing Rhodes and Lobengula.
The Rudd delegation consisted of three people namely;

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 1Charles Rudd

Rhodes‟ old friend since their days at Oxford University. He was therefore an embodiment of
Rhodes‟ self interest.

1. Rotchford Maguire

Was a lawyer and his expertise in the legal language was going to be useful in tricking
Lobengula.

2. Francis Thompson

He was nicknamed “Matebele” because he was fluent in Nguni languages including Ndebele. He had
a perfect knowledge of Ndeng custom. His presence was therefore meant to influence Lobengula to
sign the agreement. Rhodes was careful in the selection of the Rudd team.

Lobengula didn‟t want to meet this delegation let alone sign the agreement, the evidence is that:

1) It took the delegation about 6 weeks to meet Lobengula.

2) The delegation bribed Lobengula‟s most trusted senior, Induna Lotshe, who influenced
Lobengula to sign the agreement and for that role Lotshe was executed together with his family.

3) Lobengula was influenced by several whitemen he trusted such as Moffat who misled or lied to
him that the Rudd delegation represented the queen.

4) Because of both internal and external influence, Lobengula signed the Rudd Concession in
October 1888, the terms of which were;:

a) Lobengula was to receive:

 Monthly pension of 100 pounds sterling per month.

 1000 enfield riffles and 100 000 rounds of ammunition.

 A gunboat to be placed on the Zambezi valley to guard against Portuguese invasion.

b) Lobengula was to grant Rhodes;

-Granted Rhodes and the BSAC exclusive rights over all minerals and precious metals in Mashonaland
and Matebeleland.

 Not more than 10 white men would enter the country.

 They would dig only one hole.

 They would surrender all their weapons to Lobengula and actually become his people.

The Royal Charter

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 Armed with the Rudd agreement Rhodes had to have the political protection of the British
government. Rhodes therefor sought and got this protection through The Royal Charter, granted in
October 1889. The document in effect declared that the Rudd concession had effectively made the
territories of Lobengula British territories under the administration of the British South Africa
Company (BSAC) and by that virtue restricted Boer and Portuguese expansion. Some German
hunters advised Lobengula on what was meant by the document and he tried in vain to repudiate it.

 He sent two of his Indunas to the queen accompanied by E A Mount and Charles Helm to inform her
that he was no longer interested in the Rudd Concession. The indunas were deliberately delayed and
the repudiation was too late.

 To reverse the Rudd agreement, Lobengula granted Edward Lippert a German businessman a
concession for a period of 100 years to mine in Zimbabwe.

 Rhodes bought the Lippert Concession and made his position even more powerful.

The Pioneer Column

 Rhodes‟s next step was to organize a group of men who were going to form the first t settlers in
Zimbabwe.

 The group was called The Pioneers made up of 200 settler volunteers and chosen from thousands of
applicants from all over Europe and South Africa.

 Supported by 500 troops, the group was promised 2 000 acres and five gold claims each. The
Botswana protectorate provided 800 African labourers.

 Fredrick Selous guided the settler group because of his knowledge of the country as a hunter. The
group crossed Into Zimbabwe in March 1890 and built fort Tuli. The column turned east avoiding
the Ndeng state and established Fort Victoria (Masvingo) On 17 August 1890 the Column reached
Fort Charter (Chivhu). From Charter the column reached Harare on 12 September 1890, raised the
British flag the Union jack and, and called Harare Salisbury in honour of British Prime Minister at
that time. This marked the completion of the occupation of the land.

 Leander Star Jameson, Rhodes‟ personal friend was appointed the first governor of Mashonaland.

The Anglo - Ndebele war and the Occupation of Matebeleland.

The members of Pioneer Column were largely disappointed with the amount of gold they got in
Mashonalnad.

 They thought that Matebeleland was a little closer to South Africa so a second Rand could be found
in Matebeleland.

 The white settlers also admired the big cattle found in Matebeleland and the attractive land (rich
grazing lands). They even believed that Lobengula‟s capital was built on top of a gold mountain.

 It should be borne in mind that the occupation of Matebeleland was inevitable and unavoidable. It
was to complete the occupation of Zimbabwe and, as the BSAC was bankrupt, it needed gold; hence
Matebeleland was their own way out of that big problem.

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 To do so the BSAC had to destroy the powerful and landed Ndeng state and Leander Star Jameson
needed an excuse in order to attack the Ndeng state. He created conflicts to justify war between
whites and Ndeng.

Precursors to the war

1. The Boundary Line

 According to Jameson, Mashonaland was not part of Matebeleland.

 Jameson drew up his own boundary line to separate Mashonaland from Matebeleland. He then
restricted Lobengula‟s rule to Matebeleland.

 Lobengula never acknowledged the division of Mashonaland and Matebeleland.

 He claimed the whole country as his and to make matters worse, the boundary line kept on shifting
towards his capital thus reducing his area of influence.

The war - 1893

While Rhodes and BSAC were busy establishing themselves in Mashonaland the Ndeng were trying to
avoid any conflicts with the whites. Since the settlers were interested in Matebeleland, Rhodes and his
people were busy finding ways of attacking the Ndeng The whites admired the Ndeng‟s rich grazing lands
and suspected gold deposits.

Causes of the War of 1893

1. The Victoria Incident

 Whites employed the Shona people but the Ndebele still regarded later as their subjects.

 In June 1893 some of the Shona people led by headman Gomala stole 500 metres of telegraph wire.

 They were ordered to pay cattle as fine. They paid this fine using cattle that belonged to Lobengula
and which they had had stolen.

 Lobengula claimed the cattle to be his and they were returned to him.

 Soon after this event another Shona by the name of Bere is alleged to have to have stolen cattle
belonging to Lobengula.

 Lobengula sent an impi to punish the Shona chief and his people. As a result Shona servants on
European farms were killed and some fled to Fort Victoria for protection.

 The Ndebele Indunas, Manyao and Uumgandani pursued the Shona people who sought refuge in
Victoria.

 The indunas demanded that the Shona be handed over but Lendy, the magistrate of Fort Victoria
refused and the Ndeng were ordered to vacate Fort Victoria.

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 Lendy followed and caught up with Umgandani‟s party and killed all of them and in response
Lobengula mobilized 6000 soldiers.

 The Victoria Incident triggered the war but the issue at stake was that the white farmers believed
that there were rich gold deposits in Matebelaland and had long planned on how to get there

They also saw the grazing land and good cattle herds of the Ndebele as a recipe for prosperity even if
they were to find no gold.

The powerful independent Ndebele state was seen as preventing white settlers from getting enough
labour for their mines and farms.

Preparation for war

 By September 1893 Jameson had organized a force of over 1000 well armed white settlers aided by
missionaries from South Africa.

 Jameson promised each of them 2400 hectares of land and 20 gold claims each if the Ndeng were
defeated.

The Battles

 The white armies left Salisbury and Fort Victoria in October 1893 and moved south west towards
Matopo ready for a show down with the Ndeng.

 In a battle, that took place along the Shangani and Mbembesi Rivers, the Ndeng impi was heavily
defeated.

 On 3 November after just a month of bloody fighting the invading forces entered the Ndeng capital,
Bulawayo and Lobengula set fire to the city and fled north where he vanished without trace to date.

 The 1893 war marked the complete conquest of Zimbabwe and an end to Ndeng Supremacy.

3. CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY.

Slavery is the highest level of degrading another human being. Slavery is as ancient as human existence.
The practice was pronounced under the Roman Empire and at that time it also assumed its commercial
undertones. This practice was perfected by the former Roman colonies in Europe when they enslaved
Africa. Never in the History of mankind were such atrocities, insensitivity, and cruelty and inhumanity
perpetrated by human beings upon other human beings. Slavery was the crudest method of exploiting
other human beings and in its wake came colonisation which by definition is slavery with a humane face.
The latter like slavery leads to the exploitation of other man by other man by other means other than brute
force.

It is not possible under The United Nations Charter for a nation to unilaterally attack or annex the territory
of another state and where this has happened of late as when Iraq attacked Kuwait the UN unanimously
agreed to reverse the annexture through force of arms. To colonize another state is therefor the highest
form of state irresponsibility. The USA under false claims of existence of weapons of mass destruction
attacked Iraq in 2003 and there was a global outcry against the war. Colonization nevertheless took place
many centuries before the UN came into existence but that does make colonization any less a crime
against humanity. Colonisation was perpetrated by the very nations that were vociferously opposed to the

PAGE 13
Iraq Kuwait invasion and yet many serious human rights violations were perpetrated by the colonial
powers in this process. In Tasmania Australia, the aborigines on the island were wiped out to the last man
by British settlers. The Spanish conquistadors demolished whole empires and civilizations in the
Americas.

SLAVERY

1. The discovery of gold and silver and agricultural potential in South America or in the Americas
created the need for disciplined workforce.

2. Inability of the local or native Red-Indian population to withstand organized disciplined labour.

3. Existence of disciplined agricultural and industrial culture in Africa.

4. Indigenous or Red-Indian inability to withstand European diseases e.g. small pox, syphilis, gonorrhea
etc.

5. The existence of a greedy and guliable or naïve chieftainship in Africa which captured and sold its
own kith and kin for a bottle of fire water that is gin.

 Commercial activity therefore contributed much to the consolidation of slavery. The trade in Europe
did not provide sufficient profit because of the problem of exchange values. But the trade with
unindustrialized countries in Africa and America was more profitable because of the use values.

 This system of trade was a system of robbery based on plunder, piracy and slavery and colonial
conquest.

 To consolidate accumulation or profit in England, the joint stock company was devised and several of
this new economic tool were formed, e.g. the Adventurous Russia company and the Africa company.
According to Nassau, a well known academic of the time, the objectives of the Africa company were,
“…to kidnap or purchase and work to death the natives of Africa without mercy.” The Eastland
Company had the monopoly and right to trade with the European hinterland. The Levan Company in
which Queen Elizabeth 1 was a major shareholder became the East Indian Company.

 The Fuggers Company in Germany was first a merchant company and later became a bank and
financed all Germany wars of the period.

 The Fuggers Company in return for financing war was paid through the form of trading concessions,
colonial land and through revenue from colonial mines.

 As contact with Latin America or South America increased, the company turned to Africa for cheap
labour.

 It was the nearest continent with a population used to organize labour which was also disciplined in
many respects. The Uterecht Treaty of 1713 gave English Merchants the right to supply South
America with 5 000 slaves every year and a special company was formed to supply these slaves.

 Most of the gold and products from the plantations from South America ended up in British towns.

 The continued enslavement of African peoples between 1646 and 1680 resulted in 70 000 slaves
being taken to South America. However, only 46 000 survived the translocation. The slave trade was

PAGE 14
 part of the triangular trade between Europe, Africa and South America .This trade was very
profitable to the European companies and the African Royal company which was the slave company
paid a dividend of 300% despite loss of half the “goods/cargo” that‟s despite the death of more than
half the slaves en route to the Americas.

 There is therefore a co relation between Europe‟s expansion/development and slave labour from
Africa. The methods used by the companies especially British firms, was to capture other countries‟
export markets through colonisation, protectionism and unequal exchange.

 Europe therefore did not undertake its industrial Revolution without the plunder, the enslavement and
the destruction of the native people of Africa.

COLONIALISM

 Colonialism was a product of European merchants or European commerce. The former (the
merchants) later supported and financed the political institutions or their governments in their wars
of conquest and colonisation and they also participated in policy making. Colonisation therefore was
therefor an economic necessity. The reasons or causes of Africa‟s colonisation were or are:

a) Facilitated protection of monopoly markets of each European trading nation.

b) Allowed easy access to tropical markets.

c) Allowed access to natural resources essential for industrial activities.

d) Allowed expansion and creation of new markets which had no balance of trade problems.

e) Colonization facilitated the unimpeded imposition of the religious super structure and beliefs of the
colonizers on the colonized peoples.

f) For glory and imperial prestige.

 African slavery had existed in Europe from about the 16th century but the need to exploit the wealth
of South America saw slavery reaching a climax in the 18th century. Slavery however, came to an
end when it stopped serving the purposes and interests of European commerce.

 The dynamics of European production and exchange changed and no longer required slave labour.
Britain banned slavery in 1807. Slavery however, continued or even grew after this banning. In
1833 slavery was internationally banned but it did not die until a 100 years later and to the shame of
Africa still lingers on in places like the Sudan.

 Slavery was not abolished because Europe had repented of its weakedness but because commerce
could not benefit as much from this evil practice.

 Once slavery was abolished, it was replaced with colonization.

 The commercial revolution in the 16th century expanded trade beyond Europe and this created a
conservative class of merchants and landlords. Commercial merchants were a class which could not
fully satisfy their accumulation potential in Europe so they turned to foreign markets.

PAGE 15
 Primitive accumulation in Europe, that is, getting rich through violence and other dishonest means,
was extended and practiced in foreign lands through colonization.

 The merchants and conquerors destroyed several civilizations in Africa e.g. the Ashanti kingdom and
the Aztec Civilization in Central America.

 Earlier, five crusades had been wedged or undertaken in the Middle East and this almost destroyed
the Arab civilization. The crusades were less about religion and more about plunder and theft and
robbery. The amount of wealth stolen in this manner although substantial could not last long and the
result was to exploit the mines and the agricultural potential in Africa and in South America.

 In South America where more gold and silver than in Africa existed, the mines could not be exploited
using local labour so they resorted to stealing people from Africa.

 This form of exploitation eventually gave way to paid labour as a more profitable way of
accumulating wealth.

 Development or industrialization in Europe is therefore directly linked to both colonialism and

slavery.

THE BERLIN CONFERENCE 1884 – 1885

 Before the Berlin conference in 1884 commercial contact had long existed between Europe and
Africa and in trying to protect their commercial interest, Europeans had fought many wars and for
almost a 100 years between 1700 and 1800 Europe was at war with each other because of
commercial or economic interests. With the growth of England and France as the major military
powers, the wars became less and less However, when German became a powerful nation towards
the end of the 19th Century, the following scenario developed in Europe;.

 The possibilities of renewed conflict became real.

 The British passed The Navigation and Frauds Act, The Navigation and Staple acts etc. with a view to
monopolising trade with the so called „new world‟ and „the dark continent.‟

 Portugal fearing wars between Europe and Britain suggested or requested Otto Von Bismark, the
Germany chancellor, to convene a conference for all interested parties with trading or commercial
interests with Africa. This led to the infamous Berlin conference. The objectives of the conference
were:

1. To lay down the rules for the partition and exploitation of Africa.

2 .To prevent war by so partitioning Africa.

Summary of Contents of the agreement at the Berlin Conference;

1. Freedom of navigation on all major rivers in Africa.

2. Colonization or establishment of protectorates to be entered into voluntarily between European

powers and African Chiefs.

PAGE 16
3. A colony to be recognized only where there was visible occupation and evidence of a written
protectorate agreement.

PARTIES TO THE BERLIN CONFERENCE

2. 1. German ,Belgium ,England, France, Italy ,Portugal

Contents Of Protectorate Agreements between European Powers and African Chiefs/Kings.

1. Parties to the agreement- a). African chief and, b). a European commercial company.

2. Subjugation or surrender of title to land.

3. The location of the land, its size and general description.

4. Surrender of all political, judicial and military power.

5. Creation of a monopoly trade area.

6. Duration of agreement i.e. infinity or for ever and ever.

7. Rewards for the chiefs and the people, alleged or claimed improvement of their lives through
European civilization.

8. Surrender of all rights to minerals and other resources.

RESULTS OF THE BERLIN CONFERENCE

1. Led to the scramble for Africa by European powers (nations) through commercial companies or by
commercial companies.

2. The establishment of concessions which were unfair and never explained to the African chiefs.

3. Resistance or rejection of the concessions by African chiefs when they understood the implications of
the agreement.

4. Use of force by European powers to break resistance and to fully colonise Africa.

THE EFFECTS OF COLONIZATION

1. Balance of trade dis-equilibra i.e. negative trade relations between Africa and European countries
during and after colonialism through a new form of relationship called Neo-colonialism.

2. Exploitation and depletion of Africa‟s natural resources without benefit to Africa.

3. Underdevelopment of Africa since there was no technology transfer to facilitate industrialisation

(investment was only in infrastructure to enable exploitation of resources).

4. Cultural decimation/destruction.

5. Dependency on European economies.

PAGE 17
6. Loss of individual and national identity by Africans during and after colonialism

7. Super enrichment and development of Europe and their extensions in America and Australia.

Reasons for the colonisation of Africa.

1. Abundance of natural resources e.g. minerals, rubber, elephants (ivory).

2. Fertile soils and ideal climate in Southern Africa and Kenya..

3. Africa was the source of many major rivers.

4. Existence of a money economy in Africa.

5. Possibility of establishing colonies and monopoly markets.

6. Little to no meaningful resistance

CONSOLIDATION OF SETTLER COLONIALISM IN ZIMBABWE

Early Settler Administration.

 With the Ndebele state in ruins and the Shona state machinery crumbling in the face of
superior settler firepower, the BSAC proceeded apace to consolidate its grip on the country.
The Transvaal Boer state however posed a great challenge to Rhodes‟ plans In 1895,
Jameson withdrew most of the company‟s armed personnel into the Transvaal to fight the
Boers but was crushed and the scenario for the Native rebellion in Zimbabwe developed

THE FIRST CHIMURENGA.

Causes of the War

The Ndebele Revolt

1. The land Issue

 The reserve system or translocation of native Zimbabweans to infertile dry inhospitable holding areas
was introduced.

 In 1894 the first reserves were set up in Shangani and Gwaai.

 After the defeat of the Ndebele, the settlers seized their 6 000 acres displacing many natives and those
displaced became fulltime labourers or squatters.

 The settlers started ill treating the Ndebele like they were doing the Shona.

2. FORCED LABOUR

PAGE 18
 The British South African company introduced hut tax to force the Africans to go to work and in
order to raise revenue.

 Livestock was seized to force men to go to work for the settler.

 To solve their labour problems, the company introduced forced labour. The chiefs were instructed to
recruit able bodied men and hand them over to the BSAC as labourers- “chibharo”. The Shona and
Ndebele so enslaved ran away into the hills to escape.

 The presence of white settlements contrary to the agreements entered into.

 Again this did not please the Ndeng who wanted to claim their ancestral land back as in the reserves
there was food shortage and starvation at times.

 CATTLE

 Soon after the defeat of the Ndeng in the Anglo Ndebele war, the whites confiscated the Ndeng cattle
numbering about 250 000.

 This drastically reduced the Ndeng herd and the Ndeng wanted their cattle back as it was a sign of
prestige.

 TAXATION

 This was imposed on the Ndeng for a dual purpose

i) It was indirectly made to force the Ndeng to work in order to pay tax.

ii) It was meant to increase the company income.

Abuse of Ndebele women by Native Shona policeman.

 In order to stop this abuse, the Ndebele had to fight the whitemen and the employment of their
former vassals the Shona as policemen did not please the Ndebele as they were now told what to do
by these Shona policeman.

 NATURAL DISASTERS

 It was at that time that natural disasters occurred. These included drought, rinderpest a cattle disease
and locusts. Africans gave these natural disasters a religious interpretation; they argued that the
presence of the whites had angered their ancestors hence these natural disasters and they then found
it necessary to drive away the whites in an effort to bring the natural disasters to an end.

THE ROLE OF SPIRIT MEDIUM

 These were very instrumental in bringing about a concented effort to drive away the white man and
they used a variety of methods. They passed information on the progress made in the preparations for
war. Some prophesied that the fighters would be protected by their ancestors. They also provided
medicine which they claimed made the fighters‟ bullet proof.

PAGE 19
 They gave general encouragement to everybody and in some cases they threatened death to all those
who showed no interest.

RESULTS

 Africans were defeated because of the inferior weapons that they used which included spears, shields,
bow and arrows against the whitemen‟s machine guns, cannons and 7 pounders.

 Disunity and dis-organization among the Africans also led to this defeat as some collaborated with the
whites.

 Leaders and spirit mediums were captured and killed thereby leaving the Africans direction less and
leaderless.

 Africans lost faith in their spirit mediums in particular and in their religion in general leading to many
Africans being converted to Christianity. However, although the Africans were defeated, their
efforts need to be recognised. It was the first time that they had fought a common enemy as a united
people.

 It was also important in that it laid the foundation for future wars of resistance that is the 2 nd
Chimurenga etc.

 Notable heroes and heroines of the First Chimurenga were people like Nehanda, Kaguvi, General
Magwegwe and Mkwati of the Ndebele army, Chief Chingaira, Mashonganyika, Muzambi,
Maremba, Zvidembo, Mazhindu, Manyongori, Gunduza, Mvenuri and Gutu.

Repressive Settler Legilation which dispossed and dehumanized Native

Zimbabweans
Almost two hundred whites lost their lives during the first Chimurenga war and many thousands of
Africans died in battle and in the reprisals that followed up to and during 1898. To secure their position
the settlers enacted many pieces of legislation that effectively proscribed or limited African economic,
cultural and political freedoms.

The Native Reserve Order In Council: 1898.

Effectively removed all native chiefs who were anti- settlers and replaced them with puppet settler
administrators. The act also created reserves or cantonments in dry inhospitable areas.

The Hut Tax: 1903.

Enacted to raise revenue for settlers and to force black men to go and work for the white man.

The Dog Tax and Land Bank acts: 1912.

The land bank act provide d new white settler farmers with free tillage for five years and the same period
as grace before commencing to repay loans from the state owned Land bank.

PAGE 20
The European Produce Act: 1917.

Discriminated against natives in so far as agricultural production was concerned with respect to
quantities they could market or the prices they could fetch.

The Morris Carter Commission:1925.

Divided the whole country into agro-zones based on rainfall patterns from the highest rainfall region 1 to
the lowest rainfall region 5. Natives were trans- located to regions 4 and 5.

The Land Apportionment Act: 1930.

