98 2 “GOLDEN MATHS SERIES 6 REAL 0 ’ ANALYSIS a By NP.BALL : FIREWALL MEDLA (An imprint of Laxeni Publications Pvt. Ltd.) BANGALORE © CHENNAL @ COCHIN — @-GUWAHAT! © HYDERABAD IALANDHAR © KOLKATA @ WCKNOW @ MUMBAI © ANH < NEW DELHI ¢ BOSTON, USA CONTENTS Chapters 1, Sets and Functions Countability of Sets and the Real Number System ‘Topology of Real Numbers Se 11. Improper Integrals : 12, Beta and Gamma Punctions 13, Differentiation Under the Integral Sign 14. 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Listing the ele- ments of a set sometimes difficult and s impossible, We do not have a rater form of the sot Q of rational nimbers or the set R of real numbers. Inset builder method, a set is ‘eacribed by means of some property which is shared by all the elements of the set. thin braces a variable Lx, y ee) followed by a of property, in st be satisfied by each element sd by a property P, we write For example. (i) ifP is the set of all prime nurnbers, then P= (e:x is a primenumber), ‘A is the sot of all natural numbers betwen 10 and 100, then Astrxe Nid 10 A. If V is the set of vowels in English alphabet and $ is the sot of all, = [e:xisa multiple of 10, then 1.7. EQUALITY OF SETS. ‘Two sets A and B are said to be equal iffthey eontain exactly the same clements and =e write A=B. Thus, A = Bi every clement of Ais an clement of B and every element of B is en element ofA, InaymbolA«Biffce A > xeBandze Bore Or AsBiffAcBandBcA. For example.(#)if A= (4,5,6,71 ami B= (x: 4 G:=1 and B then A = B. ‘A=(2) and B=(p:pisan even prime number, then A= B. 1.8. PROPER SUBSET AE A.and Bare two sots such that Ac Band A B, then A is called a proper subset of B. ‘Thus A isa proper subset of B = every element of A isan element of B but there js not in A. For examples) A= (2,3,4,5,6, Vis proper subset ofN, because ACN and A#N, (2 Le Nhut Lea ) Nisa proper subset of Z because every natural number isan integer (ce, NZ) but very integer nent be a natural number (ie, NZ). — ‘Theorem I. Huery set is a dubset of itself: LatAbeany et. Since xeK 3 x4 2 ACA ‘Theorem IL. Empty set is o subset of every set. I possible, suppose ¢ cA for some get A. EA = thete is at least one element in ¢ which ie not in A But this onteadicts the definition of + Our supposition is wrong. 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(wos'sl= “(¥)d 4 pjouep St pu Jo 72s zaMod orp poreo st Y 998 & JO sasqns ou 4138 V 40.138 HBMOd “IL _-Ye8 B you stp Ajaueu‘sjuowsyo sy.J0 o4o e309 596 Jo Aju e308 “sys Aina 19 °S “(e108 ys © a0) sys Jo Stony w pope st 5s osye axe SyuEUNE 9504s 398 Y (6135 40 13 Uo) S1as 40 AuWv"0r"b ‘veg pur DV osmeodq 0s aygesndun>-uou are g pur V UaKp'9"» 2) = B PUD (GT) =VIH( “¥> a Due q> v oeneoaq sas apqesedui axe q pur Y U>tp = ¥. “Va osnvang spr oyqusedios axe g pue y Us Ig) = Pe (OT '8'9‘F'2)= Vat “aD V_ ssne30q 0s oyqeseduo ove gi poe v wa ‘(9'F'8'2 1] =a pur (set) = V8) “damexD 20q ‘jos >qauodwes uo 940} pres are @ pie y Uoly "Y >. 