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EmSAT BIOLOGY
Summary Notes and Practice Questions

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Curriculum Development Unit
EMSAT BIOLOGY: SUMMARY NOTES & PRACTICE QUESTIONS- ATHS-CDU 1

Table of Contents
Important Notes ........................................................................................................................................... 4
Content Area 1: From Molecules to Living Organisms: Structure and Function ................................ 5
1.1 Distinguish between the four major categories of carbon compounds in terms of
composition, energy values, and primary functions in the body .................................................................. 5
1.2 Relate the properties of water to its roles in living organisms ........................................................ 8
1.3 Explain the role and effect of enzymes and other factors, such as pH and temperature, in the
chemical reactions carried out in living organisms ...................................................................................... 10
1.4 Identify and summarize the major cellular processes of breaking energy-rich molecules to
obtain energy ......................................................................................................................................................... 12
1.5 Demonstrate a good understanding of handling and using the light microscope for
examination purposes, and compare with electron microscope in terms of resolution, magnification,
and use .................................................................................................................................................................... 17
1.6 Explain the role of the cell in different living organisms and describe the cellular processes
to sustain life and maintain homeostasis ........................................................................................................ 19
1.7 Relate the structure of major body systems in multicellular organisms to their specific
functions and their interaction with each other to maintain homeostasis .............................................. 28
Content Area 2: Heredity and Genetic Technology ............................................................................... 34
2.1 Explain the importance of cell growth and division and explain possible outcomes when
errors occur during the cell cycle ...................................................................................................................... 34
2.2 Explain transcription, post-transcriptional modifications, and translation, and relate these
processes to gene expression in prokaryotes and eukaryotes ................................................................... 37
2.3 Use the genetic code rules to read the DNA sequence, and to identify the amino acids in the
polypeptide chain ................................................................................................................................................. 41
2.4 Describe genetic variation and explain how and why it occurs with relation to the
importance of population biodiversity and stability .................................................................................... 42
2.5 Identify the role of genes in determining the phenotype and predict the probable outcomes
of offspring with reference to various modes of inheritance including dominance, codominance, sex-
linked, polygenic, and multiple alleles ............................................................................................................. 49
2.6 Evaluate the importance of genetic engineering in medicine, industry and agriculture and its
impacts providing examples on its use in each field ..................................................................................... 55
Content Area 3: Evolution and Diversity of Life ..................................................................................... 57
3.1 Discuss the early concepts of evolution and investigate different evidence to determine the
evolutionary relationships among different species..................................................................................... 57
3.2 Identify the processes of microevolution and explain the mechanisms by which they function
to influence alleles’ frequencies in populations and lead to macroevolution ......................................... 62
3.3 Describe how living organisms are classified, and categorize them according to specific
structural and functional characteristics ........................................................................................................ 67
3.4 Explain the importance of and the reasons for maintaining biodiversity, and describe the
threats that can lead to extinction including the impact of human activity ............................................. 69

Content Area 4: Ecology: Interdependence, Energy, and Dynamics ................................................... 70
4.1 Distinguish between different ecological concepts (e.g., biomes, ecosystem, communities,
habitats, and niches) and give examples of interactions among different organisms ........................... 70
4.2 Interpret food chains and food webs in terms of interaction of organisms through different
trophic levels and flow of energy, and analyze the effects of biotic and abiotic factors on ecosystems
dynamics................................................................................................................................................................. 72
4.3 Discuss the impact of human activities on the environment and explain the effect of density
dependent factors and density independent factors on carrying capacity and changing ecosystems
dynamics................................................................................................................................................................. 76
4.4 Explain the importance of individual contributions to sustainable management of resources
on Earth................................................................................................................................................................... 78
Practice Questions...................................................................................................................................... 79
Answer Key of Practice Questions ......................................................................................................... 124
References ................................................................................................................................................. 127
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Important Notes
▪ This document was created for educational purposes. The document is not meant for
publication, mass printing, or reproduction. It is made to support G12 students at the Applied
Technology High School in preparation for EmSAT Biology Exam.
▪ The summary notes in this document are meant to be a guide and not to replace any study
material/ text books. It is highly recommended that students refer to the available detailed
biological resources.
▪ Some specific details that are part of the required material of the EmSAT exam might not be
mentioned in this document.
▪ The document also aims to assist students with practice questions related to content areas.
▪ The information in this document are compiled from different sources. Hopefully this
document can serve as a valuable and helpful resource for both students and teachers.
▪ Some practice questions were collected from the sample tests available in the EmSAT official
website (https://emsat.moe.gov.ae/emsat/EmSAT_AchieveSample_en.aspx).
▪ By sharing this document, ATHS-CDU does not claim copyright or ownership of this document.
▪ This is version 1.0 of the document and it can be updated based on feedback and suggestions
from schools. Please contact the biology supervisor curriculum specialist [at this link] for any
suggestions or corrections.

Content Area 1: From Molecules to Living Organisms: Structure and Function
1.1 Distinguish between the four major categories of carbon compounds in terms of
composition, energy values, and primary functions in the body
- Macromolecules are large molecules that are formed by joining smaller organic molecules together.
- These large molecules are also called polymers.
- Polymers are molecules made from repeating units of identical or nearly identical compounds
called monomers that are linked together by a series of covalent bonds.
- Biological macromolecules are organized into four major categories: carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, and nucleic acids.
Building Blocks
Macromolecules Subgroups Examples Functions
(Monomers)
Monosaccharides: Glucose, fructose,
Energy
simple sugars galactose
Disaccharides:
Sucrose Energy
double sugars
Carbohydrates Monosaccharides Starch-plants
Store Energy (4 cal./g)
Polysaccharides: Glycogen- animals
many sugars Cellulose-plants
Structural support
Chitin-insects
Saturated (all
Solid (Butter)
single bonds)
Monounsaturated High calorie foods/Energy
Soft margarine
(one double bond) storage
Polyunsaturated (9 cal./g)
(two or more Liquid (Olive oil)
double bonds)
Fatty acids and
Lipids Phospholipids
glycerol
(Phosphate Cell membrane Protect cell
replaces a FA)
Cholesterol
Steroids (4 fused Part of the cell membrane/
Testosterone
rings Chemical messengers
Progesterone
Waxes (–OH Beeswax
Repel water (leaves)
replaces a FA) (paraffin)
Storage/Signal/
Dipeptide (2 Enzymes
Structural/Contractile
amino acids) Muscles
Proteins Amino acids /Defensive/Enzyme/
Polypeptide Skin
Transport/Receptor/Energy
(many AA) Some hormones
(4 cal./g)
DNA DNA Store and transmit genetic
Nucleic Acids Nucleotides
RNA RNAs information

- The following test can be done of several biological macromolecules:
Chemical Test for Resulted color

Iodine Starch Blue black
Benedict’s solution Reducing sugar Brick red
Biuret’s solution Protein Purple
Ethanol Lipid Cloudy

1.2 Relate the properties of water to its roles in living organisms
- Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen. One atom of oxygen combines with two atoms of
hydrogen by sharing electrons (covalent bonding).
- The oxygen atom attracts the electrons more strongly than the hydrogen atoms, resulting in a weak
negatively charged region on the oxygen atom (δ-) and a weak positively charged region on the
hydrogen atoms(δ+). This means that water is a polar molecule
- As a result of the polarity of water, hydrogen bonds form between the positive and negatively
charged regions of adjacent water molecules.
- Hydrogen bonds are weak, when there are few, so they are constantly breaking and reforming.
However, when there are large numbers present, they form a strong structure.
- Hydrogen bonds contribute to the many properties water molecules have that make them so
important to living organisms:
o An excellent solvent – many substances can dissolve in water
o A relatively high specific heat capacity
o A relatively high latent heat of vaporisation
o Water is less dense when a solid
o Water has high surface tension and cohesion
- As water is a polar molecule, many ions (e.g., sodium chloride) and covalently bonded polar
substances (e.g., glucose) will dissolve in it. This allows chemical reactions to occur within cells (as
the dissolved solutes are more chemically reactive when they are free to move about).
Metabolites can be transported efficiently (except non-polar molecules which are hydrophobic)
- Water has a high specific heat capacity of 4200 J / Kg oC meaning a relatively large amount of energy
is required to raise its temperature.
- The high specific heat capacity is due to the many hydrogen bonds present in water. It takes a lot of
thermal energy to break these bonds and a lot of energy to build them, thus the temperature of
water does not fluctuate greatly.
- The advantage for living organisms is that it:
o Provides suitable habitats
o Is able to maintain a constant temperature as water is able to absorb a lot of heat without
big temperature fluctuations. This is vital in maintaining temperatures that are optimal
for enzyme activity.
o Water in blood plasma is also vital in transferring heat around the body, helping to
maintain a fairly constant temperature.
• As blood passes through more active (‘warmer’) regions of the body, heat energy is
absorbed but the temperature remains fairly constant.
• Water in tissue fluid also plays an important regulatory role in maintaining a constant
body temperature

- To change state (from liquid to gas) a large amount of thermal energy must be absorbed by water
to break the hydrogen bonds and evaporate.
- This is an advantage for living organisms as only a little water is required to evaporate for the
organism to lose a great amount of heat.
- This provides a cooling effect for living organisms, for example the transpiration from leaves or
evaporation of water in sweat on the skin.
- Hydrogen bonds between water molecules allows for strong cohesion between water molecules
o This allows columns of water to move through the xylem of plants and through blood vessels
in animals.
o This also enables surface tension where a body of water meets the air, these hydrogen bonds
occur between the top layer of water molecules to create a sort of film on the body of water
(this is what allows insects such as pond skaters to float)
- Water is also able to hydrogen bond to other molecules, such as cellulose, which is known
as adhesion. This also enables water to move up the xylem due to transpiration [Source].