In 1930 whites who numbered 50 000 were allocated 49 000 000 acres of prime land while blacks who
numbered 1 000 000 were allocated 28 000 000 acres of the worst land in regions 4 and five. The
translocation of blacks was accompanied with untold violence and starvation and malnutrition became
endemic. More government officials were employed country wide and effect while rule and these
included native commissioners and police man. A land policy after 1905 was affected which started to
impoverish ty blacks and to keep them politically ineffective. Africans were also excluded from
government through strict qualifications e.g.. The right to vote was given to males over 21 days with an
annual income of 50 000 pounds or with property worth 75 pounds. The Land Apportionment Act of
1930 confirmed and legalised the displacement of Africans that had been ongoing earlier.

Up until 1906, ninety percent of Southern Rhodesia‟s agricultural produce came from black farmers and
many whites did not like this state of affairs. As a result, the Rhodesia Native Labour Bureau (RNLB)
stopped blacks from competing with whites and between 1908 and 1915, 1.5 million acres of the best
land was taken from blacks and given to whites. New boundaries were created to exclude fertile high
rainfall areas from newly created reserves. The latter were located in semi arid areas. Blacks in regions
1, 2 and 3 were made to pay higher grazing fees and taxes. Since many could not pay they were removed
and settled in reserves which were situated far away from markets and rail and tarred motor roads. By the
1920s, 65% of the black population had been forced into reserves. This led to cycle of poverty among
Africans which persists up to today -2004.

The Maize Control Act:1935.

The act protected white farmers from black competition in maize production. 2 grades of maize were
made, A grade for whites and B grade for blacks. A grade fetched a higher price while B fetched a
lower price.

 Whites also paid less for maize they bought from blacks.

The Cattle Levy Act:1934.

 Whites paid less on the market for cattle bought from blacks.

 The government paid more to whites for their cattle.

 This system impoverished the blacks who were loosing out through this fraudulent commercial
arrangement. As the blacks became poorer in the reserves they migrated or translocated to towns.

PAGE 21
Industrial Conciliation Act:1934.

 Blacks were denied the right to join trade unions.

 Higher paying jobs were reserved for whites that are skilled and semi-skilled job.

 The act was latter amended to allow natives to become nurses and teachers.

Racial Discrimination Act:1934.

 The act barred social inter-action between the races for an example it was an offence for a white to
share a toilet with a black man or to mix in schools, hospitals, or hotels even cemeteries.

The Land Husbandry Act: 1951.

 The act barred any African family from owning more than five herd of cattle or eight acres of land
in the communal lands.

The Tribal Trust Land Act:1965.

 The act segregated the ownership of land between white areas and black areas. Natives could only
occupy land in communal lands without holding title to it. In Towns natives could only lease property
and no black man could own a house in town until after 1980.

The Land Tenure Act:1969.

 The act divided the land on racial lines and designated the best 45 000 000 acres as European land
and shared among the 250 000 whites and the worst 45 000 000acres was designated as native land to
be shared by the 5 000 000 blacks.

 The act also barred the races from encroaching in the other race‟s land.

 PASS LAWS

 All black males were required to carry a pass or identity paper which any white man or police officer
of any race could demand at anytime anywhere. This restricted black freedom of movement from
place to place.

AFRICAN REACTION TO REPRESSIVE AND RACIST LEGISLATION

After the collapse of traditional resistance in 1898 Zimbabwe was ruled by the British through the
BSAC. Africans were speedily brought under control and since company rule was increasingly becoming
inadequate and incapable of running the country, the British gave the settlers two options to either join
South Africa or to establish responsible self government. In a referendum in 1923 the settlers chose the
latter. The more the settler regime became repressive the more the African spirit of resistance blazed.
Early resistance took crude forms such as jamming of factory machines or refusing to work on farms and
in mines. More refined resistance took the form of strikes and joining trade unions.

PAGE 22
 Between the 1st. and 2nd. World wars the vehicle for political agitation among blacks were the trade
unions. The African Railway Workers Union and the Reformed Commercial and Industrial Workers
Union were the first and most effective and they also were non tribal.

 Bulawayo the industrial city of the nation at the time saw more political activity originating and
directed from that quarter. In 1945 the ARWU called a strike that paralyzed the whole network from
Mutare to Ndola in Zambia‟s copper belt.

 In 1948 a general strike paralyzed all industrial and commercial activity in all cities in the country.

 The white settlers connived to create the federation of the Rhodesias and Nyasaland (Southern and
Northern Rhodesia, ie Zimbabwe, Zambia and Malawi)and by the early 1950s this absorbed the
attention of the natives since there were many false promises associated with the creation of the
federation. The federation was eventually created in 1953 and its major features were the following;

 Polarization – all major manufacturing activity was concentrated in Southern Rhodesia..

 The communications infrastructure tended to serve and favour Southern Rhodesia with the
Federation railways and airlines being headquartered in Southern Rhodesia

 The University and all other institutions of higher learning were in Southern Rhodesia.

 The settler colonialists embarked on a process of ethnic cleansing designed to rid Southern Rhodesia
of all its native blacks and Trans locating them in Northern Rhodesia and replacing them with what
were perceived as docile migrant laborers from Zambia and Malawi.

 White settlers established permanent homes in Southern Rhodesia dashing any hopes of early self
determination for all the members of the federation as long as the federation existed.

 1955 The city National Youth league was formed and it was a purely workers movement operating in
the urban areas.

 Church leaders also sympathized with their black congregations‟ political aspirations. Some churches
criticized the settlers in their sermons and hymns. However there were many racists church leaders
who used religion or Christianity to subdue and indoctrinate their black congregations to accept a
subservient role. These racist apologists were happy to continue with the policies of segregation in
church, politics and the economy and the result was a proliferation of many independent African
churches.

 In 1957, September 12, the African National Congress (ANC) was formed and it was a merger
between the old ANC and the City Youth League led by Joshua Nkomo. It demanded majority rule.

 It co opted the rural peasantry and organized mass resistances against the Land Husbandry Act (1951)
and it urged the peasants not to cooperate with the government. Garfield Todd, the federation
premier (1953-1957) who was a liberal, argued for accommodation of African demands but the
avowed racists in his cabinet called for repression of all African political activity. As a result Todd
was deposed in an internal coup for giving in to black demands and David White head became
premier and in 1959 e SR-ANC was banned and hundreds of blacks thrown in jail.

 1959 to 1965 saw a host of new repressive laws come into effect such as;

PAGE 23
 The Native Affairs Act 1959

The Unlawful Organizations Act 1959

The Preventive Detention Act 159

The Emergency Powers Act 1960

The law and Order Maintenance Act. 1960

 Internal pressure on the settler government produced more and more repression and the
nationalists resorted to pressure Britain to reign in the settlers and to give independence to blacks
but Britain refused.

 January 1960 the National Democratic Party was formed and replaced the SR-ANC. Joshua Nkomo
was elected president and the leardership of the party consisted of Ndabaningi Sithole, Herbet
Chitepo, Robert Mugabe, Bernard Chidzero, George Silunduka, Jaison Moyo, Leopold Takawira,
Josiah Chinamano, Dumbutshena etc.

 1961 The NDP was banned and the same year ZAPU was formed in December.

 1962 December the Rhodesia Front was elected premier in Southern Rhodesia and the party
represented the hard core white racists determined to wipe out all resistance to colonialism and
Winston Field was then premier.

 1962 September ZAPU was banned.

 1964 August ZANU was formed due to disillusionment with the politics of tolerance and
accommodation and the party was led by Ndabaningi Sithole.

 1964 ZANU was banned and all prominent nationalists were either in prison or in exile.

 1964 saw the beginning of violent African resistance to colonialism with many acts of sabotage. Of
note is the action by self styled General Chedu who led 100 youths calling themselves the Zimbabwe
Liberation army. The same year ZANU recruited and trained the first armed resistance to colonialism
and the Crocodile group drew first blood when they attacked a police station and killed a white farmer
in Chimanimani(Melsetter).

 1964 Ian Smith was elected premier of the settler government.

 1965 November 11th. Ian Smith‟s Rhodesia Front made a Unilateral Declaration of Independence.
This made the country an illegal state and although Britain still claimed to be the legitimate ruler they
failed to bring to justice the settler regime. At about the same time the little island of Anquilla in the
Pacific made a UDI and Britain did not hesitate to reign in the rebels.

 UDI led the nationalists to adopt armed resistance as the first option to gain self determination and the
Smith regime went on an all out campaign to stifle African aspirations and institutionalized arpertheid
or racial segregation as the system of governance and social and economic life. The same year a state
of emergency was declared. Such a declaration has the effect of suspending some or all civil liberties
and allows the state to take extra judicial measures to deal with the crisis. What followed were many

PAGE 24
 years of state terrorism and murder to which the Africans responded by intensifying the armed
resistance - the second Chimurenga war.

 By 1963 the nationalist had secured external bases in independent African countries like Egypt,
Tanzania and Zambia to train their armed wings. Zanu‟s armed wing became the ZImbabwe National
Liberation Army (ZANLA) and ZAPU‟s armed wing became known as the Zimbabwe People‟s
Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA). Training also took place outside Africa in places like Cuba, China,
and Russia.

 1966 at Chinhoyi the first externally trained ZANLA combatants clashed with the security forces and
all seven members of the group were killed.

 1967 August ZIPRA in alliance with the South African National Congress‟s armed wing Umkhonto
Wesizwe deployed four groups of 20 combatants each group. The majority of combatants were killed
in and around Wankie district. Rhodesia airforce began to violate Zambian airspace and another
larger group was deployed by the alliance and again was decimated.

 The South African government in response sent troops into Rhodesia and the Smith government
passed the Law and order maintenance amendment bill – 7 September 1967. The law provided for a
death sentence on any one caught with arms of war

 Late 1969/early 1970 the Front for the liberation of Mocambique fighting the Portuguees in
Mocabmique formed an alliance with ZANLA and with more experience they provided training and
logistical support which proved invaluable and led to the opening of the eastern front. Mass
mobilisation became the preferred tool of the armed resistance and met with great success. Rhodesia
and Portugal began joint operations in 1968.

 1972 December ZANLA scored success with the attack at Alterna farm Centenary.

 1974 April in a coup in Portugal General Sipinoza deposed the premier Salazaar and brought
immediate independence to Mocambique, Angola and Guinea Bissau.

 1974 John Vorster South Africa‟s Boer premier initiated Détente a policy of accommodation
designed to neutralize the armed struggle by promoting internal reactionary African nationalists in
Zimbabwe. This stalled and almost derailed the armed struggle especially with the death
/assassination of Herbet Chitepo on 18 March 1975 in Zambia.

 Chitepo became the chairman of Dare rechimurenga an organisation formed after the banning and
jailing of the nationalist leaders in 1964 and his task was to prosecute the war while the leadership
was in prison..

 1972/1973 in response to guerrilla offensive the keeps or cantonments were introduced in all war
fronts to deprive the fighters food and other support.

 1974 Internal rivalry and dissent rock both ZIPRA and ZANLA and the OAU force the two to
combine their armed efforts.

 1975 December ZANLA AND ZIPRA form the Zimbabwe people‟s army (ZIPA) and armed
resistance gathered momentum in early 1976 as ZANLA intensified operations in Gaza, Tete and
Manica provinces or fronts or regions according to ZIPRA terminology.

PAGE 25
 1976 In bombing raids on camps in Mocambique, Rhodesians killed many refugees and guerillas at
Chimoio and Nyadzonya in Mocambique and Freedom camp Mulungushi, and Chifombo in Zambia.

 March 1978 the so called Internal Settlement was reached between anti war and reactionary black
groups in Rhodesia.

 April 1979 the ANC‟s Bishop Muzorewa was elected prime minister in sham elections and
temporarily the Zimbabwe Rhodesia hybrid state existed and it was not recognized by any state
except South Africa. It was during this period that some of the most gruesome murders were
perpetrated against refugees and the armed resistance with the authority and concurrence of Bishop
Abel Muzorewa‟s government.

 South Africa unable to meet the human and economic cost of the war in Rhodesia pressured Smith for
a negotiated solution.

 1979 October the British under international pressure convened the Lancaster house talks. The parties
to the talks were the British government, the Patriotic Front(ZANU and ZAPU) and the internal
group Muzorewas ANC and Smith‟s Rhodesia front. The talks could not reconcile the demands of the
parties especially on land but both groups hoped against hope that they would win and be able to
maintain their claims and positions from a legialised position.

 1980 March l in internationally supervised elections Muzorewa failed to win a single seat in
parliament , Smith only got his reserved 20 whitemen‟s seats, ZANU(PF) swept the board with 79
seats and ZAPU(PF) got 20 seats from all of Matebeleland and ZANU –Ndonga got one seat..

 Independence saw many unrepentant whites emigrating to New-Zealand Australia Britain etc. where
they continue to reminisce nostalgically about the war and how Britain sold them out.

 1980 April 18 Zimbabwe became an independent state with Robert Mugabe as premier. The new
prime minister offered Josshua Nkomo the titular head of state position but he declined to accept
although several ministries were headed by his other fellow ZAPU colleagues.

 1980 massive arms caches belonging to ZIPRA and which were suppose to have been surrendered to
the state are discovered and ZAPUs properties with caches are confiscated by the state. Disturbances
of a tribal nature erupt in Bulawayo in Entumbanen and some people are killed and the army is sent
in to reign in rogue ZIPRA elements and some these flee to the bush

 1982 Former ZPRA elements with clear support from the Arpetheid regime in South Africa begin a
campaign of sabotage, murder and destabilisation in Matebeleland and the Midlands and such names
as Gwesela, Ndevu eziqamula inkomicho became household names for their notoriety. Hoods,
Conjwayo and other South African saboteurs and agents provocateurs are apprehended in Zimbabwe.
South Africa unleashes a war of destabilization of all frontline states with rebel movements
RENAMO in Mocambique and UNITA in Angola wrecking havoc to the economies of all Front line
states..

 1982 In response to the rebellion by some ex ZIPRA elements the Fifth brigade is deployed in
Matebeleland and the Midlands and development stalls in the affected areas as hundreds of Shona
civilians perish at the hands of dissidents and thousands of Ndebele civilians loose their lives in
reprisals by the Fifth Brigade.

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 1987 December 12 after protracted negotiations spearheaded by Zimbabwe‟s first non executive
president Mr. Canaan Banana, a unity agreement is signed between ZANU PF and ZAPU PF. A new
party ZANU PF is created and Joshua Nkomo became a co vice president with Simon Muzenda. All
dissident to be incorporated into society and no charges to be preferred against them and similarly no
charges to be preferred against any member of the Fifth Brigade.

 1980 saw the end of all formal or legal racial segregation but this evil and immoral practice continued
and exists unabated to date. The new government made strides to correct the colonial evils in the
following areas;

1. Universal free primary and secondary education.

2. Free medical and health care

3. Policy of reconciliation towards the former settler colonialists to which

they have to date spurned.

4. Land distribution under the willing seller willing buyer basis.

5. Integrate and demobilize the belligerents

6. Indeginisation- enabling the native Africans to own and control business.

7. Expanding trade with the region and the world at large

 1991 A foreign driven Economic structural programme from the IMF and World Bank was adopted.
The programme required Zimbabwe to liberalize trade, which is allow free movement of goods from
outside, restrict or cut expenditure, and devalue or allow the local currency to float.

 1998 due to ESAP food rioting took place in the major towns due to the negative effects of ESAP.

 1998 August the Zimbabwe Defense Forces are deployed to the DRC to help the beleaguered Kabila
regime.

 1998 November Nearing the end of the restrictive 20 year non compulsory acquisition of land close in
the Lancaster agreement, a Land Donor Conference is organised and many foreign donors pledge to
assist Zimbabwe but not a cent is remitted.

 1999 The labour Union leadership breaks ranks with government and threatens to form a political
party under the leadership of Morgan Tsvangirai and in September the same year this actual happens
in the form of the Movement for Democratic change...

 War veterans receive lump and monthly gratuities and in the build up to the 2000 elections The labour
leardership cum opposition party slides more and more to the right and is seen supporting settler
colonial interests in land commerce and industry and receives massive monetary and moral support
from the same quarter. This alliance also receives massive external assistance from foreign interests
like the USA and UK governments directly or indirectly through such organisations as the
Westminister Foundation etc.

 February 2000 a new draft constitution is taken to the people in a referendum and labour, the
opposition together with civic organisations mobilise the electorate to reject it because allegedly it

PAGE 27
 confers too much power on the president but really because of the „no compensation for land
compulsorily acquired for settlement “clause in the constitution.

 2000 February realising the near success of the landed white class in derailing the land redistribution
by using political parties they funded and helped to found, Veterans of Zimbabwe‟s 2 nd. Cimurenga
and landless peasants occupied white owned farms and forced government to make appropriate
legislation to fast track land distribution – The Land Acquisition Act 2000.

 200 June in parliamentary elections the new party almost upset the ruling ZANU(PF) party and wins
57 seats to 63 for ZANU PF.

 2000/2001 the opposition near success gives impetus to Britain to ostracize the Mugabe regime and
begins to talk about regime and forces its friends to impose sanctions on Zimbabwe to ruin the
economy in order to make the electorate vote him out of power. Inflation rises steadily and local
white employers on the whole do everything to arm twist the electorate to vote Mugabe out of power.

 2002 Presidential elections are won by the ZANU PF candidate and the MDC refuses to concede
defeat or to recognize the new government and goes to court to challenge the election results and
alleges intimidation vote rigging etc.

 2003 the nation is in a political stalemate with threaten invasion from Britain and America and court
challenges to the presidency continuing and the opposition top leadership is arrested and taken to
court for trying to assassinate the president.

 2004 The 2003 scenario continues but inflation begins to fall and a general optimistic expectation
pervades the nation as preparation and campaigning for the 2005 gubernatorial elections get
underway.

The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland(15 Dec 1953- 31

Dec 1963)

The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was the product of the general election of
December 15, 1953 and was the first election to the legislative assembly of the Federation of
Rhodesia and Nyasaland, which had been formed a few months before. The election saw a
landslide victory for the Federal Party under Godfrey Huggins who had been Prime Minister of
Southern Rhodesia for the past 20 years.
Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, also called Central African Federation, political unit
created in 1953 and ended on Dec. 31, 1963, that embraced the British settler-dominated colony
of Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) and the territories of Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) and
Nyasaland (Malawi), which were under the control of the British Colonial Office.
From the 1920s white European settlers in the Rhodesias had sought some form of amalgamation
to counter the overwhelming numerical superiority of black Africans, but this had been blocked
by a British Colonial Office that was sensitive to profound African opposition.

The Idea Of Federation 1953 to 1963

PAGE 28
The term federation means loose coalition of nations or organizations where by each nation
report to its central leader whilst returning its otonomy/independence.
The idea of forming a federation of Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland was
discussed as early as 1915.
There were two main advantages for the federation, one was economic and the other one was
political.
1. economically the federation would give the BSAC control over a large mineral producing
area.
2. the whites in Southern Rhodesia would benefit from cheap labour extracted from the
three nations.
3. politically the whites in the three nations would increase their armament, both by
recruiting fighting men and capitalizing on the weapons from the three nations.
4. the federation would also improve the settler security against enemies.
5. the principal aim for the establishment of federation was to fight the Afrikaners in South
Africa who had just won the elections and were very powerful, but their relationship with
the whites was not always good.
6. another reason for federation was social, namely that the whites just wanted to control the
blacks in all the three nations.
Steps Towards The Establishment Of The Federation.

 In 1929 the Hilton Young Commission was appointed to look into the federation
question in East and Central Africa.

 The commission recommended against the union of the three nations.

 It baesd its argument on the Devonshire Memorandum of 1923, which has said
that African interest were to be put first.

 It also recommended no self-government of the settlers in Kenya and Tanzania

would be recommended.

 This principle was therefore applied by the Hilton Young Commission to

Northern Rhodesia who felt that the whites population in this country was so
small that it could not make a federation viable.

 In 1938 the Bledisloe Commission was again appointed to look into the issue.

 Again the Commission objected the idea on the grounds that the racial policies in
the Southern Rhodesia were harmful to blacks.

 In 1951 the conservative party in Britain won the election.

PAGE 29
  This party supported the idea of federation.

 White politicians in Northern and Southern Rhodesia began to campaign for the
idea of federation.

 They openly explained that their nrelationship to the black was like that of horse
and the horserides.
 Inspite of all these objections the federation was imposed on blacks in 1953

Federation Years 1953 to 1963

 The Federation was created in 1953 comprised of Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia
and Nyasaland.

 There was a total of 310 000 whites in all the three nations, and 8 500 000 Africans. The
Federal Parliament had 35 seats but 29 belonged to the whites and only 6 were for the
blacks.

 The Federation however did not benefit Zambia and Malawi, it only benefited Zimbabwe.

 100 000 pounds generated from the Zambians Copper Mine was spent in Southern
Rhodesia in building institutions like the University of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, later on
called the University of Zimbabwe.

 Furthermore, the powerstations at Kariba was built on the Zimbabwean side.

 Northern Rhodesia and the Nyasaland provided ready markets for finished goods.

 In Zambia , Harry Nkumbula and Kenneth Kaunda fought tirelessly against the
federation.

 In Malawi it was the effort of Kamuzu Hastings Banda who also fought against
federation.

 In Southern Rhodesia people like Joshua Nkomo who formed the ANC in 1957 led the
people in the fight against federation.

The 1961 constitutional proposals

 A new constitution was harmed out in Southern Rhodesia in 1961.

 According to the constitution the electorate was divided into two, the A and B rolls.

 Roll A would elect 50 of the 65 members of the partiam whilst roll B would elect only
the remaining 15.

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  To qualify for roll A one had to have the following:
1. An income of at least 792 pounds per year.
2. fixed property valued at 1650 pounds.
To qualify for roll B one had to have the following:
1. income of 264 pounds per year or ownership of fixed property valued at 495 pounds

A minister of religion or headmen with 20 or more followers automatically qualifies into the B
roll. However three votes on the B roll were equivalent to one vote in the A roll.