40U > V JOUPIOU “sja8ayqezeduuea 94 09 pres axe. g pu y, vous ‘V> 20 g'> aay seIN YOM om g PoP Y ses = siaszTevuvaioo ‘et WE=AL+1)= "Out ™ +70ut Out Oy = siasqns jo soquNE FeO, “oes, Sjuouraye w Butsey Y Jo s79sqNs Jo “ON foe snawey om; Busey y Jo seq -H0 '5,= quauray9 auo SutAey y Jo syesqns Jo “ON, 65, = quauroye ou Sur.ey Y Jo s198qNS JO ON 7 moouop JOLY JO eqs 078 ox ‘sm "so “gw Sup 99 wo BE YO Sse a JO PID} 99 MED tyuatioe ooo or soyruur 5 eusuay ome opi atysenese PONE gUOS 1) aN Joanqum oxy se ones oy sey: foaryy yo seeqrs Hoqu oSIUNUOTS wane ¥308 © 07 go rng oo saga yup) onan #04 m2 -AL ONO ‘SAWN WaENBTIOD v8 : GOLDEN REAL ANALYSIS Sete a ars ALO AAO ony Properties of Intersection of Sets (a) For any two sets A and B, Let x be any element of A xeAoB = xeAandxeB = 143. DISJOINT SETS Two sets are said to be disjoint if they have no element in common. Thus two seti A and po, Baredisjoint it ANB =¢. For example. (i)ifA=(a,¢,e,/1 and B= (6, d,g\,thes Aand B are disjoint seisbecause oO AnB=9. Gi)ICVis the set of vowels and C, the set of consonants in English alphabet, then Vand ©} Caredisjoint sets because no vowel is a consonant and vice-versa UNIVERSAL SET ssion, we consider all the sets to be subsets of a given fixed generally denoted by U(orX). the set of B.Se. Final year students of your college, B is the sit 1, Cis the set of all ericket players in your college, G is the set ofall the set of all students of our college is a universal set. STS ANO FUNCTIONS. 7 (Gin any study of human population, all the people in the world constitute a universai vet. 1,45. DIFFERENCE OF SETS Tre fernc fst hand Bis dented ty AB Clearly, A-B-C)9(&-B)-C Thus the ‘difference of sets is not associative. Also A-A=GA-9° 0, ABCA 1.16. COMPLEMENT OF A SET Let U be the universal set and A c U. Then the complement of A is the set of those hare not in A. The complement ofA is denoted by A U-Aste:ze Vandre Al=te:xe Al iF is the sot ofall natural numbers and A, the set of even natural AeU-A = the set of those natural numbers which are not even. umber lphabet and A is the set of consonants, then = the sot of letters of English alphabet which aré not consonants = the set of vowels in English alphabet AVA =U - Thusxe A > xeAt andvxeA = xed MAA =9. . Complement of complement of a sets the set itself Le, (A= A, Proot. Ovetgere AT ste Al=A 6) A-B=AnB A-Bateize Aandze B)=(e:x6 Aand xe BY =AnBe 117, PRINCIPLE OF DUALITY Statement. All the laws of algebra of sets remain trpe if we interchange union and intersection as also the universal sot and the null set. For example (i)ifthe law is (AU BY =\°7\Bs then itedual is obtained by interchang ~ ingunion and intersection ée,, dual will be (AA BF =A°U BY,o ©-yvE-w>00-Vv (@-Wu@-Wex © o-vezPmE-V>ox (9 9*puey 9:9 pov(q poe 92) (0 axpueg 92) pay y 9x = ong axpuey 9xe(n@)-v 9x. wo, (0) ~ V0 somo Aue a9 xfo7 (0) TOS O-VINa-V)=OVM-VO! O-MV@-Vi=009-VO yp s001d “gps "ys 04 uD 40g "9 Oye s2.