1.3 Explain the role and effect of enzymes and other factors, such as pH and temperature, in the
chemical reactions carried out in living organisms
- All reactions occurring in living organisms require high activation energy to take place. To reduce
the cell’s consumption of energy, there should be a catalyst to ensure that the chemical reaction
occurs rapidly throughout reducing the activation energy. These catalyst are enzymes [Source].
- Enzymes are biological catalysts made up of large protein molecules. They speed up the chemical
reactions inside the cell. The enzyme is made up of a combination of amino acids forming a chain or
polypeptide between each other.
- Enzymes are similar to the other chemical catalysts. They participate in the reaction without getting
affected. In other words, they speed up the chemical reactions inside the cells without getting
consumed.
- Enzymes are much more specific than other catalysts. Each enzyme is specialized for one reactant
substance. This reactant substance is called substrate, and it is specialized for one type of reaction
or for a few reactions [Source].
- The induced-fit model states that the shape of active sites is not exactly complementary
but change shape in the presence of a specific substrate to become complementary.
- When a substrate molecule collides with an enzyme, if its composition is specifically correct,
the shape of the enzyme’s active site will change so that the substrate fits into it and an enzyme-
substrate complex can form. The reaction is then catalyzed and an enzyme-product complex forms
[Source].
- There are several factors that affect the speed of enzymes, such as the concentration of the enzyme,
the concentration of the substrate, temperature, hydrogen ion concentration (pH), and the presence
of inhibitors [Source].
- The protein nature of the enzymes makes them extremely sensitive to thermal changes. Enzyme
activity is determined by a narrow range of temperatures compared to ordinary chemical reactions.
- Each enzyme has a certain temperature at which it is more active. This point is called the ‘optimal
temperature’, which ranges between 37 to 40°C.
- The enzyme activity gradually lowers as the temperature rises more than the optimal temperature
until it reaches a certain temperature at which the enzyme activity stops completely due to the
change of its natural composition.
- On the other hand, if the temperature lowers below the optimal temperature, the enzyme activity
also lowers until the enzyme reaches a minimum temperature at which the enzyme activity is the
least. The enzyme activity stops completely at 0°C, but if the temperature rises, the enzyme gets
reactivated once more.
- Potential of hydrogen (pH) is the best measurement for determining the concentration of hydrogen
ion H+ in the solution. It also determines whether the liquid is acidic, basic, or neutral. Generally, all
liquids with a pH below 7 are called acids, whereas the liquids with a pH above 7 are called bases
or alkaline. Liquids with pH 7 are neutral and equal the acidity of pure water at 25°C. You can
determine the pH of any solution using the pH indicator scale.

- Enzymes are protein substances. They contain acidic carboxylic groups (COOH), and basic amino
groups (NH2). Enzymes are affected by the changing of pH value.
- Each enzyme has a pH value at which it works with maximum efficiency called the optimal pH. If
the pH is lower or higher than the optimal pH, the enzyme activity decreases until it stops working.
For example, pepsin works at a low pH, i.e., it is highly acidic, while trypsin works at a high pH. i.e.,
it is basic. Most enzymes work at neutral pH 7.4 [Source].
Induced fit Model

1.4 Identify and summarize the major cellular processes of breaking energy-rich molecules to
obtain energy
- Cellular respiration is the process by which food is broken down by the body's cells to produce
energy in the form of ATP molecules.
- Cellular Respiration Overview:
o Cellular respiration is carried out by every cell in both plants and animals and is essential for
daily living.
o It does not occur at any set time or at the same point in time. In fact, neighboring cells are
simultaneously involved in different stages of cellular respiration.
o Cellular respiration is an exergonic reaction, which means it produces energy. It is also a
catabolic process - it breaks down polymers into smaller, more manageable pieces.
o The ultimate goal of cellular respiration is to take carbohydrates like starch, disassemble
them into glucose molecules, and then use this glucose to produce energy-rich ATP
molecules.
o The general equation for cellular respiration is:
C6H12O6+6O2 → 6CO2 +6H2O+36/38ATP
- There are three main stages of cellular respiration:
o Glycolysis
o Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)
o Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
- Glycolysis means "splitting sugars."

o It involves the breaking down of glucose molecules from carbohydrates into molecules of
pyruvate (pyruvic acid), which will continue on to the Krebs Cycle.
o Glucose, a six carbon sugar, is split into two molecules of three carbon sugars.
o In the process, two molecules of ATP and two "high energy" electron carrying molecules are
produced (NADH).
o Glycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration.
o Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol of the cell and can proceed regardless of the presence of
oxygen.
- The Krebs Cycle:

o Occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria.
o Krebs cycle begins after pyruvate is converted to a slightly different compound called acetyl
CoA.
o Through a series of steps, several compounds capable of storing "high energy" electrons are
produced (NADH and FADH2)along with two ATP molecules.
o The Krebs cycle occurs only when oxygen is present but it doesn't use oxygen directly.
o Krebs cycle is an aerobic process, meaning it needs oxygen to function.
o Krebs cycle is the beginning of aerobic respiration.

o So far, very little energy has been produced during Glycolysis and the Krebs cycle.
- The Electron Transport Chain (ETC):

o The electron transport chain is a series of electron carriers in the inner membrane of the
mitochondria.
o Through a series of reactions, "high energy" electrons are passed to oxygen. In the process,
a gradient is formed, and ultimately ATP is produced.
o Therefore, the electron transport chain merely creates a gradient through which ATP can be
made (this is known as chemiosmosis).
o The electron transport chain produces up to 32 ATP.
o Electron Transport requires oxygen directly (aerobic respiration) [Source].

- Fermentation (Anaerobic Respiration)
o An alternative to the Krebs cycle and the ETC.
o Occurs in the cytosol
o For organisms living in anaerobic conditions, complete cellular respiration is not possible.
o For these organisms, glycolysis is the first and last step of the cellular respiration process.
o Glycolysis proceeds normally, as in aerobic conditions, producing a net gain of 2 ATP and 2
pyruvate molecules.
o When oxygen is not available, fermentation takes over.
o In fermentation pyruvate molecules are turned into“waste” products, either ethanol or lactic
acid is produced.
- Lactic acid fermentation:
o Done by some fungi, some bacteria like the Lactobacillus acidophilus in yogurt, and
sometimes by our muscles.
o Normally our muscles do cellular respiration like the rest of our body, using O 2 supplied by
our lungs and blood.
o However, under great exertion when the oxygen supplied by the lungs and blood system
cannot get there fast enough to keep up with the muscles’ needs, our muscles can switch over
and do lactic acid fermentation.
o In the process of lactic acid fermentation, the 3-carbon pyruvic acid molecules are turned
into lactic acid.
o It is the presence of lactic acid in yogurt that gives it its sour taste, and it is the presence of
lactic acid in our muscles “the morning after” that makes them so sore.
o Once our muscles form lactic acid, they can’t do anything else with it, so until it is gradually
washed away by the blood stream and carried to the liver (which is able to get rid of it), our
over-exerted muscles feel stiff and sore even if they haven’t been physically injured.
- Alcoholic fermentation:
o Done by yeast and some kinds of bacteria.
o The “waste” products of this process are ethanol (ethyl alcohol) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
o Humans have long taken advantage of this process in making bread, beer, and wine.
o In bread making, it is the CO2 which forms and is trapped between the gluten (a long protein
in wheat) molecules that causes the bread to rise [Source].

Lactic Acid Fermentation
Alcoholic Fermentation

- Photosynthesis overview:
o Photosynthesis occurs in two stages: the light-dependent stage, which takes place in
the thylakoids, and the light-independent stage, which takes place in the stroma.
o During the light-dependent stage of photosynthesis:
• Reduced NADP is produced when hydrogen ions combine with the carrier molecule
NADP using electrons from the photolysis of water.
• ATP is produced (from ADP and Pi by ATP synthase in a process
called photophosphorylation (ADP + Pi → ATP)
• Photophosphorylation uses the proton (H+) gradient generated by the photolysis of
water
• Energy from ATP and hydrogen from reduced NADP are passed from the light-
dependent stage to the light-independent stage of photosynthesis
o The energy and hydrogen are used during the light-independent reactions (known
collectively as the Calvin cycle) to produce complex organic molecules, including (but not
limited to) carbohydrates, such as:
• Starch (for storage)
• Sucrose (for translocation around the plant)
• Cellulose (for making cell walls) [Source]

1.5 Demonstrate a good understanding of handling and using the light microscope for
examination purposes, and compare with electron microscope in terms of resolution,
magnification, and use
- A light microscope is an optical instrument used to view objects too small to be seen with the
naked eye. It is so-called because it employs the use of white or visible light to illuminate the object
of interest so it can be magnified and viewed through one or a series of lenses.
- Parts and functions of the light microscope:

• Base - the flat structure of the microscope that serves as its foundation and have the light
source
• Arm/carrying handle - connects the base of the microscope to the nosepiece and eyepiece;
used to carry the microscope around
• Stage - the flat platform where the slide is put in place for viewing; can be adjusted via the
coarse and fine adjustment knobs
• Light – provides the light source
• Iris/Diaphragm/condenser lever - an adjustable apparatus located below the stage which
can be manually modified to vary the intensity of light that reaches the specimen
• Body Tube - connects the eyepiece to the objective lenses
• Condenser Lens - collects the light from the illuminator and focuses it on the specimen
• Eyepiece Lens/Ocular - lenses that the viewer looks through
• Eyepiece Adjustment Knobs - used to bring the specimen into focus
• Stage clips - used to keep the slide in place
• Course adjustment - A rapid control which allows for quick focusing by moving the objective
lens or stage up and down. It is used for initial focusing
• Fine adjustment - A slow but precise control used to fine focus the image when viewing at the
higher magnifications [Source].
- Comparison between the light microscope and the electron microscope
Characteristic Light Microscope Electron Microscope
Magnification Up to 2000X Up to 2,000,000X
Resolution 200nm 0.5nm
Image produced by Visible light Electron beam
Lenses Glass Electromagnetic
Specimen Live or dead Always dead
Required stain Not always Always

1.6 Explain the role of the cell in different living organisms and describe the cellular processes
to sustain life and maintain homeostasis
- The cell theory includes three main ideas:

o All living organisms are made up of one or more cells
o Cells are the basic functional unit (i.e. the basic unit of structure and organisation) in living
organisms
o New cells are produced from pre-existing cells [Source]
- Two basic cell types:

o Eukaryotic cells are defined as cells with a nucleus and other organelles that are bound by
membranes. The nucleus is a central organelle that contains the cell’s genetic material in
the form of DNA. Multicellular organisms made up of eukaryotic cells are called eukaryotes.
Some unicellular organisms, such as some yeast, also are eukaryotes.
o Prokaryotic cells are simpler than eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells are defined as cells
without a nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles. Most unicellular organisms, such
as bacteria, are prokaryotic cells. Thus, they are called prokaryotes [Source: MGH Inspire
Biology 2021].
- Eukaryotic cell structure:
Animal Cell

