Pearson Biology 12 New South Wales

Module 8 Review

Non-infectious disease and disorders

MULTIPLE CHOICE
1 B. Homeostasis is the term used for keeping all conditions (like pH, temperature, water, blood sugar and more) within
stable limits so that normal metabolism can continue. It would be impossible to control pH and temperature within all
cells at all times (A, D) and the human body has to sustain its metabolic rate (C).
2 B. The correct answer because a response to the initial stimulus then provides information back that the necessary
changes have been made (e.g. temperature too high; response is for body to act to lower temperature; this action
feeds back to reduce, cancel or increase the stimulus message as required to keep within a narrow temperature range).
A is opposite to B. Options C and D do not consider all possible responses in a feedback system (reduce, increase,
cancel or retain stimulus).
3 C. Paracrine signaling refers to chemical communication between closely adjacent cells (e.g. from one neuron to the
next across a synapse [very small gap]).
4 B. Water temperature is below core body temperature (37°C), so the body acts to conserve body heat and generate
more heat. Actions that do this include constricting peripheral blood vessels to reduce blood flow to the skin,
decreasing sweat production and shivering to generate heat from muscle movements.
5 B. To answer this correctly, the three categories of adaptations must be clearly understood—i and iii are structural
(part of the kangaroo’s permanent body structure); ii is a behavioural action and iv is physiological (ways that the
body functions internally). Choices A, C and D each have at least one incorrectly classified adaptation.
6 A. A small surface-area-to-volume ratio means less exposure of the body surface to the elements and less loss of body
heat through the skin. Choices B, C and D all have large exposure of skin or ears or blood, which means greater loss of
heat. These are not suitable adaptations for cold climates.
7 D. Closing stomates during very hot conditions, thick waxy cuticles and hairs on leaves all reduce water loss in plants.
8 A. All are non-infectious disease examples. In each of B, C and D there is at least one infectious disease—hepatitis B,
warts, diphtheria.
9 D. This provides the best overall summary. A, B and C are correct, but each refers to a part of the process not to
control of the whole cycle.
10 C. There is some truth in all the choices but only C is fully accurate. A could refer to natural cell division (e.g. cleavage
stage for a zygote) as well as cancer. B is incorrect because it refers to meiosis when it should be mitosis. D is
incorrect because not all cancers form tumours.
11 B. Both children are Rhesus positive and the mother is Rhesus negative. This causes successively stronger immune
responses from the mother’s antibodies, which were developed because of contact with the first child’s blood. The
response is triggered by the Rhesus antigen on the baby’s blood cells. A is incorrect because it has antibody and
antigen reversed; C and D are incorrect, because if the mother is Rhesus negative, she has no factor to cause reaction
in the baby.
12 C. The prefix ‘hyper’ means too high and ‘hypo’ means too low. In this case the person has continuing blood glucose
that is too high. Hyperglycaemia is a symptom associated with both types of diabetes.
13 D. The correct description. The other choices are linked with epidemiology but are not the main features.
14 A. This is quite a complex graph that requires careful study for the meaning of data on each axis.
A is the only correct choice based on this data—highest percentage is less than 40% for children at 4 μg/dL whereas
danger level is 10 μg/dL. B is incorrect because no data is presented for learning disabilities; C is incorrect because
more than 5% of non-Indigenous children have levels higher than >10 μg/dL. D is untrue because 400 children were
tested, not all of the children in Mt Isa.
15 C. the only correct set of labels
16 A. Sensorineural hearing loss commonly results from damage to the sensory hair cells in the cochlea of the inner ear.
It could result from normal ageing, damage from listening to excessive noise, or a disease. Hearing cannot be restored
but the correct type of hearing aid can help with amplifying the missing sound frequencies. The aid would not help for
other types of hearing loss, such as B, C and D.
17 B. Rods for dim light, cones for colour and bright light are both types of photoreceptors. A is incorrect because cones
and rods are distributed across the whole retina; C is incorrect, it is only rods that work in dim light; D is incorrect
because it is the pupil that controls light entry.