¥ © V>a “UH pue () BumquIEg ” yoa = a2 vSa ¢ vee = lao 4 - Were ger = gex ? uo, JP Wows Aue oq FT AD VT oy 2N oe yoa 7 AV ee . Weal a@arc yar e@- yer eu Sy Jo uae Aue 9g 29 TY > APT TOS “>.¥ 6S > q my on0ud un 728 007 Bro amg. 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Wo >xpuey snio(gaxpuryas) < (9 2x30q92)pury 9x © Dog 2zpuyar & @nmuvex LOL (0.9 B) UV aUOWTE Aue 29 2497 (8) OOWYEOW=OVMAY “eH pue (y BumIMED a = OvMVrI(9OWMLIaNW) : QvMoyer = Qua axwy 2x « (2*pueg ony er @(>x0yonpm@>rty ex = OAV azpueqnyax & oowuany) 3x waL (OT V) Ula OV) 0 3uaMa[e Kae oq 79] HEY OowvEnWe20UMav “ ony szpm gays Conwu@oy ere © 2r:0y 9m pueig stiyax = (Qaxpueg xy x . - pugezwyex & (vaaver wou 19 VaNA W3eqUeWEF® Aue 99 £107 (2) 18 (wom 100 sernguierp wonzasaqup) Ovvinavy=ormuv@ (woes 1080 somqazep vera) OOnNVvEny)=QUAOVeO 1049 o0ud ways ‘308 aasyp Ku 0 9 "Wt ay dutexg ~——| SaTawvxa aauvensnT |}—— n=voveq #1164 ¢pue 6.44 U Susqdax wo poueago sen sy woM 4 = JW UV Hae] OU J) resp 6 'SNONLONMH Oh S138 ‘SISkTHNY Wal NBOTOD10 (GOLDEN REAL ANALYSIS Again, let x be any element of A ~B)(A~C). Then re(A-B)(A-C) = xe A-Bandre A-C * = (ee Aandze B)and(ee Aandxe C) = x6 Aand (re Band C) = xeAandzeBUC 3 re A-BUC) (A-B)A(A-C)eA-CBLO sii) Combining (@ and Gi), A~(BUC)=(A-B) n(A-O), ‘Second Method A-BuO=eAnBucr fe A-B=AnBA =AnBE ACY [De Morgan's aw! =ANBIA(AN C= (A-BIO(A- 0), ) Let x be any clement of A ~(B mC). Then xe A-(BAC) + xe Aandre BAC Py xeAand(reBorxe ©) = (re Aandxe Bore Aandre ©) = xe A*BorzeA-C 3 re (A-B)U(A-C) - A-BnO)c(A-B)U(A-C) @ ‘Aemain, lot x be any element of (A ~B) U (A= C)-Then xe (A-B)U(A-C) > xe A-BorseA-C = (ze Aandre B)or(ee Aandxe@) > re Aand (ze Borze C) = xe Aandxe BoC 3 re A-(BnC) ai (A-B)U(A-C)eA-BAC) : Combining (i) and (i), A~(Bm 0) =(A-B)U(A-O). Second Method A-Bn)=AnBacy fe A-B=Anpa, =AnBUCD [De Morgan's Law} (ANB) UAC) {Distributive Law) =(-BUA-O). = + Example 7. Prove that A~B =A-(A 0B). Sol Let x be any element of A-B. Then xeA-B = xe AahdreB > xeAandzeAnB 3 xe A-(AnB) A-BeA-(ANB) “ Again, let x be any clement of A~ (AB). Then xe A~(ANB) = re AandreAnB » xe AmndreB = reA-B A-(ANB)CA-B Combining (?) and (i), A~B = A~(A 0B) iy Second Method A-(AnB)=An(AnBy be A-BeAnBl SAn(aUB) {De Morgan's Law} 2AM ADU (ANB) Distributive Law] =9U(A-B) > be Anaad) 2A-B ‘SETS ANO FUNCTIONS " Example 8. Prove that An (B ~C) = (AM B)-C. Sol. Let x be any element of Aa (BC). Then. xeAnB-0) + xe Aandxe (B-C) = re Aand(reBandxe 0) = (eAandxe Byandz eC = re AnBandzeC = re(AnB)-C AnB-O)c(AnB)-C “ Again, let x be any element of (A B)~ C. Then ee (AnB)-C = reAnBandreC = (ce Aandre Bjandze = xe Aand(ec Bande ©) = xe Aandze B-C = re AnB-0) (AnB)-CcAnB-O : si) Combining () and(ii), An(B~C)=(AMB)—C. ‘Second