Plant Cell

Structure Function Cell Type
Acts as a barrier, protects and supports the Plant, fungi, some
Cell wall
cell prokaryotes
Organelles that occur in pairs and are
Centrioles Animal and some protists
important in cell division
Holds chlorophyll and where photosynthesis
Chloroplast Plant and some protists
takes place
Projections from cell surfaces that aid in
Some animal cells, protists,
Cilia locomotion and feeding; also used to sweep
and prokaryotes
substances along surfaces
Helps the cell keep its shape and aids in
Cytoskeleton organelle movement around the cell. Similar Eukaryotes
to our skeletal system
Smooth ER makes hormones and controls
Endoplasmic
calcium release. Rough ER is covered in Eukaryotes
reticulum
ribosomes and makes proteins.
Some animal cells,
Projections that aid in locomotion and
Flagella prokaryotes, and some
feeding
plant cells
Packages substances for transport inside or
Golgi apparatus out of the cell. Acts like a mail delivery Eukaryotes
system
Contains digestive enzymes that dissolve
Lysosome cellular waste. Acts like a garbage disposal Animal (rare in plant)
system
Where cellular respiration takes place.
Mitochondria Eukaryotes
Releases energy from glucose for the cell
Nucleus Runs all of the functions inside the cell Eukaryotes
Acts as a barrier to protect the cell and a
Plasma membrane “doorway” letting substances in or out of the All
cell
Ribosomes use RNA as instructions to make
Ribosome All
protein
Used to store water, food, or waste. In plant
Vacuole Eukaryotes
cells, they help keep the plant from wilting

- Prokaryotic cell structure:
o many prokaryotic cells have a few other structures that differentiate the species from others
and act as a selective advantage, examples of these are:
Plasmids
Capsules
Flagellum
o Plasmids are small loops of DNA that are separate from the main circular DNA molecule.
Plasmids contain genes that can be passed between prokaryotes (e.g. genes for antibiotic
resistance).
o Some prokaryotes (e.g. bacteria) are surrounded by a final outer layer known as a capsule.
This is sometimes called the slime capsule. It helps to protect bacteria from drying out and
from attack by cells of the immune system of the host organism.
o Flagellum (plural = flagella) are long, tail-like structure that rotate, enabling the prokaryote
to move (a bit like a propeller). Some prokaryotes have more than one [Source].
- Cell membrane:
o Membranes are vital structures found in all cells.
o The cell surface membrane creates an enclosed space separating the internal cell
environment from the external environment, and intracellular membranes form
compartments within the cell such as the nucleus, mitochondria and RER
o Membranes do not only separate different areas but also control the exchange of material
across them, as well as acting as an interface for communication. Membranes
are semipermeable. Substances can cross membranes by diffusion, osmosis and active
transport.

o Cellular membranes are formed from a bilayer of phospholipids which is roughly 7nm wide
and therefore just visible under an electron microscope at very high magnifications
o The fluid mosaic model of the membrane explains how biological molecules are arranged
to form cell membranes. The fluid mosaic model also helps to explain:
• Passive and active movement between cells and their surroundings
• Cell-to-cell interactions
• Cell signalling
[Source]

- Cell Transport:
o Passive Transport
• Cell uses no energy and molecules move randomly.
• Molecules spread out from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
• Diffusion: a random movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an
area of low concentration.
• Diffusion continues until all molecules are evenly spaced (equilibrium is reached)-Note:
molecules will still move around but stay spread out.
• Facilitated diffusion: diffusion of specific particles through carrier proteins found in
the membrane.
• Carrier proteins are select specific; they only certain molecules to cross the membrane.
• Transports larger or charged molecules.
• Includes ion channels, which transport ions from high concentration to low
concentration. Transport ions such as sodium (Na+) potassium(K+), calcium(Ca2+), and
chloride(Cl-).
• Because ions are not soluble in Lipids, they cannot diffuse across the bilayer.
• Ion channels will open and close in order to allow specific molecules to cross the
membrane.

• Osmosis: diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane. Water moves
from high to low concentrations [Source].
• Effect of osmosis on cells:
▪ In an isotonic solution, water molecules move into and out of the cell at the same
rate, and cells retain their normal shape solution.
▪ In a hypotonic solution, water enters a cell by osmosis, causing the cell to swell.
Animal cells may continue to swell until they burst. Plant cells swell beyond their
normal size as internal pressure increases.
▪ In a hypertonic solution, water leaves a cell by osmosis, causing the cell to
shrink. Animal cells shrivel up as they lose water. As plant cells lose internal
pressure, the plasma membrane shrinks away from the cell wall [Source: MGH
Inspire Biology 2021].

o Active Transport
• Cell uses energy actively moves molecules to where they are needed.
• Movement from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration.
• Protein Pumps: transport proteins that require energy to do work. Example: Sodium-
potassium pumps are important in nerve responses.
• Endocytosis: taking bulky material into a cell Uses energy Cell membrane in-folds
around food particle “cell eating” forms food vacuole & digests food.This is how white
blood cells eat bacteria!
• Exocytosis: Forces material out of cell in bulk. membrane surrounding the material
fuses with cell membrane. Cell changes shape – requires energy. Example: Hormones or
wastes released from cell [Source].

1.7 Relate the structure of major body systems in multicellular organisms to their specific
functions and their interaction with each other to maintain homeostasis
- Levels of organization in the human body:
Cell → Tissue → Organ → Organ System
- Types of tissues in the human body:
Type Function Location

Body surfaces, internal
Epithelial Protection, secretion, absorption, excretion
cavities, glands
Bones, cartilage, blood,
Connective Support, bind, store fat, produce blood cells
under skin
Attached to bones, heart,
Muscular Movement
walls of internal organs
Coordination, regulation, integration,
Nervous Brain, spinal cord, nerves
sensory reception
- Human body systems: A summary table can be viewed in this website.
Special Topics
- How neurons generate and transmit impulses?

o Neurones transmit electrical impulses, which travel extremely quickly along the
neurone cell surface membrane from one end of the neurone to the other.
o Unlike a normal electric current, these impulses are not a flow of electrons.
o These impulses, known as action potentials, occur via very brief changes in the
distribution of electrical charge across the cell surface membrane.
o Action potentials are caused by the rapid movement of sodium ions and potassium
ions across the membrane of the axon.
o Resting potential:
• In a resting axon (one that is not transmitting impulses), the inside of the axon always
has a slightly negative electrical potential compared to outside the axon.
• This potential difference is usually about -70mV (ie. the inside of the axon has an
electrical potential about 70mV lower than the outside)
• This is called the resting potential.
o Action potentials
• There are channel proteins in the axon membrane that allow sodium ions orpotassium
ions to pass through.

• When an action potential is stimulated (eg. by a receptor cell) in a neurone, the following
steps occur:
1- Sodium ion channels in the axon membrane open.
2- Sodium ions pass into the axon down the electrochemical gradient (there is a
greater concentration of sodium ions outside the axon than inside.
3- The inside of the axon is negatively charged, attracting the positively charged
sodium ions). This reduces the potential difference across the axon membrane as
the inside of the axon becomes less negative – a process known
as depolarisation.
4- Depolarisation triggers more channels to open, allowing more sodium ions to
enter and causing more depolarisation. This is an example of positive feedback (a
small initial depolarisation leads to greater and greater levels of depolarisation).
5- If the potential difference reaches around -50mV (known as the threshold
potential), many more channels open and many more sodium ions enter causing
the inside of the axon to reach a potential of around +30mV.
6- An action potential is generated.
7- The depolarisation of the membrane at the site of the first action potential
causes sodium ions to diffuse to along the axon, depolarising the membrane in
the next section of the axon and causing sodium ion voltage-gated channel
proteins to open there.
8- This is known as conduction and is sped up by the presence of Schwann cells.
9- This triggers the production of another action potential in this section of the axon
membrane and the process continues.
10- In the body, this allows action potentials to begin at one end of an axon and then
pass along the entire length of the axon membrane [Source].

- Synaptic Transmission:

- Plant Transport System:
o Plants need transport systems to meet their metabolic demands (glucose, hormones,
mineral ions are required for various processes within plants), to efficiently move
substances up and down and to compensate for their relatively small surface area-to-volume
ratio (generally plants cannot rely on diffusion alone).
o Plants have a vascular system which involves a network of vessels (vascular tissue) running
through the leaves, stem and roots. These three parts are the main organs involved in
transport.
o The vascular system is comprised of two distinct types:
• Xylem (transports water and mineral ions from the roots to the rest of the plant).
• Phloem (transports substances from the source (eg. leaf) to the sink (eg.root)).
o The xylem and phloem are arranged together in vascular bundles.
o The bundles are laid out differently in the leaves, stem and roots [Source].
- Pressure (hydrostatic) flow gradient:
o Phloem sap (containing sucrose and other organic solutes) moves by mass flow up and down
the plant.
o Carbohydrates are generally transported in plants in the form of sucrose because:
• It allows for efficient energy transfer and increased energy storage (sucrose is a
disaccharide and therefore contains more energy).
• It is less reactive than glucose as it is a non-reducing sugar and therefore no
intermediate reactions occur as it is being transported.
o The advantage of mass flow is that it moves the organic solutes faster than diffusion.
o In xylem tissue the pressure difference that causes mass flow occurs because of a water
potential gradient between the soil and leaf (this requires no energy input by the plant).
o However in phloem tissue energy is required to create pressure differences for the mass
flow of the organic solutes.
o The pressure difference is generated by actively loading sucrose into the sieve elements at
the source (usually a photosynthesising leaf or storage organ) which lowers the water
potential in the sap.
o This results in water moving into the sieve elements as it travels down the water potential
gradient by osmosis.
o The presence of water within the sieve elements increases the hydrostatic or
turgor pressure at the source and as solutes (eg. sucrose) are removed / unloaded from the
sieve elements causing water to follow by osmosis at the sink (creating a low hydrostatic
pressure), a hydrostatic pressure gradient occurs.
o The pressure difference between the source and the sink results in the mass flow of water
(containing the dissolved organic solutes) from the high hydrostatic pressure area to the low
hydrostatic pressure area.
o The mass flow of organic solutes within the phloem tissue occurs above and below the
sources (which is typically photosynthesising leaves). Therefore sap flows upwards and
downwards within a plant [Source].
- Viruses:
o Viruses are non-cellular infectious particles that straddle the boundary between living and
non-living.
o They are relatively simple in structure; much smaller than prokaryotic cells (with diameters
between 20 and 300 nm).
o Structurally they have:
• A nucleic acid core (their genomes are either DNA or RNA, and can be single or double-
stranded).
• A protein coat called a capsid.
o Viruses reproduce through two cycles:
o The lytic cycle involves the reproduction of viruses using a host cell to manufacture more
viruses; the viruses then burst out of the cell.
o The lysogenic cycle involves the incorporation of the viral genome into the host cell genome,
infecting it from within [Source].

o When retroviruses enter a host cell, reverse transcriptase converts the retroviral RNA
genome into double-stranded DNA. This viral DNA then migrates to the nucleus and becomes
integrated into the host genome. Viral genes are transcribed and translated.