 Joshua nkomo and Ndabaningi Sithole had attended the conference in 1961 and
they had surprisingly agreed to these terms.

 The federation broke on December 31, 1963 and Northern Rhodesia and
Nyasaland went on to attend independency the following year.

 When the federation ended Southern Rhodesia benefited in 3 ways:

i) all the military was taken by Southern Rhodesia
ii) university of Rhodesia and Nyasaland became the University of Rhodesia now
University of Zimbabwe.
iii) The Kariba powerstation was now controlled by Southern Rhodesia
(Zimbabwe) although it also applied to Zambia.

ACTIVITIES
 Discuss the major causes of slavery and its effects

 Analyse the major deliberations of the Berlin Conference of 1884-

 Discuss the causes and effects of colonization of Zimbabwe

 Show how the repressive colonial legislation proletarianised and

pauperized the blacks during the colonial era

 Examine the colonisatioin process of Zimbabwe by Europe

 Analyse the causes and effects of Anglo-Ndebele War, the1st Chimurenga

War and 2nd Chimurenga

PAGE 31
ZIMBABWE HERITAGE

UNIT 3

ZIMBABWE HERITAGE

OBJECTIVES
By the end of the unit the student should be able to:

 Discuss the following;

i)Political Heritage
ii)Cultural Heritage
iii)Economic Heritage

 Analyse the concept of ubuntu/ unhu in the contemporary society

The heritage of any nation is based on that nation‟s enduring political tradition. In the USA, the national
heritage is a deep rooted political legacy born out of the war and rebellion against Great Britain and this is
embodied in the term REPUBLICANISM. The French, who are fiercely proud of their heritage, have the
French revolution which climaxed in the storming of the Bastille palace and the slaughter of the nobility

PAGE 32
as their national heritage. Similarly, the young nation of Zimbabwe has the ethos of the second
Chimurenga as the national and enduring political tradition. The second chimurenga ethos embodies
political, cultural as well as economic principles which define and continue to sustain us as a nation. To
destroy any nation, all one has to do is undermine that nation‟s heritage hence the continuing
psychological war by the enemies of Zimbabwe to distort and demonize not only the second chimurenga
war but those who participated in that war and especially the heroic leaders of that struggle.

A heritage can be defined as an enduring legacy, a definitive event, achievement, tradition or theory to
which the peoples of a specific nation rally around, and have emotional attachments and for which they
are prepared to defend and to go to war if threatened or violated.

SOCIAL and CULTURAL HERITAGE

Culture in Zimbawe reflects the major ethnic and tribal groups in the society The demographic statistics
show that the people of Shona extraction constitute about ninety percent of the population with the
Ndebele at 2.5%, Tonga, Venda, Kalanga, Cewa Nambia, Shangaan and other smaller groups
constituting about 7%. The white population has dwindled to less than o.1% of the population. Inspite of
their small number the Ndebele influence on culture is fairly strong not only on the smaller groups but has
rubbed on to the Shona tribes adjacent to them. The reverse is also quite true. Culture is dynamic. As a
result it is a correct generalization that there is such a thing as African culture in Zimbabwe as opposed to
European culture. There are at most only variations in customs among the various African groups in
Zimbabwean society but the customs are either the same or closely resemble each other. Zimbabwean
African culture has the following major elements;

- Nuclear or extended family

- Recognition and respect for age, parents and authority.

- Respect for hard and honest work.

- Acceptance of good morals in terms of dress, sex, and marriage.

There has however been a strong negative influence due to the mass media on the African culture in
Zimbabwe. Television radio and the print media have done much harm in undermining the superior
African culture by encouraging foreign tastes and habits in terms of diet, dress, the family, marriage, sex
and the extended family. The first culprit has been the African family with divorce (unknown and
unthinkable in pure African culture) wrecking many families. Disease due to sex before marriage and
prostitution has grown to pandemic levels especially AIDS related ailments. The white mans‟
consumption or spending patterns have also spread among young Zimbabweans and they are finding the
extended family unbearable. Greed and exclusiveness are the hallmarks of the white mans‟ culture and
this is spreading fast among urbanized Africans. Unlike the white person in Zimbabwe, the African does
not have sufficient expendable cash and as a result debt and unfulfilled desires and wants are making
the lives of many Zimbaweans miserable.

African culture remains the superior culture in that it keeps society and the nation cemented. Moreover
such social ills as prostitution, pandemics, street kids, crime and political opportunism (kutengesa nyika)
because of greed would be non existent. All these ills are a result of lack of self respect and lack of
personal identity due to wanting to be a white person eg. Michael Jackson who straightens his nose or an
African woman who wears false hair extensions to look like a Caucasian or preferring to speak in a
foreign language and not vernacular..

PAGE 33
The legacies we have as Africans in terms of diet are also unchalengable in that traditional diet consisting
of small grains legumes and African fruits, vegetables and nuts naturally prevent such diseases as
obesity/kusimba - a common feature of most urbanized woman and the major cause of high blood
pressure, hypertension, osteoporosis and infertility.

In medicine, traditional herbs and a good diet remain undoubtedly the panacea for a long healthy life and
the solution to such problems as AIDS more so than condoms.

Marriage and the family are the economic base of any society and nation. Premarital sex, divorce and sex
for money and perversions such as lesbianism homosexuality, drug taking including alcohol directly
attack and undermine the family and as such society. A multiplicity of sexual partners before marriage
will always lead one to either multiple sex partners in marriage or lack of satisfaction with one partner in
marriage.

In religion opinions vary but the facts remain. In African culture the fundamentals of Christianity are
firmly embedded. Respect for age, parents and authority, good morals that is no fornication or adultery no
perversion that is no homosexuality, taking care of the needy etc. are biblical positions that remain
unchangeable. In short the white mans‟ culture is not only incompatible with Christianity, it is in fact the
antithesis and a direct attack on everything Godly, that is , it is devilish.. The problem between African
religion and Christianity is not lack of morals in African religion, but methods of accessing God or
worship. Indeed this writer is convinced there is lots of superstition with respect to methods of worship
in African religion in as much as most main line and emerging Christian churches are thoroughly
paginated. It is only right and good therefore to promote and maintain our morally superior culture while
adopting correct Christian methods of worship.

Our religious inheritance will therefor remain for all time our good cultural values or morals.

The values of any society therefor serve to define that society‟s identity. History has much been distorted
by painting the African culture as irreligious to the extent that it is almost the accepted value among most
young Zimbaweans to be immoral because a White Christian has an immoral value or practice for an
example walking naked or partial naked in public despite the fact that this violates Christian principles.
The Black person should there for not use the Whiteman‟s values, or morals or immorals as the case may
be as the reference point for good or bad values but should use traditional practice as the point of
departure and compare that with biblical principles which remain unchanging Our values as Africans
clearly identify and portray us as a people who shun immorality graft corruption and laziness. We respect
family and authority and hard work. We believe in God and we have no room for atheism in our culture.

The second chimurenga also defines our political and economic values. At the economic level the legacy
of the second chimurenga and our heritage from that event is that the resources that are God given belong
to Zimbabweans irrespective of race or creed or tribe. Thus the land as resource number one belongs to all
Zimbabweans. White Zimbabweans with very negligible exceptions believe that land and all ill gotten
gains from the international crime of colonialism and accompanying ethnic cleansing and segregation are
legitimately and exclusively the property of those former criminals. Whites do not want to share our land
with us. We have said we will equitably share our land with whites and that remains and will always
remain the Zimbabwean African‟s morally right and correct position. Any so called Zimbabwean
therefore of any race who departs from this position is not only a threat to the interests of the Nation, but
is in effect and in essence declaring that the second chimurenga was not won and lost, that is, won by the
Africans in Zimbabawe through much blood and joy, and lost by settler colonialists through by much
blood and tears. It amounts to a declaration of war.

PAGE 34
Through hard work and self- sustaining economic policies, Zimbabweans with land firmly in their hands,
can engage other nations at the economic level and benefit from the comparative advantages we have in
terms of skilled disciplined labour, good climate, an abundance of minerals and varied flora and fauna -
domestic and wild. Economic activity therefor should benefit Zimbabweans first and foremost and this
should happen through an internal driven economic programme and not one that is externally driven.
Political liberation simply relates to universal common suffrage being available to all citizens. This was
gained fully at Lancaster as manifested in the result of the 1980 elections and subsequent elections
whether presidential or gubernatorial. Such a gain is hollow and empty and absolutely useless if it is not
used to bring about economic emancipation. Political emancipation there for leads to and of necessity
must lead to economic emancipation. This has eluded not only Africa but most of the former colonies
through the practice of neo colonialism by the former colonizers and the USA and most of the developed
world. The war for economic emancipation is the last war and it is the most difficult war in that it is now
being fought at the psychological level through global media houses and the agency of corrupted local
comprador/reactionary/collaborator journalists who raise and imagine and publish false notions of the
freedoms of expression assembly and association. This leads to people as it were shooting themselves in
the foot because they through a corrupted democracy – one in which the voters‟ perceptions have been
warped in favour of their colonisers - vote into power those who perpetrate their economic subjugation.
The battle for perceptions is an unfair war, and it is most cruel and criminal because of the open
aggression through demands made on former colonies under the guise of human rights.

At the political level the second chimurengas‟ heritage is that as a people we are sovereign and can
determine our own destiny without outside interference and through democratic processes designed to
safeguard our hard won independence. (See governance under legal and parliamentary affairs.)

Ubuntu\Unhu\Moral Values-The African Values Perspective

CONCEPT OF “UBUNTU”
 Mbigi and Maree (1995:p7), define Ubuntu as the sense of solidarity or brotherhood
which arises among people within marginalized or disadvantaged groups .
 It is not unique to African people, but can also be found elsewhere.
 It is the foundation of communal African livelihood.
 It expresses our “interconnectedness, our common humanity and responsibility to each
other that deeply flows from our deeply felt connection” (Nussbaum 2003;2).
 It brings to the fore images of supportiveness, co-operation and communism (Koster
1996:111).
 Nussbaum (2003:2) views it as the capacity in African culture to express companion,
reciprocity, dignity, harmony and humanity in the interest of building and maintaining
community with justice and mutual caring “Personhood is the central theme of Ubuntu.
 It is based on the Zulu proverb”Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu,” meaning a person is a
person through other people.
 This Ubuntu affirms the humanity of one person being directly related to next person‟s
humanity.
 Archbishop Tutu (199:34-35) characterises a person with Ubuntu as “ one who is open
and available to others, affirming, does not feel threatened that others are able and good,
for he\ she has a proper self assurance that he or she belongs in a greater whole is
diminished when others are humiliated, when others are tortured or treated as if they were
less than who they are from the foregoing, it is clear that ubuntu is characterised by

PAGE 35
 human dignity, respect, interdependence, compassion, solidarity and taking
care of your own.
 Tambalusi and Kayuni(2005:147-161) presuppose that there is no reason for one to grab
other‟s property, get forced gifts from fellow human beings in whatever form. In this
view, there is no justification for extortion, demanding bribes or extortion for service
delivery areas in Zimbabwe.

 In view of the above , prostitution; immoral dress such as miniskirts, tight fitting
clothing; murder; rape; robbery; burglary, drug abuse; alcoholism; abusive language; lack
of respect of senior citizens; corruption; dishonesty, gay movement(homosexuality and
lesbianism), among others, are all characteristics of lack of ubuntu.

 The point in this case is that as Zimbabweans we must cherish our ubuntu
principles in our social, political, economic, and professional settings or lives for
the good of our country

 Lack of ubuntu can be observed in most Government departments such as the police,
mining, city councils, immigration, among others, where corruption, mismanagement or
any other form of malpractices such as demanding bribes and extortion are rampant.

 From another view point, Mandela (1994) captures the essence of ubuntu in the following
quotation; “I am not truly free if I am taking away someone‟s freedom or rights just as
truly when my freedom is taken away .” The point in this case is that as Zimbabweans we
must cherish our ubuntu principles in our social, political, economic, and professional settings or
lives

Ubuntu and Leadership

 As Zimbabwean citizens, we are leaders in various capacities such as at family, group,

community, occupational and national levels and we are expected to be role models in terms of
our moral values(ubuntu/unhu)
 Leadership is the process of directing and influencing the task related activities of group
members (Stoner et al, 1995: 470).
 Leaders use powers and influence to get the activities effectively performed by followers.
 Whereas power is defined as the ability to exert influence, that is to change attitudes or
behaviour of individuals or groups; influence refers to any actions or examples of
behaviour that cause a change in attitude or behaviour of another person or group.

 It must, therefore, be pointed out that leadership is about values.

 According to James McGregor Burns (cited in Stoner et al, 1995: 470), the leader who
ignores the moral components of leadership may well go down in history as a worse.
 Thus, moral leadership concerns values and requires that followers be given enough
knowledge of alternatives to make intelligent choices when it comes time to respond to a
leader‟s proposal to lead.

PAGE 36
 As noted by ethicist Michael Josephson (quoted in Stoner et al, 1995:470), followers or
employees do not learn ethics from people who sermonize or moralise or try to preach to
them about ethics, but learn ethics from the people whom they admire and respect, who
have power over them and those are the right people or teachers of ethics.
 It is, therefore, important to reinforce ideals if they are sincere.

 It is also very important for leaders and role models, whether they be sports figures,
politicians / rulers or Senior Government Officials to make positive statements of ethics,
if they say (Stoner et al 1995: 470). If leaders are not hypocritical, they can account for
their actions.

 The ideas articulated in this case by Stoner et al (1995), squarely matches the concept of
“Ubuntu in(Zulu/ Ndebele and Unhu in Shona)” Ubuntu refers to love for God, love for
one another, and bringing to ourselves and the rest of the world music, sport, arts
and other forms of expression which bring out the best of the human spirit and
connects people across the boundaries of material life (Rukuni,2007:450). Given the
poor service delivery and corruption which characterize various sectors of Zimbabwe,
what ethics/values or Ubuntu/Unhu do some of our fellow citizens portray to the society?

 Van der Colff (2003) points out that Ubuntu calls for leadership which espouses the values of
leadership legitimacy, communal enterprise and value sharing. She argues that these values are
vital for establishing an enabling culture and a set of skills and competencies valued in most
leadership situations.

 Historically, African leadership is based on participation, responsibility and spiritual authority.

According to Lessen and Nussbaum (1996), African leadership calls for transparency,
accountability and legitimacy. On the contrary; Van der Colff (2003) contends that leadership
legitimacy can only be promoted by being role models for their followers through their actions
and sticking to values and goals. Thus leaders must be of integrity before expecting the same for
followers.

 Furthermore, a leader with Ubuntu values must create an enabling environment for their
followers. He / She must be fair, helpful and considerate and support followers in their legitimate
requests..

 Karsten and IIIa( 2005) highlight that Ubuntu decision making is characterised by consultation,
communal participation and open conversation. Evidently, Ubuntu leadership entails a critical
discourse since voices of all participants in organisations or groups are involved and emphasis is
on consensus building.

PAGE 37
  This is strikingly similar to indigenous African political systems whose story telling, inclusive
decision making and participatory community meetings were key. Coercive powers were
generally not used to achieve a common goal. Rather, consensus was the means. ―Majority of
opinion did not count; unanimity was the rule (Ayittey 1991:100). As a result, communal meetings
were not largely characterised by haggling and debate but a search for deeper comprehension of
issues and a spontaneous emergency of solutions.

 The key issue here is the ―value system‖ that guides and controls behaviour. According to
Tambulasi and Kayuni (2005 147 – 16), some African public officers perceive the concept of
Ubuntu to be all encompassing and it’s pursuance is viewed as an empowerment to pay less
attention to western derived principles of democracy and good governance. In view of this, would
the mixed-bag of western value systems and African value systems help Zimbabwean citizen
achieve the desired results or outcomes in social ,economic and political life? The question is
―can African feet divorce Western shoes?‖ This follows Richard Tammbulasi and Happy Kayuni
(2005)’s quest for reality about Unbuntu/Unhu,/Butho.

Economic Heritage
National resources.

Zimbawe is endowed with many natural resources which in certain instances places the nation on the
strategic resources map of the world.

Land

Zinbabwe‟s land mass is about - million square miles and has a very conducive climate being neither
too hot nor too cold and has an average rainfall of about 1500 ml.

Minerals

Zimbabwe has the following minerals; chrome, iron, coal, gold, copper, tin, emeralds. Diamonds,
platinum nickel.

Our Chrome, platinum, nickel and coal reserves are of global strategic importance because they are
ranked in the top five in terms of quantity and quality. Unfortunately control of these minerals is still in
foreign hands and as a nation we also are not yet adding value to them.

Wild life

The three major game parks in Zimbabwe are second to the combined Kenyan and Tanzanian wild life
population of the Serengeti game park. The big five wild game –elephant, buffalo, giraffe, lion and rhino
are more abundant in our game parks than in any other park in the world..

People

With a population of about 14 000 000 people Zimabwe is still sparsely populated considering that our
land mass can sustain seventy million people with optimal economic utilization. The plus about this
population is its literacy levels –about 87% and its varied skills base from which even the most advanced
nations are tapping into. Through many tricks especially after the 2000 parliamentary elections, the
Western countries have not rested in trying to spark a civil war in Zimbabwe which they will use as a

PAGE 38
pretext to directly interfere in the politics of this nation. Thatchell the infamous homosexual has been
quoted as saying that he is not only organizing but sponsoring a group consisting of personnel in
Zimbabwes‟ armed forces and in the diaspora to militarily bring about an end to the Mugabe regime in
Zimbabwe. The West Minister Foundation And even much earlier the Heritage Foundation a USA right
wing organization are trying and had tried to use opposition parties in Zimbabwe to engage the
Zimbabwean armed forces . On the whole the people of this nation have refused to be used in this very
destructive and dangerous way and have democratically expressed their wishes at the polls. The people of
this nation save those who pipe and beat the drum of this nation‟s enemies remain resolutely united in the
face of an unprecedented onslaught from Europe and the USA. o

NATIONAL SYMBOLS.

The National Anthem

Born and inspired by the war of liberation, the national anthem is as it were the rallying point of the
nation. Authored by Professor Mutsvairo, it describes and narrates in a few words our origins, history,
beliefs and aspirations.

The National Flag

The national flag represents state wood and together with the court of arms they are the official and
visible tokens of the state and its authority and existence. The flag is also a product of the war of
liberation. The red star represents our socialist ideals and the Zimbabwe bird proudly points back to our
distant origins and prowess as a people and nation in antiquity among the great civilizations of the world.
The white background on which the above two are superimposed represents our desire for peace and
tranquility within and without. The red stripes symbolize the blood of the heroes who died liberating the
country, yellow our mineral resources, green our flora and fauna and black the indigenous African natives
of this nation. It is incumbent upon every Zimbabwean and any foreigner on our soil to acknowledge our
statehood by standing at attention when the flag is lowered where ever and what ever one is doing.
Standing at attention is not a religious act as some over zealous and misguided so called Christians think.
Kneeling or bowing down in reverence is a religious act reserved for God that is why Shadrech and his
other two friends were thrown in a furnace. Nowhere in Christian writing is standing erect an act of
worship or homage. It would be only right and fair to refuse to kneel to the flag for every Christian. It is
only right and fair for every Christian to stand erect in recognition not homage of those who rule them.

The Great Zimbabwe monument.

Located near Masvingo town , it represents unparalleled architectural design and construction and stands
as a direct insult to those who have ridiculed Africans of possessing no scientific psychological make up
or achievements or capability. It was used as a palace and a temple by the kings of the great Zimbabwe
period and latter dynasties.

The Victoria Falls.

A natural geological formation from years of erosion, the feature has few rivals if any and has water
plunging a hundred meters forming thunder and mist from which its more appropriate Tonga names is
derived from –mosi a-tunya the smoke that thunders. It is the nation‟s prime tourist resort attraction.

CIVIC RESPONSIBILITIES
Disasters

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As technology has advanced so has disasters or accidents associated with it and at the same time
what appears to be natural disasters have also increased. Management of these disasters has become
a major science and the role of each citizen in disasters has become an imperative. Major disasters
can be listed as,

-disease pandemics eg. AIDS, SARS and Ebola

-Floods as a result of unusually high rainfall due to industrialization or broken dam walls

-Drought due to changing weather patterns as a result of industrialization.

-Accidents at the work place e.g. airplane crashes, gas leaks, nuclear contamination.

etc.

-Earthquakes.

 Disease management is first and foremost an individual responsibility. Correct dietary and sexual
habits are the first front line. Each individual is a national resource and eating junk food or
recklessly imbibing in drugs or alcohol destroys that line as much as taking irresponsible and
immoral sexual behavior like sex before marriage or infidelity within marriage. With infectious
diseases, each individual should take note and report any suspected infections and quarantine self
or the affected victim.

 Floods, earthquakes and workplace disasters require the nation to rally behind those affected by
donating food and clothes and shelter. It is also necessary to avoid flood and quake prone areas
and to take heed to quake or flood warning.

 Industrial accidents are a manmade problem which require social responsibility to minimize the
risks. There is no such thing as safe technology. The issue at stake is risk minimization and
management.

 Droughts have always been there before the white man‟s agriculture and especially exotic crops
such as maize. Despite droughts, Africa was not found unpopulated as a result. A banana plant
does not grow in Gokwe as naturally as it does in Rusitu valley in as much as maize thrives in
Peru but is prone to drought in Zimbawe. Maize is a stock feed that grows well in its homeland
in South America but is prone to drought in Zimbabwe. On the other hand small grains thrive in
Zimbabwe and are highly nutritious for humans. The paradigm shift in our dietary habits will go
a long way towards national food self sufficiency because eventually sooner rather than latter
even irrigated crops will fail when there is no flow in the dams. There is no other credible long
lasting solution to drought at the family or national level than reverting to the small grains.

