The Life of A Cell

LS1101 : Introduction to Biology

Anindita Bhadra

E-mail: abhadra@iiserkol.ac.in
 The Cell Cycle

An adult human being has approximately 100 000 billion cells, all originating
from a single cell, the fertilized egg cell.

In adults there is also an enormous number of continuously dividing cells

replacing those dying.

Before a cell can divide it has to grow in size, duplicate its chromosomes and
separate the chromosomes for exact distribution between the two daughter cells.

These different processes are coordinated in the cell cycle.

The Cell Cycle
 The Cell Cycle

Cells undergo the cell cycle, which has mainly

two phases.

The Interphase is the part of the cell cycle

when the cell grows and replicates in
preparation for cell division.

The Mitotic phase is when the cell actually

divides.

The cell cycle is defined as the period between

successive divisions of a cell
 The Cell Cycle

Specific protein complexes involving cyclins are critical for

regulating the passage of cells through the cell cycle.

Many genes and proteins that influence the passage from one phase of the cell
cycle to another have been identified.

When their expression is altered by mutation or aberrant regulation, they are

usually classed as oncogenes.

In order to move from one phase of its life cycle to the next, a cell must pass
through numerous checkpoints. At each checkpoint, specialized proteins
determine whether the necessary conditions exist.
 The Cell Cycle

Proteins that act to hold the cell at checkpoints are produced

by tumor suppressor genes.

The cell cycle and its system of checkpoint controls show strong evolutionary
conservation.

As a result, all eukaryotes — from single-celled yeast to complex multicellular

vertebrates — pass through the same four phases and same key checkpoints.

Most cancers are the result of inappropriate cell division, often stemming from
aberrations in normal cell cycle regulation.
 The Cell Cycle - Checkpoints
G1: A critical checkpoint that ensures environmental conditions
(including signals from other cells) are favourable for replication.

If conditions are not favourable, the cell may enter a resting state known as G0.

Some cells remain in G0 for the entire lifetime of the organism in which they
reside. For instance, the neurons and skeletal muscle cells of mammals are
typically in G0.

G2 to M: a number of proteins scrutinize the cell's DNA, making sure it is

structurally intact and properly replicated. The cell may pause at this point to
allow time for DNA repair, if necessary.
 The Cell Cycle - Checkpoints
M: A checkpoint determines whether the chromosomes in the
cell have properly attached to the spindle, or the network of
microtubules that will separate them during cell division.

This step decreases the possibility that the resulting daughter cells will have
unbalanced numbers of chromosomes — a condition called aneuploidy.

Of the many proteins involved in cell cycle control, cyclin-dependent kinases

(CDKs) are among the most important.

CDKs are a family of multifunctional enzymes that can modify various protein
substrates involved in cell cycle progression.
The Cell Cycle
The beginning of S phase is marked by the
onset of DNA replication, the start of mitosis
(M) is accompanied by breakdown of the
nuclear envelope and chromosome
condensation, whereas segregation of the
sister chromatids marks the metaphase-to-
anaphase transition.

Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) trigger the

transition from G1 to S phase and from G2 to
M phase by phosphorylating distinct sets of
substrates.
 The Cell Cycle - Phases
Metaphase is characterized by the "metaphase plate". This is a mid-point
region within the cell that is formed/defined by the centromeres of the chromatid
pairs aligning along the microtubules at the centre of the mitotic spindle.

Anaphase: The centromeres split separating the two members of each

chromatid pair - which then move to the opposite poles of the cell.

When they are separated the chromatids are called chromosomes.

As the chromosomes are pulled by the microtubules during anaphase, they

appear to be "V"-shaped because the centromeres lead the way, dragging the
trailing arms of the chromosomes towards the pole/s.
 The Cell Cycle - Phases
Telophase begins after the chromosomal movement stops.

The identical sets of chromosomes - which are by this stage at opposite poles of
the cell, uncoil and revert to the long, thin, thread-like chromatin form.

A new nuclear envelope forms around each chromatin mass.

Nucleoli appear and eventually the mitotic spindle breaks-up.

Cytokinesis: Then the cytoplasm begins to divide around the two new nuclei.
When cytokinesis is complete, interphase begins.
The Cell Cycle - Phases

The phases of
mitotic cell
division.
 Cell Death
Cells can die either by necrosis or apoptosis.

Necrosis: a cell is damaged by an external force, such as poison, a bodily injury,

an infection or getting cut off from the blood supply.

Cell death by necrosis causes inflammation that can cause further distress or
injury within the body.

Apoptosis: Also known as programmed cell death, is the suicidal process the
cells undergo.

Apoptosis is an essential part of development.