Content Area 2: Heredity and Genetic Technology
2.1 Explain the importance of cell growth and division and explain possible outcomes when
errors occur during the cell cycle
- Cell division is a key to growth, repair, and reproduction of organisms.

- As a cell grows larger, its volume grows more rapidly than its surface area.
- Cell division is triggered when cells become too large to import nutrients/export wastes efficiently.
- Once the cells have spread so that two cells contact each other, they signal to each other to stop
dividing through a process called inhibition.
- The cell cycle includes the growth, replication, and division of a eukaryotic cell.
- Two main phases: Interphase and M phase

- Most of a cell’s life is spent in interphase.
- The first phase is Interphase:
- G1: growth phase, preparation for DNA synthesis.
- S: synthesis phase, DNA replication commences and proceeds until all the chromosomes have been
replicated.
- G2: growth preparation for mitosis, G2 checkpoint that will stop process if not ready for mitosis.
- The second phase is M phase – includes mitosis and cytokinesis.
- Mitosis - the nucleus of a cell divides into two daughter nuclei that each contain the same number
of chromosomes as the parent nucleus.

- Cytokinesis - the two nuclei are separated into two identical daughter cells.
- During this stage of cell division, the cytoplasm divides.
- In cells that lack a cell wall, the cell pinches in two through the formation of the cleavage furrow.
In cells that have a cell wall, a cell plate forms between the two new cells.
- The result is two identical daughter cells that are also identical to the parent cell [Source].
- Many factors affect the cell cycle. These factors control the process of cell division.
- When cell division is not controlled, cancer is the end product.
- Cancer is just uncontrolled cell growth.
- Cells usually grow and divide until they come in contact with another cell and then stop.
- If the division doesn’t stop, tumors are formed.
- Tumors are big piles of rapidly dividing cells [Source].

2.2 Explain transcription, post-transcriptional modifications, and translation, and relate these
processes to gene expression in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
- A gene is a sequence of nucleotide bases in a DNA molecule that codes to produce a specific
sequence of amino acids, that in turn make up a specific polypeptide (protein).
- This process of protein synthesis occurs in two stages:
o Transcription – DNA is transcribed and an mRNA molecule is produced.
o Translation – mRNA (messenger RNA) is translated and an amino acid sequence is
produced.
- Transcription:
o This stage of protein synthesis occurs in the nucleus of the eukaryotic cell.
o Part of a DNA molecule unwinds (the hydrogen bonds between the complementary base
pairs break).
o This exposes the gene to be transcribed (the gene from which a particular polypeptide will
be produced).
o A complimentary copy of the code from the gene is made by building a single-stranded
nucleic acid molecule known as mRNA (messenger RNA).
o Free activated RNA nucleotides pair up (via hydrogen bonds) with their complementary
(now exposed) bases on one strand (the template strand) of the ‘unzipped’ DNA molecule.
o The sugar-phosphate groups of these RNA nucleotides are then bonded together by the
enzyme RNA polymerase to form the sugar-phosphate backbone of the mRNA molecule.
o When the gene has been transcribed (when the mRNA molecule is complete), the hydrogen
bonds between the mRNA and DNA strands break and the double-stranded DNA molecule
re-forms.

Transcription
- Post transcriptional modifications:
o The genome within eukaryotic cells contains many non-coding sections.
o Non-coding DNA can be found: Between genes, as non-coding multiple repeats, or within
genes, as introns.
o During transcription, eukaryotic cells transcribe the whole gene (all introns and exons) to
producepre-mRNA molecules.
o pre-mRNA contains the introns and exons of a certain gene
o Before the pre-mRNA exits the nucleus, splicing occurs:
• The non-coding sections are removed.
• The coding sections are joined together.
• The resulting mRNA molecule carries only the coding sequences (exons) of the gene
• mRNA contains only exons and exits the nucleus before joining a ribosome for
translation

RNA Splicing
o Alternative splicing:
• The exons (coding regions) of genes can be spliced in many different ways to
produce different mature mRNA molecules through alternative splicing.
• This means that a single eukaryotic gene can code for more than one polypeptide chain
• This is part of the reason why the proteome is much bigger than the genome.

- Translation:
o This stage of protein synthesis occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell.
o After leaving the nucleus, the mRNA molecule attaches to a ribosome.
o In the cytoplasm, there are free molecules of tRNA (transfer RNA).
o These tRNA molecules have a triplet of unpaired bases at one end (known as the anticodon)
and a region where a specific amino acid can attach at the other.
o There are at least 20 different tRNA molecules, each with a specific anticodon and specific
amino acid binding site.
o The tRNA molecules bind with their specific amino acids (also in the cytoplasm) and bring
them to the mRNA molecule on the ribosome.
o The triplet of bases (anticodon) on each tRNA molecule pairs with a complementary triplet
(codon) on the mRNA molecule.
o Two tRNA molecules fit onto the ribosome at any one time, bringing the amino acid they are
each carrying side by side.
o A peptide bond is then formed between the two amino acids.
• The formation of a peptide bond between amino acids requires energy, in the form
of ATP.
• The ATP needed for translation is provided by the mitochondria within the cell.
o This process continues until a ‘stop’ codon on the mRNA molecule is reached – this acts as a
signal for translation to stop and at this point the amino acid chain coded for by the mRNA
molecule is complete.
o This amino acid chain then forms the final polypeptide [Source].

2.3 Use the genetic code rules to read the DNA sequence, and to identify the amino acids in the
polypeptide chain
- A triplet is a sequence of three DNA bases that codes for a specific amino acid.
- A codon is a sequence of three mRNA bases that codes for a specific amino acid.
- A codon is transcribed from the triplet and is complementary to it.
- An anticodon is a sequence of three tRNA bases that are complementary to a codon
- When comparing the genetic code to amino acid sequences, mRNA codons are often used
- The four bases found in RNA molecules (adenine, uracil, cytosine, and guanine) have the ability to
form 64 different codons.
- The genetic code is degenerate:
o Multiple mRNA codons can encode the same amino acid.
o This means that a change in the genetic code doesn’t necessarily result in a change in the
amino acid sequence.
- Some send important signals to the transcription machinery.
o The START codon initiates the process of transcription and ensure it starts in the right
location (this is always the amino acid methionine in eukaryotic cells, coded for by the codon
AUG).
- STOP codons cause transcription to terminate and do not code for an amino acid e.g., UAA.
- The genetic code is non-overlapping. Each base is only read once in the codon it is part of [Source].

2.4 Describe genetic variation and explain how and why it occurs with relation to the
importance of population biodiversity and stability
- Sources of genetic variations include mutations, process of meiosis, and fertilization.

- A gene mutation is a change in the sequence of base pairs in a DNA molecule that may result in an
altered polypeptide.
- Mutations occur continuously.
- As the DNA base sequence determines the sequence of amino acids that make up a
protein, mutations in a gene can sometimes lead to a change in the polypeptide that the gene codes
for.
- Most mutations do not alter the polypeptide or only alter it slightly so that its structure or function
is not changed. This is because the genetic code is degenerate.
- There are different ways that a mutation in the DNA base sequence can occur:
- Insertion of nucleotides:
o A mutation that occurs when a nucleotide (with a new base) is randomly inserted into the
DNA sequence is known as an insertion mutation.
o An insertion mutation changes the amino acid that would have been coded for by the original
base triplet, as it creates a new, different triplet of bases.
o Remember – every group of three bases in a DNA sequence codes for an amino acid.
o An insertion mutation also has a knock-on effect by changing the triplets (groups of three
bases)further on in the DNA sequence.
o This is sometimes known as a frameshift mutation.
o This may dramatically change the amino acid sequence produced from this gene and
therefore the ability of the polypeptide to function.
- Deletion of nucleotides:
o A mutation that occurs when a nucleotide (and therefore its base) is randomly deleted from
the DNA sequence.
o Like an insertion mutation, a deletion mutation changes the amino acid that would have been
coded for.
o Like an insertion mutation, a deletion mutation also has a knock-on effect by changing the
groups of three bases further on in the DNA sequence.
o This is sometimes known as a frameshift mutation.
o This may dramatically change the amino acid sequence produced from this gene and
therefore the ability of the polypeptide to function.
- Substitution of nucleotides:
o A mutation that occurs when a base in the DNA sequence is randomly swapped for a different
base.
o Unlike an insertion or deletion mutation, a substitution mutation will only change the amino
acid for the triplet (a group of three bases) in which the mutation occurs; it will not have a
knock-on effect.
o Substitution mutations can take three forms:

• Silent mutations – the mutation does not alter the amino acid sequence of the
polypeptide (this is because certain codons may code for the same amino acid as the
genetic code is degenerate).
• Missense mutations – the mutation alters a single amino acid in the polypeptide
chain (sickle cell anaemia is an example of a disease caused by a single substitution
mutation changing a single amino acid in the sequence).
• Nonsense mutations – the mutation creates a premature stop codon (signal for the
cell to stop translation of the mRNA molecule into an amino acid sequence), causing the
polypeptide chain produced to be incomplete and therefore affecting the final protein
structure and function (cystic fibrosis is an example of a disease caused by a nonsense
mutation, although this is not always the only cause).