 :In defense of the Nation

 All stable nations thrive on patriotism. Patriotism relates to each citizen‟s ability to identify with
his nation by being able to distinguish between party political issues and national issues.
Sovereignty, land and defending the nation are not party political issues but national issues to
which every real Zimbabwean must stand up in defense.

Patriotism means ;

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  Defending the nation physically and in armed combat when called upon to do so by the
authorities in power or individually when the situation so demands like in the case of unilateral
superpower attack.

 Defending the nation through positive publicity. The nation‟s greatest and most potent enemy
today is the one amongst us who agrees to spread falsehoods about the nation‟s politics and
economy. Other than the dissident menace, Zimbabwe has been the most peaceful nation at par
with countries like Botswana and Namibia.

 Supporting the nation through correct tax payments

 Practice environmentally friendly practices e.g. avoiding littering, pollution etc.

 Preserve the national asset that is oneself by avoiding graft, crime, corruption, greed and harmful
behavior such as premarital sex, drug abuse etc..

 Respect and tolerate other races, tribes, religions opinions and beliefs.

 Cherish unity in diversity among the various stake holders in spite of differences in approaches.

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL PROLEMS FACED BY ZIMBABWE SINCE 1980

ECONOMIC PROBLEMS

 Need to develop rural areas to stop rural-urban drift and to correct a hundred years of colonial rule.

 Redirect economic priorities to serve the whole population rather than a small white section of the
population.

 Bring health. Education, and shelter to all Zimbabweans.

 Recurring drought - 1983, 1992, 1997, 2002 as it negatively affects the national economy and
agricultural production.

 Deal with unfavourable terms of trade.

 Stop the shrinking in the economy and reverse growing unemployment.

 Resolve inflation and the Devaluation of the Zimbabwean dollar against major international
currencies

 Gradual increase in prices of basic commodities due to speculation and profiteering.

 Falling commodity prices in the international market.

 Dis investment due to a more vigorous indegenisaion economic approach.

 Political interference in the nation‟s politics through the sponsoring and creation of opposition parties
with a foreign agenda..

 The brain drain

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 Corruption

 Decline in moral values leading to AIDS

HOW THE GOVERNMENT HAS SOLVED THESE PROBLEMS

 Drought in Zimbabwe has been partly alleviated by importing grain from abroad and construction of
dams and also creating grain strategic reserves seeds packs given to peasants to help them recover
from droughts. Of major importance has been the redistribution of land and reducing pressure in the
congested rural areas and settling people in areas with fertile soils and high rainfall.

 The Ministry of Employment Creation and indegenisation have gone some way in creating
employment.

 Externally originated and driven economic policies have been abandoned in favour of home grown
solutions

 Profiteering and speculation which fueled inflation have been checked gradually restoring sanity to
the financial sector.

 ESAP has been abandoned by the government and attention has been redirected to the East Asian
economies to encourage investment and cooperation.

 SADC and COMESA Union trade arrangements have been adopted to encourage an increase in
international trade.

 However, Zimbabwe has not managed to solve all problems.

 Cost sharing in Education and Health have been instituted to alleviate spiraling costs..

 Indigenisation, affirmative action, creation of SEDCO, the Land bank land redistribution etc have all
gone a long way towards alleviating the unemployment problem.

 A new monetary policy together with an anticorruption drive has seen inflation decreasing slowly but
gradually.

 Reawakening of the peoples‟ moral values and their culture as a solution to decreasing and ultimately
wiping out STDs and AIDS infection.

SECTION B
LEGAL AND PARLIAMENTARY AFFAIRS

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OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit the student should be able to:

o Define Law and state its origins and purpose
o Discuss pre-colonial legal systems and compare them to modern law.
o Explain the concept of Law enforcement justice and public order.
o The Constitution of Zimbabwe

1. LAW
1.1 Definition
Can be generally defined as;
a) „rules of behavior enforced by society‟
b) “a body of established norms for the good governance of society‟
Austin defines law as,
c) “ a command set, either directly or circuitously, by a sovereign individual and /or
body, to a member or members of some independent political society in which
his authority is supreme”.
Salmond defines law as,
d) “ consisting of principles which are recognized and enforced by the courts in the
administration of justice.”
Vinshisky (a one time attorney general in Russia in the ninetieth century) defines law as;
e) “rules and regulations put in place by those in power in order to protect their
interests.”

The major elements in Austin‟s definition are:

1) “ the command of a sovereign‟. This suggests use of force and the right to
command.
2) The definition is deficient in that it lacks such ethical elements as justice,
consistence and uniform application. In this present day and age law is looked at
as the balance and union between might and rightness or justice and legitimacy.
The definition also excludes the law enforcement aspect – the courts.
Salmond, an English judge emphasizes the aspect of “principle” and “recognition‟ and in
typical English legal tradition leaves room and gives a free hand to the judge to determine
what is a recognized principle and what is not. Moreover this definition does not deal
with the element of legitimacy assuming that English political authority is right and
legitimate always and everywhere and in one statement legitimating such evils as
colonialism or wars of conquest.
A principle can be defined as “ something that can be applied over a large range of cases
resembling one another in their most essential features” and the result or outcome is
invariably the same.

Vinshisky „s definition is more behavioral in approach and scope and explains the
origins; purposes and justification of such laws as the Hut tax the Land apportionment act
and the Land Tenure act in pre-independent Zimbabwe. It also explains the current laws

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 being made to reverse the very same laws e.g. the Land acquisition Act, POSA and
AIPPA. Everywhere even in Britain law is not made in pursuit of that elusive thing called
justice but for the protection of the interests of those in power. To a large extent this is a
Marxist definition and is precise in so far as it is realistic and not idealistic. No law is just
per se‟. All law is premised on maintaining the status quo and the advantages - political
and economic- of those in authority or of the ruling class.

1.2 Purpose of Law;

1.2.1 Realistically the purpose of law is to protect the interests of those making the law.

1.2.2. Idealistically the purpose of law is to bring about law and order, predictability,
stability and peace.

1.3 The nature of law

Man is a social animal. The term „society‟ or community suggests norms or behavioral
patterns in the society. Behavior patterns become social customs with the passage of
time, usage, and acceptance. Social customs attract social sanctions if and when violated
e.g. Labeling such as uri nzenza or ostracism etc. Social custom evolves into legal
custom once they are enforced and accepted in the law courts e.g.. van Breda and Others
vs. Jacobs.

1.4 Natural law or lex Naturalis and the origins of law.

Natural law can be viewed broadly as a product of the biblical principle „ do unto others
as you would want them to do unto you‟. Evolutionists suppose that man had to escape
from a state of nature that is lawless society. In such a society each member of society
does as he pleases and is a law to himself and does not value nor does he respect the
welfare of others. Thomas Hobbes views law as an authoritarian command, which
should be legitimated by its consistence or compliance to natural law that is one gives as
much as he is willing to receive. One enjoys unchallenged enjoyment of staying in his
house because he in turn does not threaten the undisturbed enjoyment of other people‟s
homes.
Statute law or legislation is just law if only it is an extension of natural law. Lawmakers
are therefore bound by natural law and it flows naturally from right reason. Natural law
is seen as the moral basis and norm for legislators and governments. The state is thus a
product of men or members of society contracting to appoint a single body or will to bear
or represent all of them. Members of society therefore enter into a social contract, which
is characterized by a mutual transfer of rights. Lex naturalis proscribes man from doing
that which is destructive of his life or taking away the means of preserving his life. Man
in a state of nature has the right to everything and is governed by his own reason and can
do anything to anyone to further his interests. Thus man should be willing if and when
others are willing and in so far as his security and peace are assured as he sees it, waive
his right to every thing and be satisfied with as much liberty against others as s he
receives from others. Every member of society should therefore surrender as much in

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 terms of rights as the other person is prepared or willing to surrender. This alludes to the
entering of a social contract by people whose desire is to escape from a state of nature.
All modern law is presumed to be based on natural law.

1.5 The origins of law /Sources of law

1.5.1 Persuasive sources of law

These are references, which the law courts resort to in order to tilt the
balance for or against a decision or controversial point of law. These are; a)
social custom, b). Legal literature by jurists, c) Judicial precedent specifically
Obiter Dicta or that part of a judges decision in a novel case which are side
statements and not the actual principle.

1.5.2 Binding sources of law

These are references, which are followed in determining what is legal, or are not.
It consists of legal principles in the following forms;
a) Legal custom; Social custom that can be enforced in the law courts
b) Judicial precedent/common law; the legal principles established each time
a new case or situation comes before a judge. It is based on ratio decided,
that is the legal basis on which a decision is reached.
c) Legislation; this refers to law made by the legislature or parliament and is
termed statutory law or acts of parliament. Parliament delegates its
authority to make law to such bodies as municipalities and the law they
make is termed delegated legislation that is, statutory instruments or by
laws. Where there is a conflict between the various laws, the statutory law
position takes precedence and nullifies any other position.

1.6 Principles / characteristics of legislated law

All law, to be valid, should be seen to possess the following elements;

i) Doctrine of impartiality;
a) Equality -there should be seen to be equality in the application of law
among citizens.
b) Uniformity - there should be spatial uniformity in the application of law.
c) Just application- law should be seen to be morally right.

ii) Authority;
a) Separation of powers – the legislature, judiciary and the executive should
be separated to ensure counterbalancing and counterchecking the exercise
of the powers of state.
b) Doctrine of ultra and intra virus- all law should be made within the
confines of the law i.e. in consistence to/with the constitution.
iii) Certainty;
– The law should not be retroactive or ex-post-factor

1.7 Divisions/classification of law

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 LAW

National Law International Law

Criminal Law
Private
International
Admin Law Law
Public
International
Constitutional Law Law
Law of treaties
Civil Private Law
Law of sea
Commercial Law
Company Law

Family Law
Industrial Law

Labour Law

National law is the body of rules and regulations that govern the behavior of citizens of and
within a specific country and it is further subdivided into three specializations. These three
distinctions are not based on the type of act/omission but on the legal action that follow.

Criminal law is where criminal proceedings are instituted against a person for committing a
crime that is an act or omission that attracts sanctions – fines or imprisonment or both. The
parties in criminal proceedings are; the State vs. the defendant or the accused. The outcome is
guilty or not guilty.

Civil law is where civil proceedings are instituted or where an individual sues another individual
in a legal suite. The parties in civil proceedings are the plaintiff or complainant (the one suing)
and the defendant (the one being sued). The result of or sentence of the proceedings is
commission of a wrong or no commission. The sentence can be damages, compensation,
restitution or performance.

Administrative law is the law that relates to the operations and functions of formal institutions in
so far as their relations with the state and their employees is concerned.

International law is the law that regulates relations between states and is based on conventions,
custom, treaties and bi-lateral and multilateral agreements. It differs from national law in that

PAGE 46
where as national law has a law-enforcing agency to back it in the form of the army and police
and prisons, international law has none of these law-enforcing agencies and relies on the
goodwill of states, which in many instances is lacking. International law can be private
international law or public international law. The former deals with disputes between citizens of
two different countries and these are mostly trade disputes. Public international law is the law
that relates to disputes between states and these are normally issues relating to boundaries, war,
or natural resources access. International law is the law that governs the behavior of states and
to a growing extent the behavior of nationals within states e.g. War crimes, crimes against
humanity and terrorism.

1.8 Substantive and adjectival law

This classifications cut across all the above categories.

Adjectival law can be defined as the law that relates to the enforcement of rights and
duties liberties and powers specifically the law of procedure and evidence for an example
civil and criminal pleadings. In civil procedure the plaintiff‟s claim is termed the
declaration and the defendant‟s response is termed a traverse (countercheck quarrelsome
according to Dickens).

Substantive law is that law that lays down the peoples‟ rights, duties, liberties and powers
e.g. the constitution or an act of parliament.

2. The Constitution

Most nations have a written constitution as the supreme law of the country. The United
kingdom stands out as the odd case that has no one clear document written and termed a
constitution. The UK has precedent, custom as well as separate pieces of documents that
all add up to what may be interpreted as a constitution. A constitution is the body of rules
and regulations that sets out the authority of those in power or and the extent and limits of
the exercise of executive power. It also sets out the rights and duties of the citizen. These
two aspects are contained in the doctrine of the separation of powers and the doctrine of
intra-vires and ultra- vires.

2.1 THE LANCASTER AGREEMENT OF 1979

After fighting a successful protracted war of liberation, The First Chimurenga war, the
settler colonialists and Britain succumbed to the reality of defeat and had to negotiate for
peace and unlike the previous occasions where peace talks were unsuccessful, it was
imperative that a solution had to be found to the war of liberation in Zimbabwe if the
settler community and British interests were to be safeguarded. The Frontline states were
also a major factor in the search for peace at the conference in that there were clear signs
of war weariness on their part. This scenario was ideal for the settlers in that there was

PAGE 47
 every chance of as they saw it of getting into power I they or their stages the DNC were
to get into power. The major problems provisions of the agreement were as follows:

2.2 The Separation of Powers

The state has three arms whose functions are separate and these are;
Government/Executive
Judiciary
Legislature

The State is that intangible aspect of every nation that can be defined as the authority and
identity conferred by a people within a country to themselves and for which there is a force
in the form of an army to defend that authority. A state does not change or vanish unless
territory is annexed by another state through conquest or agreement or the population
becomes non existent and the territory becomes uninhabited that is terra nullius.
Sovereignty is therefore not conferred on a nation but it is claimed by each individual nation
people and asserted through the exercise of executive powers and the ability to enter into
diplomatic intercourse with other nations.

A Nation is the peoples within a geographical entity called a country whose aspirations,
interests shall so decide the shaping of their destiny.

A Country is geographical space marked by natural or man-made boundaries.

2.3 The doctrine of separation of powers.

The three arms of state are supposed to act as checks and balances on each other so that
there is no abuse of power by anyone aspect or arm of state. This ensures that the
judiciary is impartial and does not make any law. The legislature is the supreme law
making body and has no restricted competency and can change or amend the constitution.

2.3.1 Ultra-vires and intra-vires doctrine

Parliament can only make law that does not violate provisions of the constitution
and the executive or government must exercise its authority as provided for in the
constitution. When the executive or parliament acts within their powers they are
acting intra-vires when they act outside their powers as provided for by or in the
constitution, they are acting ultra vires and there is therefore no rule of law. When
parliament makes law they act intra-vires the constitution there is therefore the
rule of law. Any influence by foreign or illegitimate forces in relation to
constitutional uses, were national interests are concerned; the wish of the state
thru the national force (people) shall take precedents in the interests of
sovereignty.

2.3.2 Public order

Public order refers to a situation in the nation when every individual is able to
exercise his/her constitutional rights without infringing or interfering with the
rights of others or endangering state security and national sovereignty by

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 championing blatantly clear foreign interests that seek to reverse the gains of
independence and self rule and by so doing compromising state national
sovereignty. Democracy is therefore a qualified and subjective term that does not
give license to any individual or group or political party the right to exploit
situational hurdles in the history of Zimbabwe to compromise national
sovereignty and the ethos of the preservation of freedom. If and when that
happens, the custodian of the nation, the army and every patriotic Zimbabwean,
should by all means available, defend the nation and democratic rights can and
should be suspended until such a time as these are compatible with our historical
aspirations. Public order therefore entails the capability of self-censorship with
respect to the exercise of individual constitutional rights especially the rights of
expression, speech, assembly and association. In the latter case, the constitution
cannot be read to mean that belonging or associating with a subversive
organization or unpatriotic party or ill association whose interests are to
destabilize peace, order and security is a right guaranteed by the constitution.

ACTIVITIES
o Define Law and state its origins and purpose
o Discuss pre-colonial legal systems and compare them to modern law.
o Explain the concept of Law enforcement justice and public order.
o The Constitution of Zimbabwe

PAGE 49
 Democracy and Governance.
OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit the student should be able to:

 Compare Western Democracy to pre-colonial governance system inclusivity, exclusivity
 Trace and discuss major issues at all elections held in Zimbabwe.
 SADC election guidelines
 Discuss - Zimbabwe‟s electoral system and authority

INTRODUCTION

Democracy as a system of governance is of Greek origin. Its main tenet was its
attempt to bring about an inclusive rather than an exclusive form of governance
that is typical of the monarch or king. A monarch has its merits and demerits and
so does democracy.
The traditional Zimbabwean system of governance while having its shortcomings
was nevertheless superior to both the former aristocratic European system of
governance and the present form of democracy as championed by the West
especially The U.S.A. and its lackey the U.K. Demo means people and cracy
means rule. Democracy means people rule. Democracy as a system of governance
is not established through elections only. In the traditional Shona system of
governance “ushe hwaive madzoro” first and foremost, that is there was no
permanent ruling class or family as in the present American and European
systems where the super rich and well connected and acceptable few in terms of
race and ideology qualify to rule that is the rich Anglo Saxons. (Jews, Chinese,

PAGE 50
 Hispanics and especially blacks are excluded from the presidency on no other
grounds other than that that they are from these minority groups.
Secondly, the community was always represented at large in the kings “dare” and
this system of inclusion permeated the whole structure from top to bottom and it
was reflected in the family governance where the family was not run by the father
tyrannically but involved and to a large extent today does involve the mother the
children who have come of age and the check and balance of the extended family
“vana tete nana babamunini”.

. WHAT IS GOVERNANCE?

The term ―governance‖ refers to the process of decision-making and the ways in which
decisions are implemented (or not). In any given system, the executive ( government) is
the major actor, but others like the Judiciary and the Legislature can influence the
process. Non-state actors, such as religious or tribal leaders, civil society, major
landowners, trade unions, financial institutions, and community based groups can play
important roles. The following characterise a good system of governance:
• Participatory—encouraging wide citizen participation
in decision-making;
• Consensus-orientated—attempting to reach decisions
based on widespread agreement;
• Transparent—being open to scrutiny in decision making
processes;
• Responsive—listening and responding to the needs
of its citizens;
• effective and efficient—providing basic services; and
• equitable and inclusive—not excluding sectors of
the population, especially those that are more
vulnerable or marginalised.

There are many multi- and bilateral institutions that are concerned with promoting what
they have termed ―good governance‖ in post conflict and developing countries. Each of
these institutions defines good governance slightly differently and has developed its
own indicators by which it measures and evaluates progress toward good governance.
The World Bank, for instance, has identified six indicators of good governance ―to help
countries identify areas of weakness so that capacity building and assistance strategies
are more effective.‖ The
indicators are:
• voice and accountability;
• political stability and lack of violence;
• government effectiveness;
• regulatory quality;
• rule of law; and
• control of corruption.
Democracy and Governance

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Political leaders’ visions they promote and the systems and values they bring to
governing a country play a pivotal role in fostering peace and development, promoting
oppression or the resurgence of conflict. Since so much is at stake, during peace
negotiations there is often great competition for power and the prospect of controlling a
government. For countries that have little or no experience with democratic governance,
the challenges are immense. But the post conflict environment does provide an
opportunity for countries to create new structures of government and systems of ―good
governance.‖ In situations where the international community has taken on state-
building, its institutions assume some responsibility for issues related to democracy and
governance. It is also a time of opportunity for women. In particular, Zimbabwe has
been effective at using quotas and reserved seats to ―ensure the presence and
participation of women in justice, governance, private sector and civil society .For
example; we have a lady Vice President, Mrs Joice Mujuru. International actors
consider ―good governance‖ to be a key for building sustainable peace and long-term
development. Progress toward good governance is increasingly used as a requisite for
the provision of aid. Despite the variations in definitions and indicators of good
governance, most institutions agree that good governance typically includes efforts at
democratization and decentralisation, the introduction of free and fair elections,
participatory politics, the creation of an independent civil society,
guarantee of a free and independent press and respect for the rule of
law. Each of these topics, among others, is discussed below.

WHAT ARE THE KEY COMPONENTS

OF “GOOD GOVERNANCE”?

In countries involved in peace processes, questions relating to governance often

consume a significant portion of the discussions; typically demands for democratisation,
including elections and timeframes for transition, are addressed. Other related elements
include discussions surrounding the nature of political
participation, electoral systems, issues of transparency and separation of powers, as
discussed below.

DEMOCRACY
Democracy is a system of government in which power is vested in the people (the
population) and exercised through representatives chosen in free and
fair elections. But a democracy does not just mean that ―the majority rules.‖ A
democracy also includes and protects the human rights of minorities and respects
multiple or ―plural‖ views and opinions. In a democracy people have rights as citizens,
but they also have responsibilities to participate in the
governance system. There are many versions of democracies around the
world (e.g. electoral, consultative) and ongoing debates about the extent to which ―one
size fits all‖ with regard to democracy. The process a country

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goes through in attempting to become more democratic is referred to as
democratisation. In order for a country to be truly democratic, all of its
citizens—men and women—must be empowered to participate fully in the governance
process (as citizens, voters, advocates, civil servants, judges,
elected officials, etc.).

FREE AND FAIR ELECTIONS

An election is the procedure by which citizens of a country choose their representatives

and leaders and assign authority. Elections must be held regularly so that elected
officials remain accountable to the
population; if they do not uphold their responsibilities to the electorate, they can be
voted out of office in the next election. Elections must be
held within a period of time that is prescribed in the constitution, or fundamental law. For
an election to be truly democratic, it must be:
• universal—All citizens of a country must have the right to vote and to be elected,
without discrimination based on sex, race, language, religion or political affiliation. In
Zimbabwe as elsewhere in the world there is no discrimination in voting processes.
• equal—The value of each vote must be the same.
• secret—The balloting must be private so that citizens can participate without being
afraid; only the voter must know for whom she or he votes.
• direct—The voters must be able to choose their own leaders without an intermediary.
• wide choice—The voters must have the opportunity to choose from among several
available candidates.