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 Pearson Biology 12 New South Wales
18 A. In myopia, the cornea is too curved or eyeball is too long and light rays are refracted to a focal point before the
retina.
19 C. A smaller volume of more concentrated urine would be produced to avoid further water loss in the urine. This is
achieved by ADH (antidiuretic hormone) increasing reabsorption of water from the kidney nephrons back into the
blood.
20 D. Haemodialysis diverts the patient’s own blood through a dialyser to remove waste before returning the purified
blood to their body, a process that takes three to four hours, at least three times a week.

SHORT ANSWER
21 a Homeostasis is important to organisms because they function best, and have optimal metabolic activity, when
internal conditions are maintained within certain limits. For example, all body cells carry out chemical reactions,
which depend on enzymes. Enzymes function best under optimum conditions, such as a particular temperature
and pH. If the enzyme’s environmental factors move outside this range, their ability to catalyse metabolic reactions
is reduced or stopped. The enzyme molecule itself may be denatured, meaning that its structure changes beyond
repair and it can no longer function as an enzyme. This puts the health of cells, and consequently the organism,
at risk. For example, if the level of carbon dioxide in the bloodstream rises too high, the blood pH becomes more
acidic than the optimum 7.4. Because blood travels all over the body, it can affect the metabolism of many tissues.
b The stages of homeostasis include (1) detecting a change in the stable internal environment, (2) counteracting that
change to ensure the stable state is maintained, and (3) feedback to change the initial stimulus once the stable
state is restored.
For example, if an increase in blood temperature is detected internally by the hypothalamus (a small but vital
control centre in the brain) in a mammal, it will counteract this to reduce body temperature by using several
physiological and/or behavioural changes, such as dilating blood vessels close to the skin, sweating or panting, as
well as by seeking shade, drinking more water, fanning or licking itself for increased evaporative heat loss. Once
normal body temperature is restored, a feedback mechanism then operates to reduce the initial stimulus and
switch off the cooling responses. This is called negative feedback and is the most common type of feedback.
22 a X—insulin; Y—glucagon
b Homeostasis maintains the blood glucose level between narrow limits. Blood glucose level is monitored by islets
of Langerhans, which are found in the pancreas. When the blood glucose level increases (e.g. after a meal), beta
cells in the islets of Langerhans are stimulated to release insulin. This causes muscles, adipose tissue and the liver
to take glucose from the blood and metabolise or store it. As a result, the blood glucose level decreases. If it drops,
alpha cells in the islets of Langerhans are stimulated to release glucagon. This causes the liver to break down
glycogen into glucose and release glucose into the blood. As a result, the blood glucose level increases.
c
glucose increase X released

glucose normal

Y released glucose decrease

d Negative feedback is represented by—Y released → glucose normal and X released → glucose normal. These are
the two pathways where the response alters the stimulus.
23 a The Australian saltbush is a group of native plant species adapted to arid conditions. Saltbush has an extensive
system of shallow roots and stores water in fleshy stems and leaves. Its leaves are small and light silver-grey, with a
thick cuticle and stomates that close during the hottest part of the day. In some areas it is used for grazing because
it is the only plant species to survive.
b Thick cuticles and closed stomates during the hottest part of the day are adaptations that reduce water loss by
evaporation. Small light-coloured leaves absorb less heat from the sun. A shallow root system allows the plant to
absorb maximum surface water after rain. Fleshy leaves and stems then store water to carry the plant through dry
periods and allow it to maintain a consistent balance of water internally.