- The effect of gene mutations on polypeptides:
o Most mutations do not alter the polypeptide or only alter it slightly so that its appearance or
function is not changed.
o However, a small number of mutations code for a significantly altered polypeptide with a
different shape.
o This may affect the ability of the protein to perform its function. For example:
• If the shape of the active site on an enzyme changes, the substrate may no longer be able
to bind to the active site.
• A structural protein (like collagen) may lose its strength if its shape changes.
- Mutagenic agents:
o There are natural mechanisms that take place within cells to ensure the accuracy of DNA
replication. These mechanisms involve proofreading and repairing damaged DNA.
o When the mutation rate of a cell rises to above a normal (usually low) rate then these
mechanisms have become ineffective.
o Mutagenic agents are environmental factors that increase the mutation rate of cells
o Examples include:
• High-energy radiation such as UV light.
• Ionising radiation such as X rays.
• Toxic chemicals such as peroxide [Source].
- Having genetically different offspring can be advantageous for natural selection.
- Meiosis has several mechanisms that increase the genetic diversity of gametes produced.
- Both crossing over and independent assortment (random orientation) result in different
combinations of alleles in gametes.
- Crossing over is the process by which non-sister chromatids exchange alleles.
o During meiosis I homologous chromosomes pair up and are in very close proximity to each
other.
o The non-sister chromatids can cross over and get entangled.
o These crossing points are called chiasmata.
o The entanglement places stress on the DNA molecules.
o As a result of this a section of chromatid from one chromosome may break and rejoin with
the chromatid from the other chromosome.
o This swapping of alleles is significant as it can result in a new combination of alleles on the
two chromosomes.
o There is usually at least one, if not more, chiasmata present in each bivalent during meiosis
o Crossing over is more likely to occur further down the chromosome away from the
centromere.
- Independent assortment:
o Independent assortment is the production of different combinations of alleles in daughter
cells due to the random alignment of homologous pairs along the equator of the
spindle during metaphase I.
o The different combinations of chromosomes in daughter cells increases genetic variation
between gametes.
o In prophase I homologous chromosomes pair up and in metaphase I they are pulled towards
the equator of the spindle.
• Each pair can be arranged with either chromosome on top, this is completely random.
• The orientation of one homologous pair is independent / unaffected by the orientation
of any other pair.
o The homologous chromosomes are then separated and pulled apart to different poles.
o The combination of alleles that end up in each daughter cell depends on how the pairs of
homologous chromosomes were lined up.
- The different combinations of chromosomes following meiosis:
o The number of possible chromosomal combinations resulting from meiosis is equal to 2n
(n is the number of homologous chromosome pairs).
o For humans: the diploid number for humans is 46 then the haploid number or number of
homologous chromosomes is 23 so the calculation would be 223 = 8 388 608 possible
chromosomal combinations.
o Meiosis creates genetic variation between the gametes produced by an individual through
crossing over and independent assortment.
o This means each gamete carries substantially different alleles.
o During fertilization any male gamete can fuse with any female gamete to form a zygote
o This random fusion of gametes at fertilization creates genetic variation between zygotes as
each will have a unique combination of alleles.
o There is an almost zero chance of individual organisms resulting from successive sexual
reproduction being genetically identical.
- The different combinations of chromosomes following fertilization:
o In random fertilisation, any two gametes may combine
o Therefore the formula to calculate the number of combinations of chromosomes after the
random fertilisation of two gametes is (2n)2
• n is the haploid number and 2 is the number of gametes.
• Therefore in humans, when the haploid number is 23, the number of combinations
following fertilisation is (223)2 = 70368744177664
o This explains why relatives can differ so much from each other. Even with the same parents,
individuals can be genetically distinct due to variation at the meiosis and fertilisation stage
(as well as other possible mutations and crossing-over).
- Organisms of the same species have very similar genomes, but two individuals (even twins) will
have differences between their DNA base sequences.
- Considering the size of genomes, these differences are small between individuals of the same
species.
- The small differences in DNA base sequences between individual organisms within a species
population are called genetic variation.

- Genetic variation is transferred from one generation to the next and it results in genetic diversity
within a species population.
- Genetic diversity is the number of different alleles of genes in a population.
- Mutation results in the generation of new alleles and contributes to genetic diversity or the size of
the gene pool.
o The new allele may be advantageous, disadvantageous or have no apparent effect on
phenotype (due to the fact that the genetic code is degenerate.
o New alleles are not always seen in the individual that they first occur in.
o They can remain hidden (not expressed) within a population for several generations before
they contribute to phenotypic variation [Source].
- Human Genetic disorders:
o Some human genetic disorders are inherited as autosomal recessive.
Disorder Cause Effect

- No color in the skin, eyes, and
Genes do not produce normal hair
Albinism
amounts of the pigment melanin - Skin susceptible to UV damage
- Vision problems
The gene that codes for a membrane - Excessive mucus production
Cystic fibrosis
protein is defective - Digestive and respiratory failure
- Mental disabilities
Absence of the gene that codes for the
Galactosemia - Enlarged liver
enzyme that breaks down galactose
- Kidney failure
- Buildup of fatty deposits in the
Absence of a necessary enzyme that
Tay-Sachs brain
breaks down fatty substances
- Mental disabilities
o Some human genetic disorders are inherited as autosomal dominant.
Disorder Cause Effect

- Decline of mental and
Huntington’s A gene affecting neurological function
neurological functions
disease is defective
- Ability to move deteriorates
A gene that affects bone growth is - Short arms and legs
Achondroplasia
abnormal Large head
o Some human genetic disorders occur due to the process of nondisjunction.

o In nondisjunction, the separation fails to occur causing either sister chromatids or
homologous chromosomes to be pulled to one pole of the cell during the process of meiosis.

o Summary of human genetic disorders due to nondisjunction
Number of
Syndrome Type Description
chromosomes
Extra copy of chromosome number 21
Down syndrome Trisomy 47 45+XY affected male
45+XX affected female
Extra copy of chromosome X
Klinefelter’s syndrome Trisomy 47
44+XXY (male)
Missing X chromosome
Turner’s syndrome Monosomy 45 44+X (female)
(Also known as XO)
- Effects of genetic diversity:

o There needs to be some level of genetic diversity within a population for natural selection to
occur.
o Differences in the alleles possessed by individuals within a population result in differences
in phenotypes.
o Environmental factors affect the chance of survival of an organism; they, therefore, act as
a selection pressure.
o Selection pressures increase the chance of individuals with a specific phenotype surviving
and reproducing over others.
o The individuals with the favoured phenotypes are described as having a higher fitness.
• The fitness of an organism is defined as its ability to survive and pass on its alleles to
offspring.
• Organisms with higher fitness posses adaptations that make them better suited to their
environment.

o A population with a large gene pool or high genetic diversity has a strong ability to adapt to
change.
o If a population has a small gene pool or very low genetic diversity then they are much less
able to adapt to changes in the environment and so can become vulnerable to extinction.
• Cheetahs are an example of a species with a small gene pool.
• They experienced a very large decline in numbers approximately 10,000 years ago.
• This left small, fragmented populations of individuals remaining.
o There was no mixing between populations and large amounts of inbreeding occurred.
o This is problematic for conservation as low genetic variation means the species are less likely
to be able to respond (survive) in the event of any environmental changes [Source].

2.5 Identify the role of genes in determining the phenotype and predict the probable outcomes
of offspring with reference to various modes of inheritance including dominance,
codominance, sex-linked, polygenic, and multiple alleles
- The term "phenotype" refers to the observable physical properties of an organism; these include
the organism's appearance, development, and behavior. An organism's phenotype is determined by
its genotype, which is the set of genes the organism carries, as well as by environmental influences
upon these genes.
- The position of a gene on a chromosome is its locus (plural: loci).
- Each gene can exist in two or more different forms called alleles.
- Different alleles of a gene have slightly different nucleotide sequences but they still occupy the same
position (locus) on the chromosome.
- Genetics: the study of inheritance
- Trait: characteristic that can be passed from parent to child (Ex. Hair color, eye color, etc.
- Mendelian genetics:
o Dominant allele: Form of allele that is expressed (shown) when different alleles are present.
Always represented by a CAPITAL letter (Ex. T- tall plant, P- purple flowers).
o Recessive allele: Not expressed when the dominant allele is present (only when both are
recessive). Always represented by lower case letter that is the SAME as the letter that
represents dominant allele (Ex. t-short plant, p- white flowers).
o Genotype is the genetic make-up of an organism. It includes both genes in a homologous pair.
o of chromosomes. Represented usually in the form of letters. (Ex. Bb (brown eyes), PP (purple
flowers)).
o Phenotype refers to an individual's observable traits, such as height, eye color and blood
type. A person's phenotype is determined by both their genomic makeup (genotype) and
environmental factors.
o Law of Segregation: When individual produces gametes, the copies of a gene separate so
that each gamete receives only one copy.
o Law of Independent Assortment: Alleles of different genes assort independently of one
another during gamete formation.
o Law of Dominance: Some alleles are dominant and some are recessive.

- Non-mendelian genetics:
o Incomplete dominance:
• Pattern of inheritance in which heterozygous offspring show a phenotype between the
phenotypes of the parents (somewhere in the middle).
• Neither allele expressed fully (Ex. Flower color in snapdragons: Red flower + white
flower = pink flower) (Ex. Cow color (Red (brown) bull + white cow = roan (pink) cow).

o Codominance:
• Pattern of inheritance where both alleles in the heterozygous offspring are fully
expressed (Ex. Human blood type).

o Sex-Linked:
• Phenotypic expression of an allele that is dependent on the gender of the individual.
• Carried on either sex chromosome (X or Y).
• Remember: Male = XY, female = XX
• Many more genes carried on the X chromosome, so many more X-linked traits than Y-
linked traits (Ex. Hemophilia, color-blindness).
• If have one healthy X, it dominates over the infected X (in females).
• If have only one infected X, Y can’t dominate over it (in males).

o Polygenic:
• One trait controlled by two or more genes (Ex. Human skin colors, human height).
o Multiple alleles:
• More than two alleles for the same gene (Ex. Three alleles for the human blood type; I A,
IB, i) [Source].
- Model representations used in genetics:

o Punnett square: A table in which all the possible outcomes for a genetic cross between two
individuals with known genotypes are given [Source].

o Pedigrees: A pedigree shows relationships between family members and indicates which
individuals have certain genetic pathogenic variants, traits, and diseases within a family as
well as vital status. A pedigree can be used to determine disease inheritance patterns within
a family [Source].

2.6 Evaluate the importance of genetic engineering in medicine, industry and agriculture and its
impacts providing examples on its use in each field
- Genetic engineering is a technique used to deliberately modify a specific characteristic (or

characteristics) of an organism. The technique involves removing a gene (or genes) with the desired
characteristic from one organism and transferring the gene (using a vector) into another organism
where the desired gene is then expressed.
- The genetically engineered organism will then contain recombinant DNA and will be a genetically
modified organism (GMO).
- In order for an organism to be genetically engineered the following steps must be taken:
o Identification of the desired gene.
o Isolation of the desired gene by cutting from a chromosome using enzymes (restriction
endonucleases), using reverse transcriptase to make a single strand of complementary
DNA (cDNA) from mRNA, and creating the gene artificially using nucleotides.
o Multiplication of the gene (using polymerase chain reaction - PCR).
o Transfer into the organism using a vector (e.g. plasmids, viruses, liposomes).
o Identification of the cells with the new gene (by using a marker), which is then cloned.
- Genetic engineering has applications in medicine, research, industry, and agriculture and can be
used on a wide range of plants, animals, and microorganisms.
- In medicine, genetic engineering has been used to mass-produce insulin, human growth hormones,
human albumin, monoclonal antibodies, antihemophilic factors, vaccines, and many other drugs.
- In research, organisms are genetically engineered to discover the functions of certain genes.
- Industrial applications include transforming microorganisms such as bacteria or yeast, or insect
mammalian cells with a gene coding for a useful protein. Mass quantities of the protein can be
produced by growing the transformed organism in bioreactors using fermentation, then purifying
the protein.
- Genetic engineering is also used in agriculture to create genetically modified crops or genetically
modified organisms [Source].