DECENTRALISATION
An increasingly important component of democratisation in many parts of the world is
decentralisation. Decentralisation is the process of transferring authority and
responsibility from the central government to provincial and local levels. Countries
pursue decentralisation for a variety of reasons, including a desire to make the
government more receptive and accountable to the needs of its population and/or to
respond to pressure from donors to ―downsize‖ central government budgets.
Decentralisation is based upon the notion that
various levels of the government have different expertise and abilities to address
problems. For example, national defence and monetary policy are clearly best set at the
national level, but policies concerning schools, local police protection and some public
services are often better determined at the local level with community input. Critics of
decentralisation, however, charge that it weakens parts of the state that, for the sake of
peace building and human security, need to be strengthened. There are three types of
decentralisation: political, administrative and fiscal. Political decentralization involves the
election of local-level leaders. Administrative decentralisation occurs when some of the
government’s decision-making is managed at the local level. And fiscal decentralisation
refers to the national government sharing budgetary responsibility for collecting
revenues and making expenditures with local government representatives.
Decentralisation processes often include local-level
elections.

PAGE 53
PARTICIPATORY POLITICS AND POLITICAL PARTIES

The concept of ―participatory politics‖ refers to the involvement of all citizens in politics
and policymaking. This requires a relationship between the government and society in
which the participation of citizens and a plurality of views are
encouraged. This can be supported by strengthening political parties; encouraging the
participation of marginalised groups, such as women and youth; and by strengthening
civil society (described below). The right to convene and articulate political views is a
key principle of good governance and democratisation. Political parties are one of the
cornerstones of a democratic political system. Parties are critical because they provide
a structure for
political participation for people with similar beliefs and interests. By joining together,
individuals, who would otherwise not be influential, can make their
voices heard in the political process through their support of a political party. Political
parties also provide leaders with a space in which to learn the
skills needed for governing a society. A democracy must have more than one major,
viable party so that a single group does not dominate the government
and voters have a choice. This principle is called multipartyism. Membership in
political parties must be voluntary. It can be difficult for women to achieve leadership
positions within political parties and to be selected as candidates because, in many
countries, parties operate or govern themselves without written party rules or
transparent procedures. Such lack of openness allows patronage systems and ―old
boys’ networks‖ to flourish, effectively excluding women from decision-making positions
and candidate lists. In some countries, political parties have adopted internal quotas for
women’s participation to ensure that they always put forward a certain number of
women’s candidates. In Zimbabwe as in Argentina, Botswana and France, among
others, all political parties encourage participation of women in politics. For example, the
political parties in Zimbabwe have Women’s Leagues in their structures and both the
major political parties in Zimbabwe have ladies as their Vice Presidents. An important
advocacy strategy for women is to work with political parties to make sure that the party
platform, the formal declaration of the principles and positions that the party supports,
describes its positions on issues important to women.

ACTIVITIES
 Define Law and state its origins and purpose
 Discuss pre-colonial legal systems and compare them to modern law.
 Explain the concept of Law enforcement justice and public order

PAGE 54
The Constitution of Zimbabwe
OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit the student should be able to:

 Discuss The Lancaster House Agreement
 State the major provisions of the Lancaster Agreement
 Explain the provisions of the Constitution of Zimbabwe in relation to :
- Republican Destiny and National Political and Economic Sovereignty
- Citizenship
- Declaration of Rights and Freedoms of Individuals
- Constitutional amendments
- Elections – parliamentary gubernatorial, presidential and local
government

The constitution is the supreme law in Zimbabwe. No law is above the

constitution of the republic of Zimbabwe in determining what is legal and what is
illegal in Zimbabwe. This law (constitution) is drawn and revised to protect and
safeguard the interests of the citizens of this country. Some countries especially
the European nations and the U.S.A. want to introduce laws that they term
international norms or laws acceptable in international law.

This is in a way an attempt to change the laws of other countries in such a way as
to have their interests protected. The majority of these laws are designed to
protect subversive or perverted elements within other societies or nations for an
example perverts (Gays and lesbians) or puppet political and economic groups
within smaller nations for an example secessionist and tribal minorities.

2.4.1 Republican Destiny

The constitution of Zimbabwe begins with the declaration that Zimbabwe is a
sovereign state and so shall decide its destiny. The republican destiny is outlined
in conjunction with national interests as represented by the public seal which shall
be kept by the president as the head of state and whose authority protects national
interests and aspirations.

PAGE 55
2.4.2 Citizenship

- Can be by birth, except if the parents have diplomatic immunity, are not
citizens, or the parents are enemy aliens or an illegal residents
- Can be by descent that is he is born outside the country but his parents are
or were Zimbabwean citizens.
- Can be by registration that is by application to the minister of Home
affairs.
Dual citizenship.

No person having other citizenship can be a Zimbabwean citizen unless he/she

renounces that other citizenship. In many precedents law tends to favour descent
than any other citizenship status on enjoyment of privileges.

2.4.3 Declaration of rights

Every citizen irrespective of color race religion etc. is entitled to the basic and
fundamental rights of the individual provided that when enjoying such rights or
freedoms he/she does not infringe on the peaceable enjoyment of the rights of
others or does not endanger the public interest that is state security and public
order. Such freedoms are as follows:

a) The right to life except where the state is duly carrying out a death sentence, or
where there is need to defend property or in repelling violence, or effecting lawful
arrest or preventing someone from escaping from lawful custody, or in
suppressing a riot, insurrection and unlawful gathering, or in preventing the
commission of a crime or if the cause of death is a lawful act of war.

b) Right to Personal liberty

Such a right can be exercised by any citizen excerpt where; the person is
sentenced to a prison term by a court of law for a criminal offence or for contempt
of a court of law or in a civil suit or where a parent or guardian so requests the
court for the welfare or education of an individual between 21 and 23 years old or
in order to prevent the spread of a disease or if the person is of an unsound mind,
is a drug addict an alcoholic or is an illegal immigrant or subject of an extradition
process.

Any person so detained is entitled to legal representation and should be charged

within a reasonable period and where a person is unlawful detained the detainee is
entitled to compensation from that person or authority detaining him/her.

c) Protection from slavery and forced labour

Excerpt where such labour is in compliance with a court sentence or is necessary
for hygiene and the maintenance of the places of lawful detention or is a
requirement by a parent for purposes of parental discipline or labour required by

PAGE 56
 virtue of belonging to a uniformed service or required of any citizen during an
emergency.

d) Protection from inhuman treatment;

Such as torture or other degrading punishment. Where as reasonable force or
corporal punishment is acceptable in effecting an arrest or for a parent or anyone
in loco parentis over a person eighteen years and below and under his custody.

e) Protection From deprivation of property

Every Zimbabwean citizen shall not be compulsorily deprived of his/her property or right
therein excerpt;
When legally required by law in the case of land for the utilization of such land
for purposes of agricultural settlement or other use or for land reorganization such
as forestry and game parks or for purposes of relocation of persons affected in the
former cases, or for purposes of public defense, public order and safety, morality,
health, town and country planning, or for any other public good.

Where such land is thus acquired it will be done according to the law in force at
that time allowing for reasonable notice and fair compensation.

f) PROTECTION from arbitrary search and entry of the person or his property
Except where the person so searching is parent, or for purposes of the defense and
security of the state, public health, morality or town and country planning or in
the enforcement of the law where there are reasonable grounds of suspicion of the
existence of a crime.

g) Provision to secure protection of the law

All citizens are entitled to the protection of the law. Where a person is charged
with a criminal offence that person should; be brought before an independent and
impartial court within reasonable time, is innocent until proved otherwise, is
entitled to legal representation and to defend and cross examine witnesses and no
person is guilty of an offense post facto.

h) Protection of freedom of conscience

Every citizen except for minors or with his/her own consent has a right to freedom of thought,
religion (belonging or changing), freedom to individually or severally in public or private to
propagate/ manifest his/her religion through worship teaching practice and observance. No
person attending an educational institution shall be compelled to receive religious instruction
contrary to his/ her religion, unless in the interest of group discipline.
Any community is entitled to provide religious instruction to its members at its
educational institutions. Provisions on guardianship powers may limit freedom of
conscience.

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 i) Protection of freedom of expression
Every citizen save for minors or with one‟s own consent is entitled to hold his her
own opinions on any issue and receive and impart such opinions or information
without interference Excerpt where, The law makes provisions for the sake of the
defense of the nation, public safety and order, economic interests of the state,
public morality and public health to;
Protect reputations privacy, and rights of others, Maintain confidentiality, protect
parliament, the courts and tribunals, and regulate technical aspects of
telecommunications and the electronic media and preventing any unlawful
communication. Freedom of expression is exercised within the parameters of
justification, fair comment and qualified or absolute privilege.

j)Protection of freedom of assembly and association

With the excerption of minors or through his own consent every citizen is entitled to assemble
and associate and belong to or not to be compelled to assemble or associate with any group,
political party, union for purposes of protecting and propagating his/her interests. Excerpt where
the law makes provisions for the sake of public order, safety morality, health, security and
defense and the regulation of companies or other business enterprises. The associations whose
interests are known to comprise security and order shall be diffused under the prohibition from
commitment of crime.

k) Protection from discrimination on the grounds of;

Race, religion, ethnicity, gender, political affiliation, place of origin tribe, etc. No
law or practice shall be deemed lawful if it violates this provision excerpt in the
cases of adoption, marriage divorce, burial devolution of property or any matter
pertaining to personal law or relating to immigration status, qualifications for
purposes of employment not relating to any of the above.

l) Enforcement of rights
Where an individual feels that his her rights are violated the said person shall
appeal to the supreme court which alone has the prerogative to hear and deliberate
on all matters relating to the constitutional provisions on the fundamental
freedoms.

2.4.5The Executive
Executive Powers and Authority

The Executive Authority of the Inclusive Government shall vest in, and be shared among the President,
the Prime Minister and the Cabinet, as provided for in the Constitution and legislation.

The President of the Republic shall exercise executive authority subject to the Constitution and the law.

The Prime Minister of the Republic shall exercise executive authority subject to the Constitution and the
law.

The Cabinet of the Republic shall exercise executive authority subject to the Constitution and the law.

PAGE 58
In the exercise of executive authority, the President, Vice Presidents, the Prime Minister, the Deputy
Prime Ministers, Ministers and Deputy Ministers must have regard to the principles and spirit underlying
the formation of the Inclusive Government and accordingly act in a manner that seeks to promote
cohesion both inside and outside government.

2.4.5 The Cabinet

(a) shall have the responsibility to evaluate and adopt all government policies and the consequential
programmes;

(b) shall, subject to approval by Parliament, allocate the financial resources for the implementation of
such policies and programmes;

(c) shall have the responsibility to prepare and present to Parliament, all such legislation and other
instruments as may be necessary to implement the policies and programmes of the National Executive;

(d) shall, except where the Constitution requires ratification by Parliament, or action by the President,
approve all international agreements;

(e) shall ensure that the state organs, including the Ministries and Departments, have sufficient financial
and other resources and appropriate operational capacity to carry out their functions effectively; and

(f) shall take decisions by consensus, and take collective responsibility for all Cabinet decisions, including
those originally initiated individually by any member of Cabinet.

(g) The President and the Prime Minister will agree on the allocation of Ministries between them for the
purpose of day-to-day supervision.

20.1.3 The President

(a) chairs Cabinet;

(b) exercises executive authority;

(c) shall exercise his/her powers subject to the provisions of the Constitution;

(d) can, subject to the Constitution, declare war and make peace;

(e) can, subject to the Constitution, proclaim and terminate martial law;

(f) confers honours and precedence, on the advice of Cabinet;

(g) grants pardons, respites, substitutes less severe punishment and suspends or remits sentences, on
the advice of Cabinet;

(h) chairs the National Security Council;

(i) formally appoints the Vice Presidents;

(j) shall, pursuant to this Agreement, appoint the Prime Minister pending the enactment of the Constitution
of Zimbabwe Amendment no.19 as agreed by the Parties;

(k) formally appoints Deputy Prime Ministers, Ministers and Deputy Ministers in accordance with this
agreement;

(l) after consultation with the Vice Presidents, the Prime Minister and the Deputy Prime Ministers,
allocates Ministerial portfolios in accordance with this Agreement;

(m) accredits, receives and recognizes diplomatic agents and consular officers;

PAGE 59
(n) appoints independent Constitutional Commissions in terms of the Constitution;

(o) appoints service/executive Commissions in terms of the Constitution and in consultation with the
Prime Minister;

(p) in consultation with the Prime Minister, makes key appointments the President is required to make
under and in terms of the Constitution or any Act of Parliament;

(q) may, acting in consultation with the Prime Minister, dissolve Parliament;

(r) must be kept fully informed by the Prime Minister on the general conduct of the government business
and;

(s) shall be furnished with such information as he/she may request in respect of any particular matter
relating to the government, and may advise the Prime Minister and Cabinet in this regard.

2.4.6 The Prime Minister

(a) chairs the Council of Ministers and is the Deputy Chairperson of Cabinet;

(b) exercises executive authority;

(c) shall oversee the formulation of government policies by the Cabinet;

(d) shall ensure that the policies so formulated ar€ implemented by the entirety of government;

(e) shall ensure that the Ministers develop appropriate implementation plans to give effect to the policies
decided by Cabinet: in this regard, the Ministers will report to the Prime Minister on all issues relating to
the implementation of such policies and plans;

(f) shall ensure that the legislation necessary to enable the government to carry out its functions is in
place: in this regard, he/she shall have the" responsibility to discharge the functions of the Leader of
Government Business in Parliament;

(g) shall be a member of the National Security Council;

(h) may be assigned such additional functions as are necessary further to enhance the work of the
Inclusive Government;

(i) shall, to ensure the effective execution of these tasks, be assisted by Deputy Prime Ministers; and

(j) shall report regularly to the President and Parliament.

2.4.7 Council of Ministers

To ensure that the Prime Minister properly discharges his responsibility to oversee the implementation of
the work of government, there shall be a Council of Ministers consisting of all the Cabinet Ministers,
chaired by the Prime Minister, whose functions shall be:

(a) to assess the implementation of Cabinet decisions;

(b) to assist the Prime Minister to attend to matters of coordination in the government;

(c) to enable the Prime Minister to receive briefings from the Cabinet Committees;
(d) to make progress reports to Cabinet on matters of implementation of Cabinet decisions;

(e) to receive and consider reports from the Committee responsible for the periodic review mechanism;
and

PAGE 60
(f) to make progress reports to Cabinet on matters related to the periodic review mechanism.

2.4.7 Composition of the Executive

(1) There shall be a President, which Office shall continue to be occupied by President Robert Gabriel
Mugabe.

(2) There shall be two (2) Vice Presidents, who will be nominated by the President and/or Zanu PF.

(3) There shall be a Prime Minister, which Office shall be occupied by Mr Morgan Tsvangirai.

(4) There shall be two (2) Deputy Prime Ministers, one (1) from MDC-T and one (1) from the MDC-M.

(5) There shall be thirty-one (31) Ministers, with fifteen (15) nominated by Zanu PF, thirteen (13) by MDC-
T and three (3) by MDC-M. Of the 31 Ministers, three (3) one each per Party, may be appointed from
outside the members of Parliament. The three (3) Ministers so appointed shall become members of the
House of Assembly and shall have the right to sit, speak and debate in Parliament, but shall not be
entitled to vote.

(6) There shall be fifteen (15) Deputy Ministers, with (eight) 8 nominated by Zanu PF, six (6) by MDC-T
and one (1) by MDC-M.

(7) Ministers and Deputy Ministers may be relieved of their duties only after consultation among the
leaders of all the political parties participating in the Inclusive Government.

2.4.8 Senate

(a) The President shall, in his discretion, appoint five (5) persons to the existing positions of Presidential
senatorial appointments.

(b) There shall be created an additional nine (9) appointed senatorial posts, which shall be filled by
persons appointed by the President, of whom, 3 will be nominated by Zanu PF, 3 by MDC-T and 3 by
MDC-M.

2.4.9 Filling of vacancies

(a) In the event of any vacancy arising in respect of posts referred to in clauses 2.4.7 and 2.4.8(b) above,
such vacancy shall be filled by a nominee of the Party which held that position prior to the vacancy
arising.

The executive arm of the state consists of the Head of State the president, the Vice
presidents,the Prime Minister, the Deputy Prime Ministers, the Cabinet, the
ministries or/and the civil service, the Security agencies that is, the Zimbabwe
Defense Forces, the Zimbabwe Republic Police, The Prison Service, And the
Central Intelligence Service.

a) The President

i) Is the head of state, is the executive head of government, and is the

commander in chief of the Defense Forces. Is the Pre- eminent person in
the Nation.

ii) Qualification.

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 Should be a citizen of Zimbabwe by birth, or descent, should be forty
years and above, is ordinarily resident in Zimbabwe.
(NB. To be read into the constitution although the document is silent is
that the presidential aspirant should espouse and uphold the aspirations of
the nation, derived from assertions leading to the war of liberation in the
preservation of freedom, independence and national interests uphold
Zimbabwe‟s ENDURING POLITICAL TRADITION as represented by
the values of the War of liberation.) Should hold no criminal record.
iii) Election.
Is an elected y voter on the common roll and within ninety days before the
expiry of the presidential term and in the case of death, incapacity or
impeachment the Vice president shall act as president for ninety days
during which period fresh elections should be held.

iv) Tenure (duration in office)

Shall be in office for six years and until the next person elected take office

v) Removal from office

- Can leave office through resignation by letter to the speaker of
parliament.
- Can leave office on parliamentary recommendation following a
request of not less than a third of members of parliament alleging
willful violation of the constitution, or incapacity to carry his
duties/functions or gross misconduct and when two thirds or more
of members support the motion to impeach the president.

vi) Functions of the President.

a) Has and exercises all executive authority of the state that is the
government of the country or the enforcement of law, the defense of
the nation translation of political policy into government programs and
their implementation by the civil service.
b) To uphold the constitution
c) To exercise the prerogatives of head of state that is: -
 Enter into treaties and international agreements.
 Proclaim and terminate martial law
 To declare war and make peace.
 To confer honors and precedence
 Appoint and accredit diplomats
d) To act on advice of the cabinet excerpt on: -
 Matters relating to dissolution of parliament
 Appointment and removal of governors
 Duties of the Vice presidents or any other person appointed by
the president.
e) To exercise the prerogative of mercy that is: -
 Grant pardon to felons
 Declare a stay of execution of a felon

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  Vary/substitute prison terms
 Suspend or remit a sentence
 Declare public emergencies
 Which shall be approved by parliament within fourteen days
failing which the declaration becomes void.
The declaration lasts for a specified period or for a period not exceeding
six months subject to any extension of such a period by the president. The
effect of such a declaration is to allow the direction of funds to that
emergency and where necessary the suspension of civil liberties.

2.4.9 The Public service

The constitution provides that a public service be established for the
administration of the country. This consists of all the ministries and other
institutions through which government implements its programs.
Members of the Public service are appointed on merit and have security of
tenure, are not political appointees and at most are not expected to engage
in active politics.

The affairs of the Public service are managed by a commission, which

consists of a chairperson and not less than two and no not more than seven
members. The president appoints the members.

2.4.10 The Attorney General

Is the principal legal adviser to government, holds a public office but is
not a part of the public service.
The president appoints him after consultations with the judicial services
commission. Only persons suitable for appointment as judges are qualified
to be A.Gs. The A.G. is an ex-officio member of the cabinet and his main
functions are to institute criminal proceedings, and to prosecute or defend
an appeal from all criminal proceedings.
2.4.11 The Police Force
The police force is provided for in the constitution with the specific task of
preserving the internal security in the country and the maintenance of law
and order.

A police commissioner appointed by the president heads the ZRP.

A Police commission headed by a chairperson who is the Chairperson of
the Public service commission manages the affairs of the Police force.

2.4.12The Zimbabwe Defence forces

To defend the territorial integrity of the nation, the constitution provides

for the establishment of an army consisting of an Air force, and an Army –
ground troops and any other specializations deemed necessary for the
defence of the nation and provided for through an act of parliament. The
commander in chief of the defence forces shall be the President.

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 The affairs of the army are managed by the defence forces commission
consisting of a chairperson (the Public service chairperson) and not less
than two and no more than seven other members.

2.4.13 The Prison service

Tasked with the responsibility of protecting society from criminals by incarcerating them and
rehabilitating and reintegrating them into society. The prison service is headed by a Prison
service commissioner and the affairs of the service are managed by a Prison service
commission headed a chairperson (the head of the public service commission) and between
two and seven other members.

2.4.14 The Intelligence service

Provided for by the constitution as part of the office the President with the
specific task of providing, through conventional and unconventional
means, information of any type necessary for the protection of the nation‟s
economic, political, social or cultural and other interests. A Director
General appointed by the President heads the service.

2.4.15 The Ombudsman

Holds public office buts not a member of the public service. He she is tasked with the
responsibility of receiving any complaint from members of the public on the function or
lack of it of member of the civil service.

2.4.16 The Comptroller and Auditor General

Holds a public office but is not a member of the Public service. His/her main functions are to
examine or audit at least once a year all ministries or persons or institutions entrusted with the
receipt or the use of public funds, that is, monies from the consolidated revenue fund. (C.R.F).
The president appoints him after consulting the Public service commission.

2.4.17 The C.R.F.

All monies collected for and on behalf of government as taxes, fees, fines, profit etc. are
deposited into the CRF and used or withdrawn from that account as allocated funds under
respective ministerial budgets excerpt where the authority is allowed to retain the monies so
collected and for use to defray their expenses as provided for through an act of parliament.
The allocation shall be made through the Budget process in Parliament as votes to
Ministries and government departments.

3. THE LEGISLATURE

Parliament has the supreme authority to make law in and for Zimbabwe. No law made
elsewhere is binding or legal unless Government accedes to or ratifies such law through
parliament. International law or other legal protocols are binding only if and when

PAGE 64
 parliament ratifies such directly or through an act of parliament. Parliament can delegate
it authority to make law to other bodies such as local government authorities or
parastatals.