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 Pearson Biology 12 New South Wales
24 a Infectious diseases are caused by pathogenic organisms, such as microscopic bacteria, fungi or viruses, and they
may be transmitted to others. Non-infectious diseases are not caused by other organisms and are not transmitted
to others. They may be inherited or the result of dietary deficiencies or caused by environmental exposure.
b Inherited—haemophilia (also cystic fibrosis, Down syndrome, colour-blindness, PKU, Huntington’s disease).
Nutritional—tooth decay (also scurvy, rickets, beri-beri, bulimia, anorexia nervosa).
Environmental—skin cancer (also lung cancers, lead poisoning, asbestosis, asthma, hearing loss).
25 a Myasthenia gravis is a non-infectious disease of the autoimmune type.
b i Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter, a signalling molecule produced by a neuron (nerve cell) and used to carry a
message across a synapse (gap) to another cell. In this case the message travels from neuron to muscle cell.
ii If the acetylcholine receptors on the muscle cells are blocked, the acetylcholine will not be able to stimulate the
receptor. The muscle will then not receive the message to contract.
c T lymphocytes mature in the thymus gland, a function that is most active until puberty as a child’s immune system
is developing. If an adult patient has an enlarged thymus it indicates overproduction of T cells in an active immune
response. Another result of this immune response can be the B cells producing acetylcholine receptor antibodies,
leading to myasthenia gravis.
26 a An antigen is any molecule that stimulates the production of antibodies.
b immunoglobulin E (or IgE)
c Mast cells are located in the skin, the walls of blood vessels and in the lining of the gut and the respiratory
passages, places where mucous secretion occurs.
d Histamines are released from mast cells when IgE antibodies on the surface of the mast cells combine with allergen
particles, binding adjacent IgE molecules together. This cross-linking triggers the release of histamine molecules
that cause the hay fever symptoms.
e Histamines result in inflammation, which is a symptom of allergic responses. Inflammation is accompanied by
irritation and an increase in the mucous fluid surrounding the inflamed tissue.
27 Example answer:
a Epidemiology is the collection of statistical information about diseases. It often includes compulsory notification of
serious diseases to authorities, so they can compile accurate records for the incidence, prevalence and mortality
associated with each disease. This enables authorities to allocate resources and funding where they are most
needed.
b Collecting and analysing data for the incidence of cervical cancer and liver cancer helped to establish links between
these two diseases and specific viruses that can trigger these types of cancer. This led to resources being dedicated
to research and development of vaccines targeting the viruses. Now there are vaccinations against HPV (human
papilloma virus) and HBV (hepatitis B virus), which should protect people previously at risk. The epidemiological
studies established previously unknown links between two infectious pathogens and cancers.
28 Public education campaigns benefit the community’s health because they can alter individual behaviour to improve
health. For example, education campaigns encouraging women to have regular pap tests for the early diagnosis
of cervical cancer have led to a decrease in the disease’s incidence in NSW. Another example is the Slip Slop Slap
campaign, to encourage people to cover up and apply sunscreen, reducing sun exposure and the risk of skin cancer.
Anti-smoking campaigns in Australia contain graphic images in TV advertising, as well as on the packets, which have
significantly reduced the number of smokers and should therefore continue to decrease the future incidence of lung
cancer and other smoking-related diseases. Legislation prohibiting smoking in school and workplaces, as well as in
many public areas and entertainment precincts, may have been even more effective.
The campaigns encourage individuals to adopt safer health practices and aim to alter community expectations
and practices. People remind each other to wear sunscreen and encourage smokers to quit, workplaces enforce
no-smoking rules and there is a general public awareness of health issues.
29 a Colour blindness does not affect a person’s visual acuity. Red–green colour blindness is the most common form of
colour blindness. A person with this condition cannot distinguish between red and green, so finding a red object in
green grass can be difficult because the object and the grass may appear to be very similar colours.
b Normally there are three types of cones in the retina, each containing a separate pigment (photopsin) sensitive
to either blue, red or green light. Colour blindness in humans is caused by a sex-linked gene that affects the
development of one or more of these pigments in the cones.
30 a I = renal cortex, II = renal medulla, III = renal pelvis
b IV = urine