- Tools used in DNA technology [Source: MHE Inspire Biology 2021]:
Tool Purpose Applications

Restriction In recombinant DNA, DNA typing, DNA
Cuts DNA into fragments
enzymes sequencing
Gel Separates DNA fragments by DNA typing, Diagnosis of genetic
electrophoresis size disorders
Recombinant Combining two DNA fragments Genetically modified organisms,
DNA technology from to different resources Treatment of genetic disorders
Making many copies of a
Gene cloning recombinant DNA molecule Genetically modified organisms
within using bacterial cells
Genomes comparisons, identifying
DNA sequencing Determining the DNA sequence
genes
Polymerase
Forensics, diagnosis of diseases,
Chain Reaction Making copies of DNA in vitro
scientific research
(PCR)

Content Area 3: Evolution and Diversity of Life
3.1 Discuss the early concepts of evolution and investigate different evidence to determine the
evolutionary relationships among different species
- Evolution may be defined as any net directional change or any cumulative change in the
characteristics of organisms or populations over many generations—in other words, descent with
modification. It explicitly includes the origin as well as the spread of alleles, variants, trait values,
or character states.
- Evolution can be explained as the constant change that has taken place.
- The process of change was called natural selection.
- The long-term changes in the species were called evolution.
- Observations upon which Darwin based his theory:
o Organisms of a species produce a large number of offspring.
o The offspring shoe a great deal of variation.
o Of the large number of offspring produced, only a few survive.
o Characteristics are inherited from the surviving parents to the offspring.
- Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection:
o Organisms produce a large number of offspring.
o There is a great deal of variation amongst the offspring.
o Some have favourable characteristics and some do not.
o When there is a change in the environmental conditions or if there is competition, the
organisms with characteristics that make them more suited, will survive, while organisms
with characteristics that make them less suited, will die.
o The organisms that survive, will be able to reproduce, thus they will pass the allele for the
favourable characteristics on to their offspring.
o The next generation will therefore have a higher proportion of individuals with the
favourable characteristics.
o In this way the characteristics of a population gradually change over a long period of time.

o Comparison between natural selection and artificial selection:

- Evidence that Evolution:
o The theory of evolution is based on research and scientific evidence that support the concept
of continual change. Sources like geology, anatomy, embryology, genetics and physiology
have been used as explanations for the theory. Further lines of evidence are fossil records,
modification of descent, Biogeography and genetics.
o Fossil evidence: The evidence that shows characteristics that make us similar to or different
from African apes comes largely from a study of fossils (thousands of fossil fragments). The
first record of living material preserved as a fossil, is from the Palaeozoic era (540 million
years ago).
o Genetic evidence: Scientists state that organisms are closely related and are likely to have
a common ancestor if they have: Identical DNA structure, Similar sequence of genes and,
Similar portions of DNA with no functions. Species that are closely related have a greater
similarity to each other than distant species.

o Modifications by descent: modifications obtained from the study of the details of the
structures of body parts and systems of organisms that belong to a specific phylum.
o Comparative anatomy:
• Homologous structures (also called divergent evolution): similarity of the formation
of a body part or organ due to a common evolutionary origin (same structure, different
function), e.g.: the structure of the forelimb in vertebrates.
• Analogous structures (also called convergent evolution): biological structures

having similar or corresponding functions but not from the same evolutionary origin. In
other words, species use these biological structures for the same purpose and yet these
species are from unrelated evolutionary lines.
• Vestigeal structures: Structures that have no apparent function and appear to be

residual parts from a past ancestorare called vestigial structures. Examples of vestigial
structures include the human appendix, the pelvic bone of a snake, and the wings of
flightless birds.

o Biogeography: Biogeography is the study of the distributions of organisms in space and
time. It can be studied with a focus on ecological factors that shape the distribution of
organisms, or with a focus on the historical factors that have shaped the current
distributions.
- Formation of new species:

o Speciation results because if a population of a single species becomes separated by a
geographical barrier (sea, river, mountain, lake) then the population splits into two
populations. There is now no gene flow through the two populations. Since each population
may be exposed to different environmental conditions/the selection pressure may be
different. Natural selection occurs independently in each of the two populations, so that the
individuals of the two populations become very different from each other genotypically
(their genes are different) and phenotypically (their physical appearance). Even if the two
populations were to mix again, they will not be able to interbreed. The two populations are
now different species.
- Keeping species separate:

o When one species gives rise to two new species (speciation), the two new species cannot
reproduce with each other if they mix. They remain as separate species due to mechanisms
that restrict gene flow between them. This is termed reproductive isolation and result
because of:
• Seasonal isolation: when breeding/reproduction takes place at different times of the
season or year. In plants, anthers and stigma mature at different times, to prevent cross-
pollination.
• Behavioural isolation: animals behave differently during courting and mating rituals -
females are not responsive, so no mating takes place.
• Mechanical isolation: when male and female reproductive parts change, making gene
transfer impossible. In flowers, the stigma normally releases enzymes to stimulate the
growth of the pollen tube. In this case, the enzyme will not stimulate growth, so pollen
grain will not grow. In animals, the genitals change so the sperm cannot be transferred
into the female, should mating be attempted.
• Gamete isolation: when genes change, gametes become chemically altered, so
fusion of the gametes is impossible. Should the gametes fuse, gamete isolation will
prevent the recycling of the genetic material, e.g.: donkey + horse = infertile offspring
called a mule [Source].

3.2 Identify the processes of microevolution and explain the mechanisms by which they function
to influence alleles’ frequencies in populations and lead to macroevolution
- Evolution involves changes in allele frequencies over time.

- This can be caused by natural selection. Selection pressures (caused by the environment) increase
the likelihood that certain individuals with specific alleles survive to reproductive age, enabling
them to pass on their alleles to their offspring.
- In addition to natural selection, it is also possible for allele frequencies to change as a result of
chance; this can occur due to a process known as genetic drift.
- Genetic drift includes the founder effect and the bottleneck effect.
- Natural selection:
o When a new allele arises in a population or a change in the environment occurs then
directional selection can happen.
o Directional selection produces a gradual change in allele frequencies over several
generations.
• There is always phenotypic variation within a population.
• There is a selection pressure in the environment, e.g. the presence of a predator.
• Some individuals in a population may have a phenotype that aids their survival in the
presence of a selection pressure.
• The phenotype is produced by particular alleles.
• Individuals with the favoured phenotype are fitter and so more likely to reproduce
and pass on the advantageous alleles to their offspring.
• Those who do not possess the advantageous allele or phenotype are less likely to survive
and pass on their alleles to their offspring.
• So over time and several generations the frequency of the advantageous allele
increases and the frequency of other alleles decreases.
- Genetic drift:
o When a population is very small chance can affect which alleles get passed on to the next
generation. Meiosis results in haploid gametes, meaning that a fertilisation event only passes
on half of the alleles of an individual; the half that gets passed on is the result of random
fertilisation, and the other half of the alleles may be lost to the next generation.
o Over time some alleles can be lost or passed on purely by chance; this is genetic drift.
o Genetic drift is more likely to affect allele frequencies in a small population. The chances of
a certain allele simply being lost by chance as a result of random fertilisation is much greater
if only 10 pairs of birds are breeding than if there were 100 pairs of birds breeding.
- The founder effect:
o The founder effect occurs when a small number of individuals from a large parent population
start a new population. The founder effect can come about as the result of chance. E.g. a
chance event such as a storm may separate a small group of individuals from the main
population.

o As the new population is made up of only a few individuals from the original population only
some of the total alleles from the parent population will be present. In other words, not all
of the gene pool is present in the smaller population.
o Because the population that results from the founder effect is very small it is more
susceptible to the effects of genetic drift.
- Bottleneck effect:
o The bottleneck effect is similar to the founder effect.
o It occurs when a previously large population suffers a dramatic fall in numbers.
o A major environmental event can greatly reduce the number of individuals in a population
which in turn reduces the genetic diversity in the population as alleles are lost.
o The surviving individuals end up breeding and reproducing with close relatives [Source].
- Environmental factors that affect the chance of survival of an organism are selection pressures.
o For example, there could be high competition for food between lions if there is not plentiful
prey available; this environmental factor ‘selects’ for faster, more powerful lions that are
better hunters.
- These selection pressures can have different effects on the allele frequencies of a population
through natural selection.
- There are three types of selection: stabilizing, disruptive, and directional [Source].

- The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that if certain conditions are met then the allele frequencies
of a gene within a population will not change from one generation to the next.
- There are seven conditions or assumptions that must be met for the Hardy-Weinberg principle to
hold true.
- The Hardy-Weinberg equation allows for the calculation of allele and genotype frequencies within
populations.
- It also allows for predictions to be made about how these frequencies will change in future
generations.