3.1 The law making process in parliament

The process of making law in parliament is open to any member of society. Most of the
law ,however, comes in the form of bills or proposals from concerned ministries and not
as private members‟ bills. The stages in the law making process are as follows;
3.1.1 Proposals- anyone can make law proposals.
3.1.2 Expert/legal input- relevant ministry or and Attorney general‟s office.
3.1.3 Draft bill- distributed in parliament.
3.1.4 First reading – notification in parliament; no responses from MPs.
3.1.5 Second reading- no responses from MPs.
3.1.6 Committee stage
3.1.7 Report stage – responses and inputs from MPs.
3.1.8 Third reading – responses from MPs.
3.1.9 Third reading – voting

3.1.10 Presidential assent Gazzetting.

At each stage of the readings, reference is made to the Parliamentary
LegalCommittee, which shall consider inputs from MPs from a legal point of
view and produce adverse or non-adverse reports where necessary.

3.2 Composition consists of: -

- The President
- One hundred fifty members of parliament elected appointed and nominated as
follows;
- 120 elected by voters on the common roll and representing 120 constituencies
- 8 provincial governors appointed by the president
- 10 chiefs elected according to the electoral law
- 12 members appointed by the president.

3.3. Non-voting members of parliament

- The president
- Vice presidents and ministers if not members of parliament and the AG.
- The Speaker and Deputy Speaker
The speaker is the presiding officer whose function is to facilitate the process of
legislation by ensuring that debate and voting and al other procedures related to
legislation are conducted in the manner prescribed by the standing rules of the
house. The speaker is elected from persons who have been members of parliament
before and his tenure of office lasts a full parliamentary term unless he/she resigns
or becomes a minister or vice president while his/her term has not expired

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 Or becomes an MP.

3.4 Administrative staff of parliament

- Secretary to Parliament
Appointed by the committee on standing rules and orders and is the pre-eminent
administrative officer of parliament. Holds a public office but is not in the public
service.
- Clerk to parliament

He is the chief administrative officer and holds a public office and supervises all other
supporting staff like clerks, stenographers accountants etc.

- Sergeant at Arms
He holds a public office and is a member of the police force and ensures that
order is enforced in the legislative assembly.

3.5 Parliamentary Legal committee

The committee consisting of not less than three and is appointed by the parliamentary
committee on standing rules and orders at the beginning of each parliamentary term. The
members of the committee shall in the majority be legally qualified.

The functions of the committee: -

- Examine every bill other than constitutional bills
- Examine every statutory instrument.

3.6 Tenure of Members of Parliament

Shall last the full term of parliament or until parliament is dissolved

Membership shall also laps: -

- If member dies before dissolution of parliament
- On resignation by letter to the speaker
- Is absent for twenty one consecutive sittings/days in one session of parliament
- Ceases to be a member of his political party
- Becomes speaker or president or provincial governor or assumes any public
office.
- Is placed under a curator bonis
- Is mentally or physically unfit
- Is incarcerated for more than six months

PAGE 66
3.7 Parliamentary privilege and immunity
These are fixed through an act of parliament but broadly no member of parliament is
criminally or civilly liable in any act or utterance while performing his/her parliamentary
functions.

3.8. Legislative function of MPs

By/through bills passed by parliament and assented to by the president within twenty-one
days of being passed by parliament

A bill becomes law if MPs present vote with a simple majority provided that members
present a re a quorum that is not less than twenty-five.

3.9 Constitutional amendment

Parliament has the power to amend change or repeal the constitution through an
affirmative vote of not less than two thirds of members of parliament.

3.10 Parliamentary elections

Elections are held not more than four months after a dissolution of parliament or as by
election in the event that a seat becomes vacant. For elections to be held the following
shall be done as provided for in the constitution.

a) By election: conducted in the event of the death or resignation of a member of

parliament.
b) General election: conducted at prescribed times as laid out in the supreme law of
the country.

4. Commissions

4.1 Delimitation commission

- Is appointed by the president
- Consists of a chairman – chief justice or other judge of the supreme or high court
and three other members
- Functions for five years.
- Functions shall be to determine the boundaries of the -constituencies taking
cognisance of such features as geography, ethnicity and communication etc.

4.2. Electoral Supervisory commission

- Appointed by the president

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 - Consists of a chairman and four other members –two appointed by the president
after consulting the judiciary service commission and two after consulting the
speaker.
- Functions are to supervise voter registration, and conduct/run elections.
- Consider proposed bill or other law relating to elections.

4.3 The constitution also provides for the formation of the Public Service Commission, the
Judiciary Commission, and the Police Commission etc.

5. Contemporary issues and New dimension in law

a) Rule of law – upholding of the law in a scenario where no one is above the law

b) Prerogative – discretional prerogatives have made law to be applied based on certain

trivial relative issues

c) Political willpower – those in power or those wielding the axe make the most decisions
and tailor-make law to protect their interests

d) Human rights – the emergence and definition of human rights has led to commitment
of crime and subsequent ignorance of the rule of law even when certain behaviours
become immoral e.g. the gays and lesbian case

e) Christian balance – as Christian values shape most legal frameworks, the same have
been used in negotiations although in many cases equality is not achieved in Christian
balances. The „coveter‟ and the converted are two different entities.

ACTIVITIES
 Discuss The Lancaster House Agreement
 State the major provisions of the Lancaster Agreement
 Explain the provisions of the Constitution of Zimbabwe in relation to :
- Republican Destiny and National Political and Economic Sovereignty
- Citizenship
- Declaration of Rights and Freedoms of Individuals
- Constitutional amendments
- Elections – parliamentary gubernatorial, presidential and local
government

PAGE 68
 SECTION C

UNIT 1

Regional and International Relations

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit the student should be able to:

o Define International Relations

o Explain the three Cs of International relations – Conflict, Co-operation and
Competition
o Explain the Multi-polar, Bi-polar global power balances
o Critique International law, the community of nations and identify and explain the
types and functions of diplomatic missions.

1 Definitions;
- International relations; The interaction of nation -states
- Nation; The people within a country
- Country; Geographical territory in which a specific people live in
- State; the permanent power or authority which is sovereign and represented by the arms of
state, that is, government, judiciary and the legislature and which is normally embodied in
the constitution as the right of a group of people to self-determination.
- Government; the arm of state which is tasked with ruling or

exercising the executive powers of the state that is, representing the nation at international
fora, defending and keeping law and order in the nation, implementing political, economic,
and social policy of the ruling political party. Government is formed by the winner at
general elections and therefore comes and goes where as the state is permanent except
where the country is annexed, secedes or the people become extinct.

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2 The practice of International relations

2.1 Society
People within a nation are a society or societies of people. To become a nation therefore the
people should have similar political aspirations or interests. The term “society” supposes the
existence of common norms or behavioural patterns within that society. Such norms determine
relations among the members of the society in terms of political structures or governance; this
determines in turn distribution of resources. Political structure presupposes a hierarchy and hence
classes within society. Classes in turn infer inequalities among the people. In international
relations instead of people forming the society or community we have nations being the members
of the international society or community and hence the existence also of norms or political
behaviour, international political hierarchy and classes, distribution of resources by the
international ruling class and hence the existence of international inequalities. This will be dealt
with in full under international capital below.

2.2.International Society.

The international society as we know it today is a recent development in the world‟s history.
Vast empires, fiefdoms or localized chiefdoms have always been the general picture of politics at
the global level. Sovereign nation – states appear on the global scene about five hundred years
ago and evolve and only become the norm in the 16th. century as principles that govern their
conduct take a definitive shape. Before the development of rules that govern relations between
areas or regions or states, relations between different political entities were characterized by
internecine warfare. It was more a state of nature or survival of the fittest. With the advent of
Christianity and its growth, war and its limitation, conduct and justification became necessary
and the notion of the just war was developed. In his work, “The Summa Theologica,” St.
Thomas Aquinas argued the case for a just war as consisting of;
- It had to have the backing of the king
- The reason or cause for going to war had to be just
- Those to be attacked had to be guilty of some grave evil
- The attackers had to have the right intention – to promote good or the
avoidance or prevention of evil
Many unfair wars and untold evil were perpetrated under the guise of the just war and by about
1490 Honore Bonet stated “ soldiers were the flail of God who by his permission make wars
upon sinners and sin and make havoc among them in this world as the devils of hell do in the
next”. Not surprising therefore that at about that time the Aztec civilization was destroyed by
Spanish conquistadors and Africa and many parts of the world seen as containing sinners were
subjected to the most cruel and inhuman plunder and decimation by the European powers. In the
same vein Gorge Bush‟s “axis of evil” position hundreds of years latter fits squarely in the
Aquinian doctrine. Bush argues that the war on Iraq - weapons of mass destruction aside - was a
just war because that nation is evil. Who defines evil and by what standard is evil determined?
As a result of this doctrine in international relations it was not possible to develop or for there to
evolve rules that could govern relations between states. Similarly, because of a reversion to the
same old position by the Bush administration, the whole fabric of international law is strained to
breaking point. “Evil” is a value laden term which is highly subjective.

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 Being a fundamentalist Moslem is interpreted as being evil by Bush and his company whether
one is a suicide bomber or not and no law therefore can restrict regime change in any nation
perceived to be evil. Such international behaviour not only drags the world backwards but also
creates a very dangerous environment in which every nation and individual takes unilateral
action to redress grievances and institutionalise suicidal tendencies and solutions even at state
level like in the case of North Korea.

In 1654, in his treatise, “De Jure Belli et pacis”, Hugo Grotius”, a Dutch jurist wrote principles
that were supposed to govern warfare and this became the basis for our modern international law.

3. Approaches in the study of international relations

The study of relations between nations is a recent and evolving science. The main approaches
are as follows;

A: Traditional Approaches
1.The classical approach
2.The Idealist approach
3.The Realist and or Rational approach

B: Modern approaches
1.The Strategic approach
2.The billiard ball approach
3.The Cobweb approach

C: The Behavioural approach

1.The global approach or model
2.The regional approach or model

3.1 The Traditional Approaches

3.1.1.The Classical approach;

The proponents of this approach are to a large extent social contract theorists.

Thomas Hobbes sees the state, as arising out of the need to escape from a state of nature where
there is anarchy and life is insecure, short, nasty and brutal. A state of nature presupposes the
non-existence of society and therefore the non-existence of law. In such a lawless state everyone
does as he pleases and those with more clout survive. In other words the law of the jungle that
is “might is right” and “survival of the fittest” rules supreme. In another sense this approach is
also evolutionist or Darwinian. It infers natural selection that favours the stronger species‟
survival and continuity. To escape from this state of nature at the national or state level people
had to agree to surrender some of their rights to each other and appoint a sovereign authority as
guarantor and arbitrator for and in this social contract. The same arrangement could be said to
hold true within the community of nations or the global society. However as nation states
developed in Europe a state of nature more or less developed in that these states resorted to war

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 wily nily on the basis of each state‟s prerogative of national sovereignty to wage war. All wars
were therefore justifiable. Jean Jacques Rousseau and others saw relations among states as
possessing potential for peace as long as members of a society were willing to enter a clear
contract. The Machiavellian argument was closely echoed by Immanuel Kant and Carl von
Clausewittz in his book “On War,” argues that power is at the heart of interstate relations in that
each state seeks to increase its power at the expense of other states. Alliances, wars and the arms
race were the result of this argument and Europe was plunged into the First World War.

3.1.2 The Idealist Approach.

The First World War shocked non-belligerents as well as the belligerents in so far the toll in
human and material loss were concerned. This led people to treat peace as something they should
deliberately seek and sought to engineer global society in such a way as to not only create
peacefully conditions but also prevent war. This approach was thus normative prescriptive and
pro active. Woodrow Wilson the USA president at the time and others thus pursued this logic
and it resulted in the creation of the LEAGUE OF NATIONS in 1918. The USA refused to join
the league in spite of championing it. Through covenants or a body of rules collective security it
was thought could thus be assured in the community of nations. This body of thinking or
ideology failed to bring about peaceful coexistence among states and soon after the formation of
the League of Nations after 1927 Italy and Germany went on the warpath and soon after the
world was in another global war. Idealism sought to affect the thinking of global society but this
proved to be a futile exercise.

3.1.3 The Realist or Rational approach.

Between the two world wars thinking on international relations shifted from idealism to
rationalism or realism. This means people began to look at the actual practice of relations among
states and sought to explain their behavior rather than to change their behavior. In a way this
approach was a throw back to the classical approach. Hans Morgen Thau a major proponent of
this approach argued that power and self-interest were at the heart of state behavior. To
legitimate pursuit of power and self-interest nations cake iced and disguised their otherwise
questionable and illegitimate behavior moral hyperbole and legalistic arguments. This fits
squarely in the George Bush Jr.s‟ conduct of the war in Iraq. Saddam was said to be evil but that
had never been justification for war in modern society. To legalize action against Sadam, the
latter had to possess weapons of mass destruction and that became the legal basis for war.
Having e failed to provide the evidence of WMDs Bush back tracked to the moral position, that
is, Sadam is evil anyway. War thus is not only inevitable, but also desirable in certain instances
and the issue at stake is not its prevention or avoidance, but its control to achieve desired
outcomes. This approach is thus to a large extent descriptive.

3.2 The Modern Approaches

3.2.1 The billiard ball model.

This model builds on the realist approach in that it recognizes states as individual entities which
when and if one entity or ball picks motion naturally on contact with others produces motion in

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 other balls or states. The internal dynamics of each entity or ball are seen having no effect on the
relative position of the entities.

3.2.2 The Cob web model

John Burton sees international relations as existing within a complex web or matrix in which
each state is linked to the other directly and indirectly and where motion in or between
components impacts on the rest. This approach is very close to reality in that the operations of
global commerce and industry is such that events in any state immediately impacts on events in
all or in other states. More over cyberspace and efficient transport communications is threatening
to produce a global super culture.

3.2.3 The Strategic Approach

The proponents of this approach believed and believe in power politics. They strategize or
scheme situations in the global arena that best suit the pursuit of their self-interests. Former USA
secretary of state Henry Kissinger Herman Khan and others emphasized the use of mathematical
models and games theories policy options ranging from total surrender graduated severity
warfare to total annihilation. Policy options according to the strategists are rationally made on
the basis of comparisons of outcomes. The probability of a favorable outcome was seen as the
deciding factor in the action of any state. Deterrence through such policies as mutual assured
destruction (MAD) became major policy positions of the USA as a result of this approach.

3.2.4 The Behavioral Approach

This approach makes a methodological departure from previous approaches and denounces the
strategic approach as war mongering immoral and a threat to world peace and security.
Behaviouralists incorporate all social sciences techniques and conclude that the danger to
peaceful co-existence may result from unintentional war due to misinformation or miscalculation
or both. There is an element of correct prognosis in the approach considering the furor over the
role of intelligence over Iraq in assessing the nature and extant of threat posed by Saddam
Hussein. The war in Viet Nam and Iraq are classical examples of miscalculation and
misinformation.

3.2.5 The global approach

Some behaviouralists believe that the best way forward is a centralized one-world government
with the nation state disappearing.

3.2.6 The Non-global Approach.

In this model it is envisaged that authority should be decentralized and the state dispensed with
and authority devolved to lower tier structures below the present state level or tier.

4. The Subject matter or issues in International relations

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 All the above approaches look at relations between nations in one or more of the following areas;
1. Conflict
2. Cooperation
3. Competition
These are termed the three Cs of international relations. At each moment in time all nations are
relating to each other in so far as one or all of the three aspects are concerned.

4.1 Conflict

Conflict is the most pronounced element in that the state system is almost synonymous with war.
World history is the story of when and with whom nations have fought from time immemorial to
date.

4.2 Cooperation

When states are not fighting each other they are cooperating in maintaining peace and in dealing
with the challenges and problems that mankind faces for example diseases such as AIDS or
disasters such as earth quakes. Cooperation is highly visible and pronounced even among nations
that appear to have no love lost between them in that the UN and many other world fora provide
an avenue for all nations to cooperate in one way or another.

4.3 Competition

Competition among or between nations exists in the form of normal trade or commerce and can
manifest itself in the form of alliances and treaties.

The global power Balance.

5.1 Power blocs

International relations are therefore about competition, conflict or cooperation among states. The
three Cs produce a global political picture, which is either dominated by one super power or a
group of states that become a super power bloc or a scenario where power is evenly distributed
between two or more blocs or centres. When the Roman empire of the Caesers came into being
by about 160 BC there was no power on earth strong enough to challenge its hegemony for
almost six hundred years up to about 530 AD. Global Power was concentrated in that one super
state and it was a uni-polar global power arrangement. When pagan Rome collapsed the world
stage was again dominated by Papal power the so called Holy Roman Empire for almost 1300
years up to 1789. Papal power was however effectively challenged by Frances‟ Napoleon
Bonarparte and from that time to the end of the second world war power concentration was
widely dispersed among European and Asian nations and no one state or group of states had
monopoly over global power. This was a multi polar global power balance. With the end of the
Second World War the world was split between two power blocs with the Soviet Union leading
the eastern or Warsaw Pact bloc or what is wrongly termed by the west the communist bloc and

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 the USA leading the NATO or western bloc nations. After decolonisation of most African and
Asian nations from about 1947 the former colonies formed so-called non- aligned nations.
Global politics never the less remained polarised between the two major blocs and up until the
collapse of the War Saw Pact bloc by about 1985. During that period the world was in a nuclear
stand off between the two major powers where each bloc had sufficient nuclear weapons to
annihilate the whole world. The periods‟ relations are characterised by what is termed the cold
war. The cold war was in fact a very live and hot war in which the two major blocs sponsored
opposing groups in civil wars in countries termed the Non Aligned nations. The period was
marked by bloody wars in Vietnam, Nicaragua, Angola, Mozambique and many other nations in
Africa and South America. The politics of the period were based on the philosophy and ideology
of the Strategic school of thought who argued that nuclear deterrence that is; “having so many
nuclear bombs and an unstoppable delivery system which would render an attack by any one of
the two opposing sides simple suicide because the other side would retaliate in an equally
overwhelming response and bring about a mutually assured destruction (MAD)”. To weaken the
other side, the 1970s and early 1980s were marked by a runaway arms race as the two blocs tried
to gain the upper hand. The arms race proved too expensive for the Soviet Union and following
the introduction of the Glasnost policy by Michael Gorbachev the Soviet President then, the
whole War Saw pact military and economic system collapsed and the USA emerged as the
unchallenged global superpower from the 1990s onwards. Global power politics has thus
become uni-polar and the USA has assumed the role of global policeman or and corrector of all
rogue states so called. Other terminology has also begun to be used in global politics for an
example “rogue state” meaning a nation that is ultra nationalistic and refuses to kow tow to USA
bullying, “regime change” meaning the forcible removal from power of state leaders who are not
supportive of American policies, “axis of evil” referring to those countries opposed to American
style of governance. The period also saw a marked increase in unilateral action by the USA
outsides the mechanism of recognised international fora such as the UN.
5.2 International Terrorism

The period of USA unilateralism has seen a marked increase in terrorism. Terrorism can be
defined as indiscriminate acts of violence against soft targets for an example non-military
installations and un armed civilians. The USA has declared war on global terror but this terror
in the first place appears to have been prompted by USA partiality in dealing with global
problems like in the handling of the Palestinian issue or dealing with undemocratic as if dealing
with democratic states for an example Uganda under Museveni a non democratically elected
government while making lots of fuss about lack of democracy in Libya and more blatantly
parochial the alleged lack of democracy in Zimbabwe. In any case there is no international that
makes it mandatory for any state to adopt American style democracy. The latter is not holy writ
nor is it fool proof neither fair nor just. Terrorism is bound to grow as the USA leaves groups
and individuals with no other options in redressing their grievances. Terrorism has become the
preferred tool of many marginalized groups as they desperately seek for justice in the resolution
of their grievances.

Global power balances are important in that it is within the framework of this arrangement that
state inter action takes place. As shown above, the multilateral power structure between 1800 and
1945 produced or created a very unsafe world and led to two catastrophic wars. The bipolar
global power balance between 1945 and 1985 and the resultant rivalry and arms race of that

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 period saw many developing countries falling victim to the politics of the day. After 1985
increasing USA unilateralism has bred a new global scourge called terror. The USA has itself
become a terror to many states small and big if they dare assert their nationalism hence the
growth in terrorism. Terrorism is inherently evil and un acceptable as much as the bellicose
attitudes by stronger states that drive weaker groups to resort to terror tactics.

6. International Law.

All states are members of the global community, which has codes of conduct or behaviour
expectations for its members. These behaviour expectations arise out of custom or agreements.
There is there for such a thing as international law. (NB. See International Law in Module 2.
Legal and Parliamentary affairs.) The major deficiency in international law has been its lack of a
force back up mechanism that is an army or police force. Of late there has been attempts to make
international more meaningful by extending its jurisdiction to individual and to the actions of
states as it relates to its citizens.

6.1 Jurisdiction of international law.

In its current mould international law affects those countries that are signatories to conventions
and agree to be bound by the provisions of such agreements. The signatories are also left with
the option to accept the conclusions of the International Court Of Justice or simply to ignore
them. The ICJ was formed in 1945 as an organ of the UN and is based at The Hague in the
Netherlands. The disputes that are taken to the courts are mutually agreed upon and relate to
trade or boundary disputes between states. The action of states against other states is a hardly
ever the subject matter of international Law. Criminal acts by individuals or states have
traditionally fallen outside the scope and jurisdiction of international law. Increasingly however
there is a trend toward making international law more encompassing by the introduction of
crimes that can be defined as acts against humanity e.g. genocide. This has led to the
establishment of many international Tribunals like the Nuremberg war crimes tribunal set up to
try NAZI Germany war criminal after WW2. Other special international tribunals have also been
set to deal the Balkans crisis and the Rwanda genocide of 1991. The UN has also set up as of
2003 the International Criminal Court and many countries have ratified the treaty. The USA
however has refused to ratify the agreement and has gone on a bullying campaign coercing small
nations to agree not to send USA nationals to the court. In the meantime The USA is making a
lot of noise about sending Charles Taylor to the Special War crimes Tribunal in Sierra Leone.