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 Pearson Biology 12 New South Wales
c The kidney regulates water concentration, and removes nitrogenous and other wastes in mammals. It contains
large numbers of microscopic units called nephrons that carry out these processes. Nephrons filter the blood to
separate fluid, containing wastes, from blood cells and large molecules like proteins. Most water and nutrients,
such as glucose and amino acids, are reabsorbed from the filtrate back into the bloodstream. Some substances
such as hydrogen ions and drugs are removed from the blood back into the filtrate for excretion. By the time the
blood leaves the kidney, most of the waste products it was carrying on entry have been removed and the water–salt
balance restored.
d Blood leaving the kidney is low in urea, excess water and salts in comparison to the blood entering. Glucose
concentration is slightly lower in blood leaving the kidney than in blood entering.
31 a From t = 0 to t = 60 minutes, the core body temperature showed a slow and steady increase from 36.9°C to 38.8°C.
The temperature of the skin, on the other hand, showed a general decrease from 33.0°C to 29.0°C from t = 0 to
t = 60 minutes. These changes happened while the jogger was in motion.
b The core body temperature showed a steady increase from t = 0 to t = 60 minutes as the jogger undergoes
aerobic respiration to produce the energy needed for muscular contraction. A by-product of cellular respiration
is heat. Hence, there is an increase in body temperature. The body temperature did not exceed 38.8°C and did
not increase drastically because a homeostatic mechanism (increased sweating and vasodilation) has taken place
to bring down the jogger’s body temperature. This is supported by the reduction of skin temperatures from t = 0
to t = 60 minutes. The skin temperature decreased as increased sweating allowed for the loss of heat through
the surface of the skin when the water in sweat evaporated. Because the jogger is moving there is an increased
evaporative cooling effect as air moves across the sweaty skin.
c Skin temperature started to rise because sweating reduced when the jogger stopped. However, vasodilation of the
skin arterioles continued to occur, to return the core temperature to 37°C. The heat that is brought to the skin
through arterioles caused the skin temperature to rise. Lack of movement decreased evaporation of sweat from the
skin, also adding to a rise in skin temperature.
d In humans, thermoregulation involves a complex negative feedback pathway with several sensory inputs and
many effector responses that act together to maintain a stable body temperature. If core body temperature rises
too far above or below the set-point of 37°C, thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus of the brain detect the change
in blood temperature. Then the hypothalamus initiates regulatory responses that can reduce heat loss, or initiate
heat production or heat exchange. The thermoregulatory response involves two separate negative feedback loops
to either increase or decrease core temperature using physiological and behavioural responses. Regulating skin
temperature is less tight and critical, although must still be managed otherwise a condition that damages skin
tissue, such as frostbite, can occur.
32 a The permanent ‘on’ position caused by mutations in the RAS gene means that the cells are stimulated to divide
constantly, leading to cancerous tumours. The mutation also stops the normal processes that would signal these
abnormal cells to undergo apoptosis.
b Overproduction of HER2 means that the breast cells have many more receptors than normal. This results in the
transduction pathways being stimulated at a much higher rate than normal and leads to more rapid cell division
than normal, and to clumps of undifferentiated cancer cells.
c i Monoclonal antibodies are antibodies produced by cloned hybridomas. The mAbs produced by the clones are all
identical and specific to the same antigen.
ii The original monoclonal antibodies were produced in mice. Scientists have been able to replace some of the
mouse elements of the antibodies with human elements using recombinant DNA technologies. These antibodies
are described as humanised.
iii Humanised antibodies are less likely to stimulate an immune response as there are fewer foreign antigens
present. This means the effectiveness of the drug is likely to continue. If an immune response is mounted against
the antibody, treatment will become ineffective.
d i Take two groups of people who have the resistant form of HER-positive breast cancer. Treat one group of patients
with the new treatment and the other group with conventional treatment. Ideally, it should be a double-blind
study—neither the patients nor the doctors treating them should know which patients are receiving the new
treatment. The progress of the disease in all the patients should be monitored.
ii If the condition of the patients having the new treatment improves more than those having the conventional
treatment, then the treatment can be considered successful. Further trials would be warranted if even a few
members of the trial showed significant improvement.