- Conditions for the Hardy-Weinberg principle:
o Population size is very large
o No mutation
o No gene flow (i.e., migration)
o Mating is random.
o No natural selection
o Could also include organisms are diploid, organisms reproduce by sexual reproduction only,
there is no overlap between generations, and allele frequencies are equal in both sexes.
- The Hardy-Weinberg principle can be useful when building models and making predictions, but the
assumptions listed are very rarely, if ever, all present in nature.
- Hardy-Weinberg equations:
o If the phenotype of a trait in a population is determined by a single gene with only two alleles
(we will use B / b as examples throughout this section) then the population will consist of
individuals with three possible genotypes:
• Homozygous dominant (BB)
• Heterozygous (Bb)
• Homozygous recessive (bb)
o When using the Hardy-Weinberg equation frequencies are represented as proportions of
the population; a proportion is a number out of 1.
• For example if every individual in the population has the homozygous dominant
genotype BB then its frequency will be 1, while if half of the population show this
genotype then the frequency will be 0.5.
o Frequency of alleles can be represented; this is the proportion of all of the alleles in a
population that are of a particular form.
o The letter p represents the frequency of the dominant allele (B).
o The letter q represents the frequency of the recessive allele (b).
o As there are only two alleles at a single gene locus for a phenotypic trait in the population:
p+q=1
o E.g., In a population of 100 individuals there would be 200 alleles because every individual
has two versions of each gene.
• If 120 of those alleles were the dominant allele then the frequency of the dominant allele
would be 120/200.
• It could be said that p = 120 ÷ 200 = 0.6
• If p = 0.6 then q = 1 - 0.6 = 0.4
o Frequency of genotypes can also be represented; this is the proportion of all of the
individuals with a particular genotype.
o The chance of an individual being homozygous dominant is p2
• The offspring would inherit dominant alleles from both parents so p x p =p2
o The chance of an individual being heterozygous is 2pq
• Offspring could inherit a dominant allele from the father and a recessive allele from the
mother (p x q) or offspring could inherit a dominant allele from the mother and a
recessive allele from the father (p x q) so 2pq
o The chance of an individual being homozygous recessive is q2
• The offspring would inherit recessive alleles from both parents so q x q =q2
o As these are all the possible genotypes of individuals in the population the following
equation can be constructed: p2 + q2 + 2pq = 1 [Source]

3.3 Describe how living organisms are classified, and categorize them according to specific
structural and functional characteristics
- Scientists have been classifying organisms into species for hundreds of years, in order to investigate
the diversity of life that exists today and in the past.
- There is difficulty in determining whether new organisms discovered belong to an existing species,
or a new one.
- This is because the most widely accepted definition of a species is:
o A group of organisms with similar morphological and physiological features that able to
breed together and produce fertile offspring
- This is the biological species concept and is reliant on determining whether interbreeding
produces fertile offspring - this is difficult and time-consuming to determine in practice.
- However, there are other discriminating factors that scientists can use to group similar organisms
together.
- Morphological species concept
o In the past, most scientists described organisms by their physical features (morphology) as
these can be more easily observed
o They group together organisms that share many physical features that distinguish them
from other species
o This is the morphological species concept
- Ecological species concept
o When there is a population of similar organisms living in the same area at the same
time, they can be described as an ecological species.
o This is the ecological species concept.
- Naming species:
o Species are often given common names, but in order to avoid confusion about what group of
organisms scientists are talking about, all species are given a two-part scientific name using
the binomial system.
o The first part of the name is the genus that the species belongs to; this is a group of very
similar organisms.
o The second part of the name is specific and unique to a single group of organisms that are
identified as a species (and occasionally there may be a third name).
o The binomial name is always italicized in writing (or underlined if it is not possible to
italicise).
o For example:
• The most commonly known yeast is Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
• It is common to abbreviate the genus name: S. cerevisiae.
• Saccharomyces paradoxus is another species of that is a member of the same genus
as cerevisiae [Source].
- Taxonomy is the practice of biological classification.
- It involves placing organisms into a series of categories or taxa.

- By grouping organisms into taxa, it can make them easier to understand and remember.
o There are several different ranks or levels within the hierarchical classification system used
in biology.
o The highest rank is the domain.
o Cell type has a major role in the classification of organisms into the three domains; but do
not confuse cell types and domain.
• Prokaryotic cells are easily distinguishable in that they lack a nucleus.
• Eukaryotic cells have compartmentalised structures, with at least their genetic material
segregated from the rest of the cell in a nucleus.
o Based upon molecular analysis of RNA genes in particular, scientists have realised that using
cell type to classify organisms is insufficient, and that prokaryotes could be divided into two
separate groups (domains).
o The three domains are:
• Archaea (prokaryotes)
• Bacteria (prokaryotes)
• Eukarya (eukaryotes)
[Source]
Rank Example
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Mammalia
Order Primate
Family Hominidae
Genus Homo
Species Sapiens

3.4 Explain the importance of and the reasons for maintaining biodiversity, and describe the
threats that can lead to extinction including the impact of human activity
- Biodiversity is the study of all the variation that exists within and between all forms of life.
- Biodiversity looks at the range and variety of genes, species, and habitats within a particular region.
- It can be assessed at three different levels:
o The number and range of different ecosystems and habitats.
o The number of species and their relative abundance.
o The genetic variation within each species.
- Biodiversity is very important for the resilience of ecosystems; in that it allows them to resist
changes in the environment [Source].
- Reasons for maintaining biodiversity: Healthy ecosystems clean our water, purify our air, maintain
our soil, regulate the climate, recycle nutrients, and provide us with food. They provide raw
materials and resources for medicines and other purposes. They are at the foundation of all
civilization and sustain our economies [Source].
- Possible reasons for extinction include:
o Climate change
o Competition
o Introduction of species
o Hunting by Humans
o Degradation and loss of habitats
[Source]

Content Area 4: Ecology: Interdependence, Energy, and Dynamics
4.1 Distinguish between different ecological concepts (e.g., biomes, ecosystem, communities,
habitats, and niches) and give examples of interactions among different organisms
- Ecology: The study of the relationships between living organisms and their environment.
- Biome: Group of ecosystems that share similar climates and typical organisms.
- Ecosystem: All the organisms that live in a place together with their physical environment.
- Community: Different populations living together in a defined area.
- Habitat: The area and resources used by a particular species
- Niche: The range of physical and biological conditions in which a species lives and the way the
species obtains what it needs to survive and reproduce.
- Niches contain three aspects:
o Resources – necessities of life.
o Physical aspects – abiotic factors required for survival.
o Biological aspects – biotic factors required for survival.
- Types of interactions among different organisms:

o Competition (-/- interaction)
• Intraspecific competition – competition for limited ecological resources between
members of the same species.
• Interspecific competition – competition for limited ecological resources between
members of different species.
• Competitive exclusion principle – states that no two species can occupy the same niche
in exactly the same habitat at exactly the same time.
• If two species attempt to, one will be better at competing for limiting resources and will
eventually exclude the other species.
• Species usually don’t compete for similar resources, they usually divide them – this is
called resource sharing.
• By causing species to divide resources, competition helps to determine the number and
kinds of species in a community and the niche each species occupies.
o Predation (+/- interaction)

• Predator captures and feeds upon the prey.
• Can affect the size of prey populations in a community and determine the places the prey
can live and feed.
• Herbivory–occurs when herbivores feed on producers.
• Herbivores can affect the size and distribution of plant populations in a community and
determine the places that plants can survive and grow.

• Keystone species – single species that is not usually abundant in a community yet exerts
strong control on the structure of the community.
o Symbiosis – any relationship in which two species live closely together.

• Mutualism (+/+ interaction) – type of symbiotic relationship in which both species
benefit.
• Parasitism (+/- interaction)– type of symbiotic relationship in which one organism
benefits and one is harmed.
• Commensalism (+/0 interaction)– type of symbiotic relationship in which one
organism benefits and the other is neither helped nor harmed [Source].

4.2 Interpret food chains and food webs in terms of interaction of organisms through different
trophic levels and flow of energy, and analyze the effects of biotic and abiotic factors on
ecosystems dynamics
- Producers:
o Autotrophs–organismsthatcaptureenergyfrom sunlight or chemicals and convert it into
forms living cells can use.
o Producers–make their own food.
o Primary producers – the first producers of energy-rich compounds that are later used by
other organisms.
• Autotrophs are primary producers. Most engage in the process of photosynthesis.
• Chemosynthesis – chemical energy is used to produce carbohydrates in dark conditions
(like the deep oceans).
- Consumers:
o Heterotrophs – can not make their own food; acquire energy from other organisms by
ingesting them.
o Consumers – organisms that rely on other organisms for energy and nutrients.
• Carnivores – kill and eat other animals.
• Scavengers – consume the carcasses of dead animals.
• Decomposers – chemically break down organic matter (bacteria and fungi are
examples).
• Herbivores – eat plants.
• Omnivores – diets include both plant and animal matter.
• Detritivores – feed on detritus (small pieces of decaying matter) by grinding them into
smaller pieces (earthworms and snails are examples). Often digest the decomposers
living on the detritus.
- Energy flows in ecosystems:
o Energy flows through an ecosystem in one direction, from primary producers to consumers
o Food chain – series of steps in which organisms transfer energy by eating and being eaten.

o Foodweb – Networks of feeding interactions involving multiple producers, herbivores,
producers, and consumers.

- Trophic levels:
o Trophic level – each step in a food chain or food web.
o Primary producers are always the first level; consumers occupy the other levels.
o Trophic levels are illustrated by drawing ecological pyramids.
o Ecological pyramid–shows therelativeamountof energy or matter contained within each
trophic level. Three types:
• Pyramids of energy: show relative amount of energy available at each trophic level. On
average, only 10 percent of energy available in one trophic level is transferred to the
next level! The rest is given off as heat.
• Pyramids of biomass: illustrates the relative amount of living organic matter in each
trophic level of an ecosystem.
• Pyramids of numbers: shows relative number of individual organisms at each trophic

level of an ecosystem

- Biotic factors – any living part of an environment with which an organism might interact. (Ex.
Animals, plants, mushrooms, bacteria, etc.).
- Abiotic factors – nonliving part of the environment that influence the organism. (Ex. Sunlight, heat,
precipitation, humidity, wind, water current, soil type, etc.).
- Biotic and abiotic factors interact through nutrient cycles and energy flows. External factors control
resource inputs and are not influenced by the ecosystem itself. Internal factors are processes that
exist within the ecosystem, such as decomposition, succession, and the types of species present
[Source].

4.3 Discuss the impact of human activities on the environment and explain the effect of density
dependent factors and density independent factors on carrying capacity and changing
ecosystems dynamics
- Human impact on the environment has become one of the main topics for university staff all over
the world.
- Different ways through which humans impact the environment [Source]:
o Overpopulation
o Pollution and ozone depletion
o Habitat fragmentation
o Global warming and climate change
o Genetic modification
o Ocean acidification
o Overfishing
o Deforestation
o Acid rain
- Population growth: Factors can affect population size:
o Birthrate – populations grow when more individuals are born than die in any period of time.
o Death rate – populations shrink when the death rate is greater than the growth rate.
o Immigration – populations grow if individuals move into its range from elsewhere.
o Emmigration – populations may decrease in size if individuals move out of the population’s
range.
- Exponential growth – occurs under ideal conditions with unlimited resources.