Method ANB-C)=AN BAC) =(AnB)nc [Intersection is associative} = =(AnB)~C. [ey AaB =A-B} Example 9. Prove that A (A~B) = A.B. Sol. Let x be any element of A ~(A ~ B). Then . xe A-(A~B) > re AandseA-B = xe Aand (xe Aand ye B) WNotel = (ee Aandre A)andxe B = xeAadreB = xe ANB A-(A-B)CANB @ Again, lt x be any element of AB. Then reAnB = reAandeeB ~ = xe Aand(xe Aandi B) = xeAmdreA-B = xe A-(A-B) AnBcA-(A-B) -.o) A-(W-B)2ANB Combining (i and Second Method ‘A-(A-B)=A-(ANB) =n (An Ber = Anis UB), f BY=B) =A AU ANB) (Distributive Law) = 9UANB)= ANB. Example 10. Prove that A=(AB)U(A~B). Sol. Let x be any element of A Then xed = reAnU be AnU=Al > xe ANBUBY i tf) U=BoBy = xe AandzeBorseB) = Ge Aandse Blortre Aandze B) = xe AnBorzeA-B = xe ANB)UA-B) Ac(ANB)UA-B) “gare qoxpuy os . lavyey 2} quyax © yor ogy Ye top An gf‘ > ye nay Y= UY PLAN - Vaquy & av VeaUY “em pee(n BuingU29 c auyoy gover = taev 4d gas pue'yar 2 voxpwyas © yor WU Ygoquamope Aue 99279] 0K 2 yoauy 200 sony oat y= g UY 98H a80ad By,“ > V 307 CH) = GOV BFA? Vaneyou "yp Pur) SuEAMED w a>v = | aeaoy “or a2v ; lasaov #1) ax lgovey T anyer = vax Soh ¥ poston uw og Foy '> VamONad OL A = AAV HO wo geaoy = asy a=aoy - anvea a>ady ar . aoxmgay = aetwoyex = qnyas - wou “a. W Jo yuoMNE| Kee aq x9 ‘= a AY IMP 280d OF “> VTC) OS vequydia> van a= aviv 7 3043 n04g “py odemExg, 7 aeW= ows -wMava-V) ‘eo PEED AaERERD on W-@o@-W>aUV-Gow W-MA@-wer = V-aorg-yor = (v#xpueg ex.0(q azpmey as) = (gq exioy en pUE(g sza0y22) = quyexpregny ar & dey-tany >= WHE EY V)~ (Oy) IME Aes oq = 79L EY oy OW OV)>N-OOG-V) (auyf-taavex © qUVazpuegnyer © (@2xwy sy pug ozwyon = (yaxpmgenio(g azpueyen © yoasrg-yar = W-mo-wt WOU (Y— ) (a - WIE IMOMIDRD Au 9q2 797 OS (aey)-@0¥)=(V-90@-¥) 1 Pe sis oma vv 20} roy ao0ng “eH opdunedY ) pure (9) Buruyquiog, or" Je MoU; an TY (@>v +) e SNONDNTY GW 5135 QUY)-(BUV)=(0-DUY “(ey pu (7 FumQUOD Cie ee @-@UV>OLW-aLW Q-muyor © p-aazpuey ax (AFB ES] pues = (OF FRMEY > HpUET>*piEY 35) : DUV axpuTUY 926 (9UV)-(@U¥) 22 aH OY ¥)~ (BU W) JP MMOD Kur og 5 721 “UIE or (OVW) @UVIPO-MVy (OUW-@eWs! = — QUYaxpHegUY 5x e (0 >xpuey 22) pue(g >xpuey 2%) = (9 axpueg oa)puvy 9s © O-gexpuey er @ o-muy oF WOU, (9 a) UVB quows Kav 99 £907 “Jog COUW=@LV)=(0- DUV ION mno1g “CT dE, ouwai-w= [oe aannquysial} (OUWOGHUW= ° We 4a GOW =4eUV) 2 onmev= LOUMUV=(OUM)-V=O-O-¥ POTION puooag BUYIN -V=O-@)-¥ " puE(SEAUED or 0-9-vP0CWNG-—) @-w-vere ~(0-@-axpusy >= - Qormgr Hwy ss = (ezpIVeMwEsZpVOZ Quy 2xu0g-yax ec (uwaa-w >= wan, (9 UW) > (a — V) fo ywoMOT Ae 2q x 91 "HY w (UWA (a-V)>10-H)-V (uWale- vax = QUVexa~vax e (o > pur y 92) 10(g ax pu y >) . onl + {02s qanpuey oz - 7 Oma xpmyer & O-M-Vv 2" wou, (0 a) ~ Vo queUDp uv 94 £907 TOS OUVIN(-W= (O~ a)~ VIM mong “TH Ode ve (o=a0@ 41 avy= . (oe aenqesigy canwuve cauwaauy=e-woGuY) owen Pu009g =Watmuy)=V ‘ED Bue ( airaquUeD t yoig-wa@uw vez = quwex noxpuey 2x 