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 Pearson Biology 12 New South Wales
iii Some issues include:
- getting informed consent from the patients to be part of the trial
- how long to continue with the trial if the new treatment is showing significant benefits to those having it
- how fair it is if a successful trial for the new treatment is not offered to the people still receiving conventional
treatment
- there may be unexpected side effects of the new treatment
- when to extend the trial and with whom
iv Having only a few subjects in a trial can limit the usefulness of the results. People are extremely variable and
may respond quite differently to a drug, so if the numbers tested are small even a negative result may not be
valid.
33 a i A vector is the transport mechanism used in a genetic engineering process for incorporating a new gene into the
genome of an organism.
ii Viruses naturally incorporate their DNA into the chromosomes of other organisms, so they are very useful for
incorporating new genes into cells once their disease-causing properties have been removed.
b An oncogene is a gene mutated in such a way that normal apoptotic signals (to cause cell death of mutant cells)
are ignored. The cell then divides in an uncontrolled manner, leading to the formation of tumours.
c The most important issue with treating infants rather than adults is informed consent. An adult can agree to be
the subject of an experiment, but an infant cannot. Parents can give consent for their children but not to the same
degree that an adult can for themselves. Most children receiving experimental treatments will be those with no
other suitable options and for whom death is very likely within a short period of time.
d The initial trials showed some promising results but were far from perfect. They also raised ethical issues. On
the other hand, these male infants were almost certain to die without treatment. Continued improvements in the
genetic engineering processes make it worthwhile to continue further clinical trials for what is otherwise a lethal
disease. Another consideration is if the treated boys survive long enough to have children then the incidence of the
mutated gene, IL2RG, in the population could increase and also be inherited by girls.
34 a Example of an appropriate flow chart: sound vibration is produced (e.g. by musical instrument) → vibrating air
enters ear canal → eardrum is vibrated at same frequency → vibration is transmitted into ossicles → vibration
passes across oval window into cochlear fluid → fluid pressure waves move mechanoreceptor hair cells on organ of
Corti → neurons activated to send message via auditory nerve to brain → brain interprets sound.
Key: red = air vibration green = solid vibration blue = fluid vibration orange = electrochemical
transmission
b Damage to the Corti organ, inside the cochlea, would result in diminished hearing because this is where hair
receptor cells detect the incoming vibrations and generate a nerve impulse sending the information to the brain.
If the hair cells are damaged, the vibrations will not be fully received and transmitted to the brain, so the person
will not hear (be aware of) the sound. The hair cells nearest the oval window detect the higher-pitched sound
frequencies (20 000-2000 Hz), so these are the sounds that will not be heard.
c Students should include comparative evaluations of the devices for all three criteria. A table is a useful format, such
as the example answer below.
device
hearing aid cochlear implant
function amplify sound vibrations entering the ear stimulate any functional neural fibres in the inner ear
value overcome sensorineural mid- to moderate-hearing loss overcome sensori-neural deafness in the profoundly deaf
limitation limited amplification ability, ineffective in severe neural requires surgical implantation and some rehabilitation,
loss/inner ear damage, worn in or behind ear—may be only useful for profoundly deaf people, expensive; depends
difficult to remove or adjust, considered uncomfortable/ on the presence of some auditory nerve functioning and
unsightly some pre-learned neural pathways, does not restore
normal hearing

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 Pearson Biology 12 New South Wales
35 Myopia (short-sightedness) and hyperopia (long-sightedness) are two visual disorders that both cause blurred vision
for different reasons. It is common that people with these disorders are born with them and they are inherited,
although they may not manifest until puberty or later. Being short sighted means that close objects are seen clearly
and distant ones remain out of focus. Being long sighted means that distant objects are seen in clear focus but close
objects, like print on a page held in the hand, cannot be seen clearly. The causes of these two common disorders are
shown in diagram 1.

normal eye

short sight—longer than normal eyeball or

cornea too curved; light rays converge too
soon and focus falls before the retina

Concave lenses correct short sight.

long sight—shorter than normal eyeball or

cornea curve is too flat, lights rays do not
converge enough and focus falls past the
retina Convex lenses correct long sight.

Both myopia and hyperopia can usually be helped by prescribed lenses, either worn as spectacles or as contact
lenses. Myopia requires a concave lens to diverge light rays before they enter the eye. Hyperopia requires a convex
lens to refract light rays together a little before they enter the eye. These technologies are readily available and are
usually quite easily adopted by the user. They do not fix the disorder, but they do enable normal vision when the
lenses are worn. Diagram 2 shows how prescription lenses correct these two vision problems.
Alternatively, laser surgery to reshape the cornea can be a permanent solution to fix these disorders for many
people.

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