7. DIPLOMACY

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 Diplomacy can be defined as “ the application of intelligence and tact to the conduct of official
relations between the governments of independent states.” Formal contact between nations in
the global community takes place through the medium of diplomacy and the interaction of
diplomats. Diplomats are the emissaries or representatives of their governments in other
countries and are the direct contact between different governments. The ministries of foreign
affairs in all states have the responsibility for the deployment of diplomats and the carrying out
of the foreign policy of each respective country.

7.1 Foreign policy

Foreign policy is the position of each government on various issues on world affairs.
Foreign policy is determined by each state‟s National Interest. The National interest can be
defined as the common interests of all the citizens of a nation. The national interest arises from
the values and aspirations and history of a nation and these are at variance with the national
interests of other nations because of the competitive nature of inter state relations. Foreign policy
objectives relate to power or sovereignty, profit and prestige. These objectives can be classified
as: a) Core interests, b) Objective interests, and c) Subjective interests.

7.1.1 Core interests

These are goals for which most people are willing to pay the ultimate sacrifice and relate to self
preservation as a nation and revolve round defending the nation and the perpetuation of a
particular social cultural and economic way of life.

7.1.2 Objective interests

These are permanent interests of the state irrespective of institutional changes within the state that
is even when governments come and go objective interests remain unchanged. In Zimbabwe this
may be related to our sovereignty or the right to access land by the natives of this country.

7.1.3 Subjective interests.

To determine whether an issue is a national interest in this instance will depend upon the
values and subjective assessment of those making a decision and the issue at stake does not relate
to self-preservation or perpetuation as a state. Example would be the decision on whether
Zimbabwe remains a member of the Commonwealth or not.

It is around the interests of a state that diplomacy is conducted. This suggests or presupposes
therefore that all diplomats are conversant with the interests of the state that they represent and
will be defending and promoting.

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7.2 Zimbabwean Foreign Policy

During the hey day of Soviet and American rivalry Zimbabwe‟s foreign policy was
unequivocally non-aligned. This does not amount to saying Zimbabwe was a neutral state.
Zimbabwe, guided by its policy of non-alignment has from independence sought to establish
close relations with states pursuing a socialist ideology. This approach allowed Zimbabwe to
articulate its national interests from a firm ideological base.

7.2.1 Objective Interests in Zimbabwe‟s Foreign Policy

- Preservation of national sovereignty. In pursuit of the same quit the Common wealth and
believes in the democratic right without interference from outside to self-determination.
- Being an equal and active partner in regional and international fora. Is a member of SADC,
COMESA, AU and the UN.
- A strong Pan Africanism arising from the continent‟s history of slavery, colonialism neo
colonialism and the war against these three evil crimes against humanity. In pursuit of the
same fought against banditry and imperial de- stabilization in Mozambique against
RENAMO and in the DRC against imperial sponsored regime change of the Kabila
administration through Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi.

7.2.2 Core Interests

- That the native Zimbabwean has an inalienable right to land to own it and to share it equally
with other Zimbabweans of all races without discrimination.

7.2.3 Subjective Interests

- To determine the most suitable international economic relations.

7.3 The origins of diplomacy

Diplomacy is as old as human society. In Shona culture a wise saying states that
“nhume/mutumwa haana mbonje” This statement also underlies one of the major elements of
diplomacy namely the inviolability of the diplomatic person and his possessions. Diplomacy was
thus well established in early European states as well as in all the pre-colonial Zimbabwean
states. In Europe diplomacy almost suffered a fatal blow during the so-called Holy Roman
Empire. These were the dark ages of human civilization.
It was only in the fourteenth century that transient diplomacy is replaced with permanent
embassies or missions as city-states take root in Italy. By the seventeenth century diplomacy is
governed by disjointed rules in Europe and the disputes that arose over diplomatic precedence
and protocol were such that war was always narrowly averted. In 1815 The Congress of Vienna
and the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818 formalised diplomatic rules and procedure. It was
only in 1961 that eighty-one states at the Vienna Conference on Diplomatic Intercourse And
Immunities that The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations was ratified. The document
covers all aspects of diplomatic activity in terms of types of missions‟ functions and immunities
and privileges of diplomatic personnel

7.4 Setting up diplomatic relations and missions

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 Diplomatic relations are established through mutual consent. It is assumed that all diplomats
posted are acceptable to the receiving state and the host state issues a document called the
agre‟ment to indicate their acceptance of the proposed head of mission. The latter document can
be withheld without explanation. The head of mission to be becomes official after the
presentation of credentials at the ceremony where he meets the head of state of the host county
and presents his letter of credence.

7.5 Types of diplomatic missions and representation

Diplomatic representation is divided into three groups namely:

- Ambassadors and Ministers; these present credentials to the hosting head of state
- Charge‟d‟ affaires present credentials to the minister of foreign affairs of the host state.
- Former British colonies‟ heads of mission are termed High commissioners and heads of
mission between non-former British colonies are termed ambassadors extraordinary and
plenipotentiary.

7.6 Privileges and immunities of diplomats

All accredited diplomats are immune from criminal and civil jurisdiction in the host state and
exempt from all taxation. Diplomats are subject to the host state‟s laws where they enter into
private business. Action incompatible with the status of the diplomats may lead the host state to
request their removal.
Diplomatic missions are immune from searches and any other intrusive acts by the host state.

7.7 Functions of diplomatic missions.

The major activities of diplomatic missions can be classified as a) non substantive and
substantive routine work and b) non routine work.

7.7.1 Non-Substantive routine functions

Attending social and ceremonial functions in the host state e.g. receptions or cocktail parties,
luncheons honour giving ceremonies, parades etc.
NB. The following are sometimes treated as consular functions; Registration of births deaths
marriages of citizens from their country residing in the host state issuing, validating and
replacing passports. Dealing with extradition cases and looking after the interests of citizens
from their country in the host state.

(Consular issues proper are not diplomatic functions although these may be carried out in the
diplomatic premises. These include, the processing and issuing of visas, certificates e.g.
certificate of origin and the facilitation of any other commercial activities. )

7.7.2 Substantive Routine work

This work relates mostly to reporting and intelligence gathering. Intelligence gathering is not an
official or declared function of diplomatic missions but they are never the less used extensively

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 as cover for these nefarious activities. Where the host state observes abnormally high and
audacious levels of espionage they demand the immediate withdrawal of such personnel and this
normally prompts retaliatory action. Reporting is normally on economic, political, military and
social issues. In certain instances it might be necessary to engage specialized diplomats called
Attaches‟ in the areas of information military and economic affairs.

7.7.3 Non-Routine Functions

This function relates to negotiating. This relates to the transmission of messages and attending to
direct talks at various levels with the authorities of the host state.

8. INTERNATIONAL CAPITAL AND IMPERIALISM.

8.1 Introduction.

The current stage in global politics and relations is characterized by a high level of dominance
relations between the weak and the powerful states. Such domination has been the major feature
in relations between sates and within states since time immemorial and arises out of the
structured nature of society national or global. The term society suggests classes and classes
suggest inequalities in the distribution of resources in that society. Inequalities also suggest
contradictions and contradictions suggest motion that is politics. Thus it can be argued from the
outset that the major characteristic of global relations has been the phenomenon of imperialism.
The study of class formation in societies is termed historical materialism. On the other hand the
study of motion that results from class contradictions is termed dialectical materialism. “It is the
study of society in their essentially contradictory movement.”
Class contradictions arise out of the inequalities or unfair sharing of the resources within society
or exploitation. This sharing is what can be termed political economy. Political economy of any
society therefore reveals the extent and level of exploitation in that society and the level of
dynamics or contradictions in that society. Historical and dialectical materialism and political
economy there for are the tools that can best be used to analyze the past and present stage in
global relations.
Each stage in the evolution of production and exchange has a specific class structure, which
determines relations in the society.
8.2 Stages in the development of Capital

Imperialism can be defined as, “the general tendency of states or groups within states to exploit
other states or groups through relations brought about by force or other subtle means and to the
detriment of the exploited group and the advantage of the dominant group or state.” Such
exploitation becomes manifestly visible through exchange and production relationships.
Production and exchange have over time evolved through various stages and at each stage the
major feature has been the existence of dominance relationships that is an exploited class and an
exploiting class. At each stage imperialism can be seen to be mutating or changing until it
reaches its present and highest stage as International or Global Capital. The stages through which
capital has evolved are as follows;
1. the Hunter gatherer or communal stage
2. Feudalism

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 3. Mercantile capital
4. Competitive capital
5. Monopoly capital
6. Finance capital
Capital can be loosely defined as wealth in the form of land, finance or technology depending
on the stage of development of that society which at most is either scarce or monopolized by a
small group within a particular society.

While Capital and its monopolization can be traced to the Feudal mode of production or stage, it
can be seen that its nonexistence in the first mode of production namely the hunter-gatherer
stage, was due to the class nature of that society.

8.3 DEVELOPMENT OF CAPITAL IN EUROPE

MODE OF PRODUCTION CLASS STRUCTURE CONTRADICTIONS POLITICAL ECONOMY

DIALECTICS
1. Non-existent Class contradictions Non- Free for all economic
Hunter Gather (4000 BC – existent Survival of the specialisation hunting and
1500 BC) fittest in a state of native gathering No ownership
gave rise to the need for
society
2. 1. Aristocracy Exploitation of slave labour Aristocracy owned means of
Slave Society (1500 BC to 2. Soldier e.t.c leading to rebellion against production land and workers-
500 AD) 3. Slaves and latter the ruling elite slaves non paid
colonii
3. 1. Aristocratic Exploitation of serfs led to Barter trade Natural
Feudalism (500 AD to soldiers elite friction between serfs and economy. Extraction of
1700AD) 2. Serfs=half slave landlords surplus through free labour
half worker and rent in kind=produce and
3. Clergy latter money. Land owned by
landlords
4. 1. Aristocracy Workers=Craftsmen Monopolisation of markets by
Mercantile Capital (1700 to 2. Merchants exploitation by Merchants merchants. Surplus value
1800) 3. Clergy and landlords. extracted through under paid
4. Craftsman Concentration of capital worker and high profit mark
5. Labourer/worker and formation of joint stock up on goods at home and
company led to abroad. Means of production
globalisation of trade and owned by merchants and land
slavery and colonialism owners=land + money
5. 1. Industrialist David Hume, Adam Smith Free trade based on
Competitive Capital 1800 to 2. Worker against merchant monopoly international division of
1900 3. Peasant/leman of capital and markets. labour. Exploitation of
Industrialists + bankers workers by industry.
exploit workers and Monopoly of machines
bankers=former merchants money and land
exploit industrialists

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 6. Monopoly Capital 1900 to 1. Bankers Worker‟s labour under Extraction of surplus value
1945 2. Industrialists valued leading to acute through lending is paying for
3. Workers concentration of capital workers needs not for value
4. Peasants of labour. Monopoly
ownership of capital-land,
money and machines
7. Finance Capital 1945 to 1. Finance institutions Buyers determine prices Selling of Money Export of
present 2. Borrowers Money Monopoly ownership
Of Capital by banks

During the hunter-gatherer mode of production there was no society and no classes. Extraction
of surplus value or exploitation of one class by another class was not possible. The situation was
a free for all and this made life difficult on a state of nature. With the development of Roman
slave society classes developed as well as conflicts as well. The landowners had slaves who
resented being owned and forced to work. The colonii or freed former slaves and peasants were
also exploited by the landowners who made them pay rent in kind or in cash. These conflicts
eventually led to the collapse of the system and it was replaced by Feudalism. Feudalism as a
mode of production was based on a highly stratified society where extraction of surplus value by
those who owned and monopolised the means of production was for long sustained through
force. The serfs or landless peasants were made to work and pay part of their produce to the
landlords who owned all the land. The major features of all successive modes of production
develop at this stage except the global element, which exists in the last stage or mode of
production. It is this global aspect namely the extraction of surplus value or exploitation from
other countries through the exportation or selling of finance capital that imperialism reaches its
highest and most developed stage.

8.4 Major elements of imperialism

The features that exist in all modes of production except the hunter gather modes are as follows:
-

1. Class formation or Societal stratification. This is along the lines of

a) those who own and monopolise the means of production and,
b) those who are exploited or from whom surplus value is extracted.

2. Class Antagonism or Conflict due to exploitation.

3. Collapse of the previous mode of production due to contradiction and;

4. Emergence of another mode of production with different classes and different contradictions
but with exploitation or surplus value extraction being the ever-unchanging feature.

The current phase or mode of production that is the finance capital mode, is globalised in that
those who own and monopolise the means of production, have been able to mortgage all
economic activity in their home countries and abroad to money that these financial institutions
lend locally in export abroad. The result in the global economy has been there for marked by:

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 a) Concentration/monopolisation of capital in global or multilateral financial institutions.

b) Formation of a class of super rich money owners who extract surplus value or exploit the
world economy through interest on money loaned through such banks as the IMF the
World Bank etc.

c) International division of labour. This has led to other countries being pushed into being
producers of raw materials while others have become producers of manufactured goods.
Producers of raw materials as a global class have contradictions with those who
monopolise finance capital and those who buy their raw materials at cheap prices
determined by the buyer who then manufactures goods to sell to producers of raw
materials. This is exploitation of man by man at its highest level and is no different from
exploitation by force under slavery or colonialism hence the term neo-colonialism to
describe the economic and political relations between producers of finished goods the
develop0ed countries and producers of raw materials under developed countries or the
third world.

8.5 International Economic Relations

The Second Word War marks the beginning point of the present global economic arrangement.
The idealism of the immediate post world war two period led to massive government led
initiatives to bring the shattered economy of the world back to its feet. By 1979 however this
role of government in economic activity was under attack and has to a large extent been
abandoned altogether. The social welfare state has become a thing of the past and a new
ideology emphasising the role of the market in determining all economic as well as social and
political decisions has been adopted.

In the current economic thinking, cooperation‟s or business have total freedom and collective
bargaining and trade unionism and the consumer and citizen in general have found themselves at
the receiving end of the new international economic order. This new international economic
order had by the middle 1990s assumed a new form and characteristic namely globalisation.

The IMF World Bank and oil Breton Woods financial institutions were formed for the specific
purpose of preventing future conflicts by dealing or removing those economic and social issues
that had led and that might lead to new war. The mandate of these financial institutions was to
provide lending for reconstruction and for short-term balance of payment support. These
institutions after 1979 have increasingly taken over individual governments, economic policies
and intervene in national policy will beyond the scope of their mandate. The post 1945 period
saw a massive realignment of global economic relations with Europe being mortgaged to the
U.S.A. under the Marshall Plan which saw infusion of capital into Europe from the U.S.A. and
newly created Breton Woods financial institutions. The U.S.A. insisted on decolonisation as a
condition of giving financial support to Europe and declared the end to empire. Thus the U.S.A.
gained the empires that Europe lost through decolonisation as it gained unprecedented control of
former colonies through new economic relations specifically the supply of manufactured goods
and the provision of finance capital. Debt becomes the primary form of survival technique for
all former colonies and the supply of new materials from former colonies was accelerated in

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order to raise money to pay off the debt. By the end of the 1970s the so called debt crisis had
developed with a new economic global structure which split the world into producers of raw
materials and importers of finance capital and finished goods and producers of finished goods
and exporters of finance capital. This relationship was marked or characterised by a high level
injustice in the form of unequal exchange. The former colonies in America, Africa and Asia
were selling raw materials with little value added to them at prices set by the buyer that is the
developed countries. The latter sell manufactured goods to the developing countries at high
profit margins and over and above this drain of resources from the south servicing the loans
obtained from the north compounds or increases the flow of resources to the south.

Debt servicing, cheap raw

materials. Imports of finished NORTH
goods and services
Loans And
SOUTH Good Service

The flow of wealth from the South to the North through debt servicing and unequal exchange is
further increased with the insistence on structural adjustment programmes in the south by the so
called donor community that is western governments and the Breton Woods financial institutions
or the North. The catch word on economic structures adjustment programmes forced on the
South are similar to the free market economic policies instituted on the domestic economics of
the North which resulted in nett gains for the super rich and nett loss for the average worker.
Average income in the 1980s of the top 10% of American families increased by 16%, “the top
5% increased by 23%, the top 1% got 50%. The bottom 10% of Americans lost 15% during the
same period.” The same policies during the same period applied to global policies saw an
increase in nett flows of income to the North and a decrease in income to the South with the
result that IMF policies have led to increased poverty in the South. These policies are what can
be termed globalisation and are hinged upon: -

a) free trade in goods and services between countries through the

removal of trade barriers.

b) free circulation of capital

c) freedom and protection of investments

d) reduction of government expenditure and government interference in the economy.

e) privatisation of parastatals
These points have become the conditionalities for receiving or disbursement
of aid by the North. The result in all instances was that the forced
privatisation saw corporations in the North buying up all privatised
companies in the South so privatised.

Closely related to these policies has been the creation of the UN – World
Trade Organisation (UN – WTO) in 1995. The liberalisation of world trade

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 under the current requirements is reducing developing countries to
primitive economies as industries close under pressure from unregulated
competition from the North.

The North in the meantime is not removing trade restrictions, which remain
in the form of quarters or strict health requirements in agricultural
products. Moreover subsidies maintained by both the U.S.A. and Europe on
agricultural production is seeing many countries in the South collapsing
economically.

9. International Division Of Labour

The global economic arrangement between the South and North has structural linkages, which
perpetuate the inequalities that exist in global economic relations. The North or developed
economies can thus be termed the centre of global economic activity and the South or developing
countries the periphery of economic activity at the international level. These relations can be
diagrammatically represented as follows: -

Centre

Periphery Periphery
Periphery Centre

Centre Centre Disharmony of

interests
Periphery Centre Periphery

Harmony of interests
between periphery centre
and centre is the centre.

9.1 Centre Periphery Relations

The centre has those who own and run the economy and the governments. They also have a
periphery that is the workers and the unemployed. The same can be said of both. The centre in
the centre has to have harmony of interests with the centre in the periphery because both these
groups are the beneficiaries in the world economic arrangement. The peripheries in both
divisions have disharmony of interests with the centres because they are the victims of the
system. This relationship demonstrates why it is difficult for the developing countries to get out
of their current position because of the collaboration between their political leadership with the
leadership in the North. It also explains why the North seeks to influence the selection of leaders

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 in the South and talk about regime change when they fail to control the electoral processes the
South.

10. Development Strategies

In a world where there are structural linkages between the North and South that thrive on the
allocation of unequal roles based on historically and political derived positions development in
the South is only a myth.
It is not possible to envisage a situation where the North will allow economic conditions in the
South to develop to such a level or extent or to undermine the supply of their raw material
resources or the continued existence of markets for their goods. Development has remained
elusive in the South especially as long as the North subverts or influences the political process in
the South. Development refers to a situation where the majority of the people have sufficient
levels of literacy, access to education, food, shelter and health care. Bustling metropolis are not
proof of development. Highly segmented society where a few people enjoy privileged economic
advantages while the rest of the population languish in squalor and poverty in illiteracy and in
slums with no access to health care are clear examples of endemic under development. This
scenario is true for many of Zimbabwe‟s neighbours and especially when one compares the
health education and infrastructure in the region. Structural dependence linkages, which create,
sustain and perpetuate the existence of dual economics, are short-term gains that will in the long
term create catastrophic situations. Development approaches have to be long term in nature and
have to take cognisance of the realities in which nations exist as members of the global
community. It has already been demonstrated that former colonies are structurally dependent
and linked to the former colonies through new forms of linkages, which prohibit development in
this neo-colonial relationship.

The problem countries like Zimbabwe face is dependence which perpetuates the traditional role
and position of supplier of raw materials with the result of creating a dual economy – an affluent
metropolis and a poor peasantry. Development therefore can be viewed from the following
angles.

10.1 Interdependence

“This is inevitable in this heterogeneous planet: resources, including fertile land, fresh
water, deposits of minerals and sources of energy are dispersed unevenly over its surface.
In simpler times, populations were concentrated mainly in areas of plentiful resources
and especially those propitious for the growing of food. Such societies could therefore
become more or less self-sufficient and international trade gradually developed mainly to
provide exotic products, which were initially, luxuries but which little by little improved
the general material standard of life. With the impact of technological development, a
vastly greater range of materials was required. The present industrialized economies,
which arose as a consequence of the industrial revolution, were initially based on local
deposits of coal and iron ore. but, as these economies became more sophisticated, their
industries called for a wide variety of materials, many of which had to be imported from

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 distant lands and this had many consequences including colonization. Interdependence,
then, became an important reality but was seldom recognized politically.
Little by little, within this system human skills and knowledge (especially those of
science and technology) became the most important of all national resources and we have
now reached a situation in which successful and innovative economies can be created”

10.2 Self Reliance

“Interdependence appears, therefore, to have become a central feature of the
contemporary world. However, it is inevitable that the most powerful of the nations are
the most capable of exploiting it to their own advantage; at least as the‟re short-term
vision seems to indicate. Such a situation tends to make the rich richer and the poor
relatively poorer, increasing disharmony, which must in the end imperil the rich as well
as the poor. For the establishment of a stable world order, therefore, interdependence has
to be complemented by self-reliance, which means, essentially, the capacity to manage
interdependence. Without such a capacity, interdependence can only mean dependence
on the part of the many, a continuing economic and technological colonialism, or just
plain poverty.