410g expuey>x (a 9x20€ 9%) puey 9x (@ 9x20 9-95) puey 2x (a 9 xpuey 23)20(g > puey >) av toguy 3% (@-WOaUy) >= wou, (8 ¥).O( Uy) JoIEMTE Lue 9q = 39] ‘WETY naan ant SISaTMEFWAE WaGIODe GOLDEN MEAL ANALYSIS AcB AnB=A > AcB ap Combining (1) and (OD, we have Ac: Biff AM B= A. Example 15. Prove that AUB =ANB@A=B. Sol. Let AUB = ANB. To prove that A = B, let x be any element of A. ‘Then rea =. re AUB be ACAUBI = reAoB bs AUB=AnBI = xeAandreB 4 xeB ACB an Again, lot x be any element of B, Then xeB = xe AUB lt BeAuBl = xg A0B bs AUB=AnBI = xeAandreB = x6A Bea Gi) Combining () and (i), A=B. ae AUB=AnB+A=B aw Now let A =B,To prove that AUB=AnB. . AUB=AnA ( Beal es =A=A0A Ss =AnB - A=B > AUB=AnB aD From(D and, AUB=AnB o A=B Example 16, Prove that (A ~ B) -C = (A -C)-(B -C). Sol Letxbe any cement of AB) ~C. Then re (-B)~C = Fé A-Bandeec = GeAandze BlandzeC = (ee Aandre C)and(eeBandze C) = #eA-CandzeB-C > re{A-C)-(B-O) . (A~B)-Ce(A-0)-B-O) @ ‘Again, let x be any element of (A~.C) ~(B—C). Then xeQ-O-(@B-0) 4 zeA-CandyeB-C = (eeAandxe Cand (ee Randxe ©) = (ce Aandze Blandze C = zeA-BandzeC > re(A-B)-C (-0)-B-0)c(A-B)-C iw Combining Gi and Gi), we get (A~B) - C =(A-0)~ (BC). Example 17, Prove that A~ Be A.B = BY Sol Letxbe any cloment of AB. "Then 7eA-B @ xeAmizeB © feAandseB @ seAn® A-Bs Ande 0 Agin seA-B | sc AandveB @ 4 seMandce Bt @ xeMaidee st @ 2B a A-B=BP-Ar ~ Combining i) and (if), we get, AB =A B= BAY ti) STS AND FUNCTIONS fs Example 18. Prove thot B-A° = Baa. Sol. Please try yourself Example 19. Prove that @AcB > AUCcBUC. Sol. Please try yourself Example 20. Prove that (A—C)n(B~C)=(AB)~C. Sol. Please try yourself ‘Bxample 21. If for two sete * and B,AUB=Aand AB =A, then A=B Sol. AUBSA = BCA ANB=A = AcB 2 AaB. Example 22. For any three sete A, B ond C, prove that ifA UB = AU Cand ANB =A0G, then WAcB + AnccBae. Bec. Sol. Lot x be any element of B. xeB 3 ze AUB [fy Beausy = xeauc = [ey AUB=AUC) > xe AorxeC . @ IxeB + xe Athonze ANB : = € ANC fe AnBeAnct > xeC {in particular) From(@ eB 3 x6 Bee Similarly CoB Hence © BaC. 1.18. SYMMETRIC DIFFERENCE ITA and B are any two sets, then the set (A ~ B) U (B ~ A) is called the symmetric difference of A and B. ‘The symmetric difference of A and B is denoted by A A B and read as ‘A symmetric difference B’ > For example. [fA= (a, 5, c,d, e} and B=(6,d,e,f,gl, then A-B-=(a, bl, B—A=f,gh AAB=(A-B)UB~A)= (0, 61U Veal = fa, 6 fl Example 1. Prove the following (AaA=6 (A AG=A Gi)ASB=BAA GAMBA = ANB) ANC) Sol. 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AVY axpurany ex & (g 9x10 ¥xpuE Lg 9x09 22, = (v 92 pug >H10(g axpuey ax = y-goxmq-V>z = W-Mo@-W) 27 = avyoz ‘UPULL “a V ¥ Jo AUeKHApD Aue 09 =39] OS LA OMVEOV)= QVGA VI =B9 FIO 01g *g aIDEXG UW @UW)=(dsy-9U uy-auW)= (omer oasmnais3g) Wa-U VIA WO-BUvI= 9-9) 1O-DLV=—OVHUV “ nso S155 a er SST We NSTIOD 3: (OLDEN REAL ANALYSIS sets sn FUNCTIONS For example. 4 = (1, 2,3) and B = (0,—1), then “ AxB=((1,0),(4,~D, 2,0), @,-D,,0),(8,—D} . and Bx An((a,6:0 Bbe Al : = (6,1, (0,2). (0,8), 1,061,264, 3) Clearly AxBeBxA, Note 1 IFA has m elements and B has ents, then Ax B has m x n elements, Note 2. Let R be: fall eal numbers. Then Rx R= (x,y):2.¢ Ry R) Rx isthe set of all points in the Cartesian plane. Is al denoted by B 122. 0)careus mmpuorar mcrae Let A, Band C be three sets. The set of all ordered les (a,b,c) wherea. : Note 1-R xR «R= (G,y,2):r6Ry-¢ hz. Ml wie Ris teste (He RRBs the eto al ots the Bolden pce estan al UB: Note 2m general if Aj Ay Ay mnnn Ay BO ets, then a TY Am neagcdpnomen ds lapapay yay. ae Assad is called an ordered tpl, = ~ ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES, a Example 1.1/4 =(1, 2, B=12,31,C=(3,4)find 7 G x BUA x Cand (A xB) (A xO). Sol, AxB= (1,2), e AxC= (0,9), 8,2, 3), (Ax BUA 0) = (4,2), (3), 29(2,3),0, 0,02, 4) € (A xB) (Ax C) = (4,3), (2,3), Example 2 Write down the Cartesion product of the thee sets A, B, C where eC. . A= U1, 2,82 (nel, C=(, 6. - Sol. AxB=(( 8) (1,0,2,7), Qe) AxBeCa((tg,1 A, mye), (1,¢, 0, (Le, 1, “Ge, V, Ree Example 3. Let A =(a, 6), B=(1, 2,3, 4, 5), C= (3,5, 7, 9 find (A x BYrv(A x) Sol. Please try yourself: & Example 4. Show that (JACB=2AxCcBxC > WdeDond CcD 9A «Cab sd. So.) Lat 9) be any loment oA C.-Them é GNeAxC > seAandyec = seb and 500 Q = (eye Bxe (ass AvceBec. fe Please ty yourself . Example 5. Prove that A «(BU C) =(A x B) (Ax), Sol. Let (c,») be any element of A x (BUC), Thea Gye AxBuO > ze Aandye BUC s xeAandQeBoryeC) = (re Aandye Byor(xc Aandye ©) = Gye AxBorye AxC > Gye (AxB)U(AxC) Ax(BUOCAXB)U(A xO) o ‘Again, let (x, 9) be any’element of (A x B) U(A x6). Then, (eye (Ax BU (Ax 0) > Gye AxBortz ye AxC = (ee Aandye B)or(ee AandyeC) = xe Aand(ye Bory C) = xe Aandye BUC = Gye Ax BLO (AxBU(AX OCA BO, i Combining (i) and (i), we get A x (BU C)= (Ax BUCA x C). Example 6, ProveThat A x(B0 6) =(A xB)OIA x0) Sol Please try yourself Example 7. Provgthat (A xB) (CxD)=(ANC)x(B aD) Sol. Let (x, 9) be any element of (A x B)- (C x D):Then G9) ¢ (AxB)(C xD) = y)€ AxBand (eye 0xD = (ee Aandyc B)and (xe C andye D) = (ee Annd ze C)and (ve Bandye D) = ze AnCandye BOD = be (00) xBaD) (AxB)AC xD)e(ANOxBad) 0 ‘Again, let (x, 9) be any element of{A 0.0) x (BAD). Then G.y€ (An 0) x (BoD) = te AnCandye BAD > (6 Annd xe C)and (y © Bandy € D) = (ce Aandye B)and (xe Candy D) 5) Gye AxBand’syeCxD > Gye (AxB)n(CxD) : (AnO)xBaD)e(AxBIatCxD) Combining () and Gi), we get (Ax B)(CxD)=(AN) x BoD) Example 8. Prove that (A x C)~(B x C) =(A~B) xC. Sol, Let (x,y) be any element of (A x €7—(B x C). Then Gye (Ax BO) = Gre AxCandix,y)€BxC * = teKandycC)and(eBandyeC) = (e Aandxe ByandyeC = reA~BandyeCO = Gye (A-B)xC 2 (Gx 0)-BxOctA-Boxc o ‘Again, let (x,y) be any element of (A.~B) x C. 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