There are many ingredients within the concept of self-reliance. It is necessary for
instance to have a stable and intelligent government, with partners who may be well
trained and able to command skills in negotiation with partners who may be stronger.
Likewise it is necessary to attain a national competence in science and technology to
provide a sound basis for industrialization and to ensure that imported technologies are
well chosen, intelligently assimilated and assist in providing the skills which will make
possible indigenous innovations and development. It necessitates also a good level of
education and training as well as the acquisition of management capacities. Self-reliance
is thus a very different concept from that of self-sufficiency; it entails the building up of a
capacity, both institutional and in terms of human skills which enables a country to
manage its resources and affairs effectively so as to benefit to the maximum from
interdependence, rather than to be its passive victim”.

ACTIVITIES
 Define International Relations
 Explain the three Cs of International relations – Conflict, Co-operation and Competition
 Explain the Multi-polar, Bi-polar global power balances
 Critique International law, the community of nations and identify and explain the types
and functions of diplomatic missions.

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PAGE 88
11. Regionalism
OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit the student should be able to:

o Outline the logic and development of regionalism.
o Outline the composition purpose, and functions of major regional organisations
(SADC, COMESA, PTA, ECOWAS, AU, EU, ASEAN, NAFTA).

Introduction

Economic and Political integration among Third World countries is normally on a regional or
sub-regional basis. Before taking the merits and demerits of such integration it is necessary to
define first what we mean or what is meant by “region” and “integration”. The term region will
be defined first and integration will be defined latter. By region is meant:

- “an area of contiguous countries defined usually by geography or by a common cultural

heritage, shared political philosophy or mutual economic interest”.
- Such integration can be seen as falling under: -

i) “Multifunctional geographically comprehensive organisations such as the

Organisation of American States (O.A.S), the Organisation of Africa‟s Unity
(O.AU) and the League of Arab States (LAS).

ii) Cooperative or integration-oriented and geographically limited (sub-regional)

organisations such as the European Economic Community (EEC) and the
Economic Community for West African States (ECOWAS).

iii) Technical or otherwise narrowly functional organisations such as the Colombo

plan for economic cooperative development.

iv) Economic Commissioners falling under the United Nations such as the Economic
Commission for Africa (ECA). Economic Commission for Latin America
(ECLA), Economic Commission for Western Asia (ECWA), and the Economic
Commission for South Asia and the Pacific (ECSAP).

To these can be added in a sub global sense of regional integration regional bodies such as the
British Common Wealth, the Organisation of the Conference of Islamic States and Africa-
Caribbean and Pacific group that falls under the Lome Conventions 1 and 11. These
organisations usually double as loose association with political as well as economic undertones.
It is possible to make further extensions to include the ideological divide, which form the End-
West confrontation, but a broad assumption will be made that developing countries do not fall
under these groupings. The North-South dialogue can also be seen as being trans regional.

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The logic behind regionalism therefore is economics of scale in production and trade at the
economic level and shared cultural and social values at the political level. The formation of
regional organisation is therefore a logical imperative and answer to the common problems
facing mankind. When the UN was formed article 52(1) of the Charter provided that:
“Nothing on the present Charter precludes the existence of regional arrangements or agencies for
dealing with such matters relating to the maintenance of international peace and security as are
appropriate for regional action provided that such arrangements or agencies and their activities
are consistent with the purposes and principles of the United Nations”
Student Exercise

Using the following table fill in the necessary information on or about the following regional
organisations, SADC, COMESA, ECOWAS, AU, SACU, EU.

NAME OF YEAR OF PURPOSE OF MEMBERSHIP

ORGANISATION FORMATION ORGANISATION

ACTIVITIES
 Outline the logic and development of regionalism.
 Outline the composition purpose, and functions of major regional organisations (SADC,
COMESA, PTA, ECOWAS, AU, EU, ASEAN, NAFTA).

Public International Organisation

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit the student should be able to:

o Critically analyse the purpose role, structure and functions of the United Nations
and trace its origins successes and failures.
o Assess the functions and structure of the major UN agencies – UNESCO,
UNHCR, WHO, UNDP, UNICEF
o Evaluate the role played by governmental aid agencies – Usaid, Norad, Cida, Sida
etc.

Public International Organisation refers to multilateral institutions formed by states for the
purposes of facilitating inter stake cooperation in economic political social and cultural issues.
These organisations arise out of the need to regulate intercourse In relations between states. The
consul and diplomatic mission were the first examples of formal institutions in relations between
states. The existence of problems, which could not be dealt with by or through the diplomatic
mission, gave rise to the development of the international conference consisting of
representatives from various states. The conference of Vienna (1815), The Paris conference of
1919 etc were ad-hoc conferences of this nature, which discussed each unique problem as it
arose. Associations and unions had developed by the nineteenth century to replace the
mechanism of the conferences. These unions and associations were either private or public

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international organisations such as the International Law Association and the Universal Postal
Union respectively. After World War 2 the idealism of the period resulted in the formation of
the League of Nations, which became the precursor to the United Nations. International
Organisations can be classified according to function as follows: -
a) Administrative organisations e.g. international Postal Union.
b) Political Organisation e.g. the UN.
c) Judicial Organisations e.g. the International court of justice.

Or classified according to extent or geographical space as follows: -

a) Global
b) Regional

Structure of the UN
General Assembly Secretariat Security Council

U.N.O Disarmament
Commission
UNWTO
Committees
UNILO Committee of
Expects
ICAO
Committee No. 1
Political & Security IBRD Military Staff
Committee
IFC
Special Political
Committee IDA
Ad Hoc Bodies
IMF
Committee No. 2
Economic & Financial FAO International
Atomic Agency
UNESCO
Committee No. 3
Social Humanitarian WHO

UPU
Committee No. 4
Trusteeship Council ITU

WMO
Committee No. 5

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Administrative & WIPO
Budgetary
UNIDO

Committee No. 6 IFAD

Legal

PAGE 92
Student Exercise

Write in full the abbreviated names of the UN organs and state the functions of each organ.

The UNWTO (United Nations World Trade Organisation)

The UNWTO was formed in 1995 as the successor organisation to the General Agreement on
Tariffs and Trade (GATT).

Objectives

To enable states to agree among themselves to reduce and remove or eliminate restrictions on
trade. Of all UN organs the WTO has been cited as the most negative in its operations for an
example: -

1. Undermines democracy in the developing World.

2. Perpetuates underdevelopment by exposing weak economies to unfair competition.
3. WTO regulates and promotes World trade through rules that undermine commerce and
industry in the developing nations etc.

ACTIVITIES
o Critically analyse the purpose role, structure and functions of the United
Nations and trace its origins successes and failures.
o Assess the functions and structure of the major UN agencies – UNESCO,
UNHCR, WHO, UNDP, UNICEF
o Evaluate the role played by governmental aid agencies – Usaid, Norad, Cida,
Sida etc.

NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS(NGOs)

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 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit the student should be able to:

o Identify major NGOs in Zimbabwe and State their functions, purposes and their
relationships with the host Government.
o Critically analyse the role of NGOs ass lobby groups in home countries and as
front organisations in host countries.
o Assess the effect of NGOs and their contribution in development; cultural
imperialism and the dependency syndrome.

Non-governmental organisations have become a major feature in international relations for two
reasons: -

a) They are used directly and indirectly by their home states as front organisations.

b) Impact of their activities can be far reaching.

NGOs are formal organisations formed by private individuals for the specific purpose of
articulating concerns, raising awareness and lobbying governments for legislative or other
political action and soliciting for resources.

NGOs can be classified according to their area of concern or operations namely: -

a) Developmental NGOs

b) Advocacy NGOs

c) Relief NGOs

Developmental NGOs are involved in raising resources human or material for use in alleviating
poverty or suffering.
Advocacy NGOs raise awareness in an existing problem and lobby governments to take specific
action to deal with that type of problems. Relief NGOs solicit for financial and material
resources for use where natural disasters and earthquakes occur.

12. The Impact of NGOs‟ Activity in Zimbabwe

Developmental NGOs have contributed substantially in the construction of infrastructure in the

rural areas in Zimbabwe. Plan International has together with the ministry of local government
been putting up shallow and deep wells. Other organisations have been involved in the provision
of equipment, construction of clinics and dams. The work of these organisations while laudable
in the short term has produced and fostered a culture of dependence among Zimbabweans.
People who receive these handouts have no sense of ownership of the items donated and are not
only reckless in the use of donated equipment but abandon such equipment sooner rather than
latter. Most wells have been abandoned in the rural areas because the pumps have broken and no
one has bothered to repair them.

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Advocacy NGOs have been the most prolific in Zimbabwe. These organisations have raised
awareness on such issues as women‟s rights, the girl child, human rights democracy and many
other areas. These organisations have produced less positive contribution than the other
organisations. It is also these organisations that have been used by western governments to
subvert and undermine the democratic process in Zimbabwe. These organisation have been
highly disruptive of African or local culture assuming western or foreign values to be superior
over local culture.

Relief NGOs provide assistance such as food during droughts in Zimbabwe; such assistance
while it averts starvation in the short term has been extremely detrimental in long-term food
security in the country. Instead of coming up with solutions to recurring drought, people in
Zimbabwe look for external assistance. Adopting wrong grains for food worsens drought effects.
Local small grains like sorghum and millet have been safe food security reserves in the past but
the use of an exotic and foreign grain like maize not suited to our climate has produced a crisis in
food security. The overall picture or effect is that NGOs have contributed more negatively than
positively to Zimbabwe‟s welfare.

Front organisations are organisations that are used as cover for some other purposes or activity.
These front organisations have been used to subvert the political process in Zimbabwe. The
Zimbabwe Democracy Trust is sponsored by white Rhodesians to create an environment that
undermines black interests and gains. MISA –Media Institute for Southern Africa promotes,
funds and where necessary encourages the creation of media that is friendly to western interests.
One of MISA‟s subsidiaries, the Southern African Media Development Fund has been active in
promoting media hostile to the Zimbabwe government. The U.S. Agency for International Aid,
of a USA, government department, funds more than fifteen NGOs in Zimbabwe with the specific
objective of undermining the Zimbabwe government. The US Aid subsidiary Office of
Transition Initiatives is funding a hostile and subversive radio station SW radio advocating
political uprising in Zimbabwe. The Communication Assistance Foundation of the Netherlands
reportedly seeks to “influence policy formulation” in Zimbabwe and supports activities of the
“Zimbabwe Civil Society”, that is, groups seeking to overthrow the Zimbabwean government.
The Westminster Foundation, a United Kingdom organisation has been active in supporting all
activities aimed at undermining the Zimbabwean government.

ACTIVITIES
o Identify major NGOs in Zimbabwe and State their functions, purposes and their
relationships with the host Government.
o Critically analyse the role of NGOs ass lobby groups in home countries and as
front organisations in host countries.
o Assess the effect of NGOs and their contribution in development; cultural
imperialism and the dependency syndrome.
THE MEDIA
OBJECTIVES

PAGE 95
By the end of this unit the student should be able to:
 Define Media and explain its role and functions
 Critically analyse the following :
 Freedom of Expression
 Freedom of Association within the context of Media Freedom
 Discuss and explain self censorship of the media and compare the behaviour of
Zimbabwe‟s media to that of other countries
 Assess the role of the foreign media in shaping perceptions and influencing political
processes in modern politics
 Define the term “perceptions” and critically relate it to the adage “the battle is not lost on
the battlefield but in the mind”.
 Discuss and analyse the role of the media in modern welfare and trade.
 Media definition, roles and functions

Definition
Media can be defined as a channel through which one communicates. Mass media refers to the
channel through which one or a group of people communicates to a large audience. It can be
print, electronic or digital.
Roles
It plays 3 primary roles i.e entertains, educates and informs.
Functions
The media have become one of the central elements of modern societies with some theorists
calling it the FOURTH ESTATE or fourth arm of the state, whose primarily function is to be a
watchdog.

The media is the major ideological apparatus of any state. Nation states use the media to
maintain peace, order, national values, heritage as well as the sovereignty and territorial
integrity.
State

Ideological state apparatus Repressive State Apparatus

Media police
Education army

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 Religion state security

The Rambai Makashinga jingle for instance successfully entrenched the spirit of resilience in the
hearts and minds of the ordinary Zimbabweans suffering from the negative effects of successive
droughts and sanctions on the economy.

19.1.1 The media and Identity

Identity: is simply our understanding of who we are. An individual may have multiple identities
& at times it leads to an identity crisis. By belonging to various communities one can have
multiple identities e.g. (A Dynamos Supporter, can be a Christian, a Polytechnic Student, a
Ndebele.)

However, every nation has to promote its own uniqueness and cultural diversity from other
nationalities and cultures. Nonetheless, the greatest threat to such cultural preservation is the
work of media products (cultural products) that transcend national and geographic boundaries to
cultivate western cultures to locals in what has come to be known as cultural
imperialism.Noteworthy is the glamorization of homosexuality in the entertainment media with
countries like Zimbabwe against such practices labeled as Abusers of Human Rights.

Hence, in the best interests of the preservation of local culture & identity, nations should fight
against the global media influence which is increasingly defining the world for us. Radio
channels on short- wave frequency (which has the widest reach) such as Channel Africa & Voice
of Zimbabwe try to counter that influence and promote an Afro centric ideology and give the true
African view.

19.1.2 The Media: nation & nationalism

Nation- is a political community sharing cultural background and aspirations. The era of national
galas promoted a national togetherness and the use of national colors (eg Zimbabwe
Independence Silver Jubilee T-shirts & flags) in supporting national causes even in sports,
promotes nationalism. A more localized programming creates a national ideology against foreign

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ones (eg the 75% local content policy in Zimbabwe, with some Moslem states totally
disregarding any foreign media content).

19.1 Freedom of Expression and self sensorship

Journalists the world over clamor for media freedom, as they claim it is one of the basic
requirements in any independent nation-state. The current Zimbabwean constitution guarantees
the freedom of Expression in section 20 (5). However, journalists have more often than not
abused their freedom of expression, leading to jeopardization of state security at times and in
other instances disturbing of peace and creating public despondency through the writing of
alarmist stories.

Understanding that media messages have economic, political, social, and aesthetic purposes
(e.g., to make money, to gain power or authority over others, to present ideas about how people
should think or behave, to experiment with different kinds of symbolic forms or ideas) help us to
understand why all governments provide relative and never absolute freedom as this will
inevitably lead to anarchy. The Oxford Concise dictionary 10th edition defines anarchy as the
state of disorder due to lack of government control).
The media has influence on society as a whole (e.g., influence in shaping various governmental,
social, and cultural norms; influence on the democratic process; influence on beliefs, lifestyles,
and understanding of relationships and culture; how it shapes viewer's perceptions of reality; the
various consequences in society of ideas and images in media)
The media has the ability to influence social and cultural issues (e.g., creating or promoting
causes: U.N. military action, election of political parties; use of media to achieve governmental,
societal, and cultural goals)
This is the reason why the Zimbabwean government enacted laws which makes it a criminal
offense to publish falsehoods, write anything that creates public alarm and despondence or
anything prejudicial to the state, president or his office. The government of Zimbabwe also
recently allowed for the self censorship of journalists through their self appointed regulatory
board known as the Voluntary Media Council. It is however essential to note that the media
framework cannot work in an unregulated fraternity.

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19.2 Freedom of Association within the context of Media Freedom
The right to freedom of assembly and association in Zimbabwe is guaranteed under Article 21 of
the Constitution of Zimbabwe. Commenting on this provision and Article 20 on freedom of
expression, in re Munhumeso &Ors, the Supreme Court of Zimbabwe emphasized that:
"the importance attaching to the exercise of the right to freedom of expression and assembly
must never be underestimated. They lie at the foundation of a democratic society and are one of
the basic conditions for its progress and for the development of every man.”

These two essential provisions i.e freedom of expression and assembly have to be well
monitored and governed by the state in the best interests of public safety and public order to an
extent which is reasonably justifiable in a democratic society.

In Zimbabwe just like in Britain, any organization that intends to gather for whatever reason has
to seek police clearing for the maintenance of peace, order and tranquility.

19.4 Comparing the behavior of Zimbabwean media to that of other countries

United States has the largest number of media organizations in the world however the media is
owned and controlled by a few individuals. This makes the media environment in the US to be
plural (many newspapers & tv stations) but definitely not diverse(as all the media organizations
are singing from the same hymnbook).

Researchers at Sonoma State University in the US looked up the names of the 155 people who
served on the boards of directors of the eleven media companies that dominated the U.S. media
market.

Who are these 155 media elites-directors of the largest combined media news systems in the
world? They include men like: Frank Carlucci, who sits on the board of directors of
Westinghouse (CBS), and was former deputy director of the CIA and later Secretary of Defense
under President Bush. This doesn‟t come as a surprise that the Bush administration like any other
government in the world desires to effectively control the media so that it perpetrates its
ideologies and policies.

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The U.S. media has lost its diversity and its ability to present different points of view. Instead,
there is homogeneity of news stories and the major media tend to look alike.

The media in the U.S. has created, to use Neil Postman's words, the "best entertained, least
informed society in the world." Americans are ignorant about international affairs and alienated
from their own social issues.

19.5 Assess the role of the foreign media in shaping perceptions and influencing political
processes in modern politics
The ever widening reach of the global media has created a relatively unified international view
of the world. According to the Agenda Setting theory, “the media may not be successful much of
the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what
to think about.” Bernard C Cohen (1963).

The seemingly plural global media has formed a cartel that owns newspapers, magazines, book
publishers, motion picture studios, radio and TV stations globally. Time Warner, Walt Disney,
News Corporation, Viacom and Bertelsmann control almost all global media of influence and
they are also under one controlling hand, hence all the news and entertainment enjoyed the world
over come from one controlling stake.

Realizing the power of the media in controlling the thinking of man, imperialists have hijacked
and manipulated the global media from its educative, informative and entertaining role to being
the major apparatus in the creation and perpetuation of the Anglo-American hegemony agenda
globally.
It therefore doesn‟t come as a surprise that a successful land reform program may be called
“chaotic”, an economy under sanctions named “mismanaged and in meltdown”, a homegrown
legislation called “draconian”, by almost if not all of these media houses who are perpetrating an
ideology of their paymasters (He who pays the piper calls the tune).
Through their ill gotten wealth (slavery & colonialism, and other neo-colonial and imperialist
injustices they continue to commit) the imperialists promote their capitalist system as the only

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hope for ailing developing economies so that through their set financial institutions (IMF, World
Bank) they continue to exploit the rich human and natural resources of African economies.

Frantz Fanon noted that “the last battle of the colonised against the coloniser will often be the
fight of the colonised against each other”. The words are very linked to the Zimbabwean
scenario and relates to what other sections of the Zimbabwean media community are doing to
destroy Zimbabwe in the name of freedom of the media.

For example, the private media, which are usually anti-establishment, refer to the sanctions that
have led to the economic downturn and suffering of the ordinary Zimbabweans as targeted and
claim they are not affecting trade in the country. However, the public media in Zimbabwe has
always maintained that sanctions in Africa in general and Zimbabwe in particular hurt masses
not the government in power because there is no middle class like in countries of Europe who
can effect regime change.

19.6 The role of the media in modern welfare and trade.

The building and maintenance of public support is essential in modern warfare due to the
increasing politicization of warfare, where losses and gains are measured in political rather than
military terms. And if progress cannot be demonstrated during a war, then by default one is
assumed to be losing. Thus, the adage “the battle is not lost on the battlefield but in the mind,” is
very true.

This explains why the American war against terror is glamorized in Western media though it has
led to the indiscriminate killing thousands of innocent civilians which include defenseless
women and children in countries like Afghanistan and Iraq. War on Terror has been interpreted
as an assault on democracy and freedom by Islamic fundamentalists and has been heavily
criticized for the death of innocent souls the world over though it is positively portrayed in the
media.

The media onslaught against Zimbabwean policies is part of the Anglo American warfare
strategy that involves the control of the minds of people and the media support of any of their
policies though they may lead to untold suffering to other people. The third world Pan- African

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states, like other developed states also use their indigenous media to counter the global media
positive coverage of Anglo-American policies.

With the growth of global media, the third world countries are creating less of their culture and
buying more of it from the media, hence the continued loss of African culture. Thus, Africans in
general, and Zimbabweans in particular should work together in the fight against western ideals
which are proclaimed in foreign media.

ACTIVITIES

o Define Media and explain its role and functions

o Critically analyse the following :
o Freedom of Expression
o Freedom of Association within the context of Media Freedom
o Discuss and explain self censorship of the media and compare the behaviour of
Zimbabwe‟s media to that of other countries
o Assess the role of the foreign media in shaping perceptions and influencing
political processes in modern politics
o Define the term “perceptions” and critically relate it to the adage “the battle is not
lost on the battlefield but in the mind”.
o Discuss and analyse the role of the media in modern welfare and trade.

References

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Moyana H & Sibanda M (2001) African Heritage Revised Edition. Zimbabwe

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Moyana T (1989) Education Liberation. 1st Edition Fay Chung : Harare

Mudenge S G (1988) A Political History of Munhumutapa -1400-1902. Zimbabwe

Publishing House: Harare

Zvobgo C J M(1996) A History of Christian Missionaries in Zimbabwe1890-1939.

Mambo Press :Gweru

Prew M et al(2002) People Making History Book 4 Zimbabwe Publishing House:

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 Harare

Beach D N (1986) War and Politics in Zimbabwe 1840-1900. Mambo Press: Gweru

Mandaza I(1980) Zimbabwe: The Political Economy of Transition1980-

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Bhebhe N & rANGER(1995)Society in Zimbabwe`s Liberation War .Volume2.

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Christie R H(1998). Business law in Zimbabwe. 2nd ed. Kenwyn : Juta:Pretoria

The Zimbambe Constitution. Government Printers: Harare

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Implications for the 3rd World Countries.
Sapes: Harare

Todaro M P(2000)Economic Development 7th Edition Addison Wersley: London

Stiglitz,J.(2002) Globalization and its discontents. Penguin: London

Rodney W (1981) How Europe Underdeveloped Africa . Revised edition .Howard

University Press: Washington

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