- Logistic growth – occurs when a population’s growth slows and then stops, following a period of
exponential growth. Carrying capacity– maximum number of individuals of a particular species
that a particular environment can support.
- Limiting factor – factor that controls the growth of a population.

- Limiting factors determine the carrying capacity of an environment for a species.
o Density dependent limiting factors–operate only when population density reaches a
certain level. (Ex. Competition, predation, herbivory, parasitism, disease, stress from over-
crowding).
o Density independent limiting factors – affect all populations in similar ways, regardless of
population size or density. (Ex. Natural disasters) [Source].

4.4 Explain the importance of individual contributions to sustainable management of resources
on Earth
- Individuals ‘efforts can greatly contribute towards advancing the sustainable development goals.
We are often faced with the doubt of how we can positively influence our sustainable development
behavior, it is necessary to understand that the problems that affect sustainability are not restricted
to large companies, in one way or another we all contribute to our grain of sand.
- How can an individual contribute to sustainable development goals? [Source]
o Donate what you don’t use
o Waste less food and support local farmers
o Get yourselves and your family vaccinated
o Help educate children in your community
o Empower women and girls around you and promote equality
o Avoid wasting water
o Use energy-efficient appliances
o Create job opportunities, if applicable
o Support the marginalized and disadvantaged
o Use public transport or cycles
o Recycle
o Avoid using plastic
o Plant trees around you
o Act now to stop global warming

Practice Questions
1. The three pathways in the figure shows three major processes of the cellular respiration in
eukaryotes. All the arrows numbered from 1 to 12 represent net reactants or products, where
arrows 4, 8 and 12 specifically represent_______________.
A. NADH
B. ATP
C. H2 O
D. FADH2
2. Water is a substance that exist in different states of matter with vast variety of properties including
adhesion, cohesion, surface tension, and high boiling point. All these properties are_____________.
A. the aspects of interaction between hydrogen atoms

B. produces by ionic and covalent bonding
C. related to the hydrogen bonding
D. chemical properties of water
3. Biology teacher has assigned you to study the internal activities of the cell’s mitochondria with its
internal details. You have different kinds of microscope in the lab, which of the following
microscopes would you use to complete the task?
A. Light microscope
B. Compound microscope
C. Scanning electron microscope
D. Transmission electron microscope

4. The data below shows the results of an experiment conducted on potato sticks. Which of the
following best explains the change in the length of potato sticks at concentration of sugar of 0.6
mol per dm3?
Concentration of sugar Original Length of Final length of potato Percent change in

solution in mol per dm3 potato stick in mm stick in mm after 24h length of potato
0.8 60 40 -33.33 %
0.6 60 52 -13.33 %
0.4 60 60 0.00 %
0.2 60 67 11.67 %
Movement of water Cause of the movement

A. into the potato cell The sugar solution has a higher water potential than the potato cells
B. into the potato cell The sugar solution has a lower water potential than the potato cells
C. out of the potato cell The sugar solution has a higher water potential than the potato cells
D. out of the potato cell The sugar solution has a lower water potential than the potato cells
5. A student examined a leaf cell under an electron microscope of 1000x magnification and then
examined the same leaf cell under light microscope using magnification of 10x ocular lens and 100x
of objective lens. The student concluded that the image of leaf cell under electron microscope was
clearer and more detailed than the image observed under light microscope. Which of the following
statement supports the student conclusion?
A. The resolution of the two microscope was the same but magnification used in the
electron microscope gave an image that was ten times larger than the light microscope
B. The student used the electron microscope at a higher magnification than the light
microscope which led to better resolution
C. The electron microscope has less resolution than light microscope, but the use of
electron will help to obtain more details
D. The magnification used in the two microscope was the same, but the electron
microscope has better resolution than the light microscope

6. The graph below shows the effect of light intensity and carbon dioxide on the rate of
photosynthesis. Which of the following statement best describes the results shown in the graph?
A. Carbon dioxide is not a limiting factor for photosynthesis

B. Photosynthesis rate is proportional to light intensity
C. Rate of photosynthesis is limited by carbon dioxide only at low light intensities
D. Light intensity and carbon dioxide both limit the rate of photosynthesis
7. A student was investigating the effect of light intensity on the rate of the photosynthesis of water
plant. Which of the following gases will be measured as the student uses different light intensities?
A. Ammonia
B. Water vapor
C. Carbon dioxide
D. Oxygen
8. What will happen to the level of the solution (x) if the apparatus is left for two hours?
A. The level of solution will drop because water will move outside the thistle funnel by
osmosis
B. No changes to the level of solution, sugar molecules will diffuse from high
concentration area to low concentration area
C. No changes to the level of solution, water will move in and out the thistle funnel by
equal rate
D. The level of solution will rise because water will move into the thistle funnel by
osmosis
9. The energy related process that leads to the production of ethyl alcohol or lactic acid is
called______________________.
A. protein synthesis
B. respiration
C. digestion
D. fermentation
10. Which element acts as the last electron acceptor during aerobic respiration?
A. Nitrogen
B. Phosphorus
C. Hydrogen
D. Oxygen

11. When you talk about carbohydrates in a diet, people mostly think of carbohydrates as a source of
energy only. Which of the following is another function of carbohydrates?
A. Forms enzymes
B. Provide structural support, like chitin
C. Structural components of cellular membranes
D. Transport substances across the plasma membrane
12. Water travels through vascular tissue from the roots to the leaves of a plant, moving against the
force of gravity. Which of the following water properties contribute to water travelling through the
vascular tissue?
A. Solubility
B. Adhesion
C. Ionic bonding
D. High surface tension
13. A student prepared two beakers with identical sprigs of a water plant as shown below. She placed
one beaker in the shade and the other beaker beside a fluorescent lamp. She then systematically
increased the distance between the beaker and the lamp. She counted the bubbles given off by the
plants in each beaker. Which of the following graphs represents the relation between the number
of bubbles produced and distance from lamp?
A. B.
C. D.

14. Transmission electron microscope is the best available microscope because it_______.
A. gives a 3D images of the cell

B. gives detailed images of the cell structures
C. uses dyes to produce colorful images
D. uses light and can be used anywhere
15. Which of the following statements is TRUE for the organelle number 5 in the diagram below?
A. Synthesis lipids
B. Produces ATP
C. Embedded with ribosomes
D. Found prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

16. The following pedigree represents the inheritance of an autosomal recessive syndrome in a family.
If the individual 3 in generation II marries to a normal female who is heterozygous for the trait,
what is the possibility to have an affected child?
A. 0%
B. 25 %
C. 50 %
D. 100 %
The diagram below show a part of central dogma of life in living organisms. Use this diagram to
answer questions 17- and 18.
17. The process shown in the diagram_______________
A. is used to produce another copy of DNA

B. copies the genetic information from DNA and carry it to the cytoplasm
C. uses mRNA sequence to produce proteins
D. uses DNA and mRNA to produce ribosomes

18. If the codon C labelled on the structure B is the last codon that is coded by an amino acid, what will
be total number of amino acids in the polypeptide produced?
A. 4
B. 8
C. 12
D. 16
19. Scientists claim that “environment can play a role in determining the phenotype of an organism”.
Which of the following statements provides the best evidence for this claim?
A. A primrose develops white flowers when grown above 32˚C, and red flowers when
grown at 24˚C
B. The more genes involved, the more continuous is the variation in phenotypes
C. True-breeding red and white-flowered four-o'clocks produce pink-flowered offspring
at any temperature
D. A curly-haired Caucasian and a straight-haired Caucasian will have wavy-haired
offspring, regardless of the time of year
20. Uncontrolled cell division of cancer cells forms tumors. Which statements describes the difference
between a cancer cell and a normal cell?
A. Cancer cells do not undergo cytokinesis

B. Cancer cells do not have metaphase
C. Cancer cells replicate their DNA in interphase
D. Cancer cells have a shorter interphase

21. The process below shows DNA replication. Which of the following letter represent the helicase
enzyme?
A. M
B. N
C. P
D. Q
22. Refer to the image below and identify the processes W and Z.
A. W: Replication, Z: Translation
B. W: Transcription, Z: Replication
C. W: Translation, Z: Transcription
D. W: Transcription, Z: Translation

23. Which of the following mRNA sequences will code for the following amino acid chain?
Valine- Serine-Proline-Tryptophane -Histidine
A. GUGAGCCCAUGGCAG
B. GUCAGUCCCUGGCAG
C. GUGAGCCCCUGACAC
D. GUCAGUCCCUGGCAC
24. A man with type A blood and a woman with type B blood have a child. If this child has type O blood,
which of the following statements must be true?
A. The father could be homozygous A

B. The mother has homozygous B blood type
C. The maternal grandmother is homozygous
D. The paternal grandmother could have type O blood
25. Albinism is an autosomal recessive disorder that affect melanin pigment production in skin, hair,
and eyes. If both parents are carrier for albinism what are the chances for their child to be albino
(have albinism)?
A. 100%
B. 75%
C. 50%
D. 25%

26. The given graph shows the change in DNA content during various phases (I to IV) of the cell cycle.
Which of the following explains the changes to the DNA content at phase II?
A. Mitosis
B. Cell growth
C. Cytokinesis
D. Replication of genetic material
27. A student is observing cells undergoing mitosis using the microscope. He notices chromosomes of
some cells lining in the cell equator. Which phase of mitosis is this student observing?
A. Prophase
B. Metaphase
C. Anaphase
D. Telophase

28. Which amino acid sequence will be assembled from the mRNA associated with this strand below?
DNA template strand: 5'-GCG ACA TAC ACT-3'
A. Ala-Cys-Met
B. Arg-Cys-Met
C. Ala-Thr-Tyr-Thr
D. Arg-Thr-Tyr-Thr
29. Parents of a baby with ‘O’ blood group have two kids with ‘A’ and ‘B’ blood group respectively. What
would be the genotype of both mother and father?
A. Mother is homozygous for ‘A’ blood group and father is heterozygous for ‘B’
B. Mother is heterozygous for ‘A’ blood group and father is homozygous for ‘B’
C. Both mother and father are heterozygous for ‘A’ and ‘B’ blood group
D. Mother is ‘AB’ and father is ‘O’ blood group.
30. Which of the following is/ are TRUE for the process in the attached figure?
I. It takes place in the nucleus
II. Exons are removed by the end of this process
III. It produces an mRNA that is ready for translation
A. I only
B. II only
C. I and II only
D. I and III only
31. Terrestrial snakes and aquatic eels have a similar elongated morphology. However, they are not
closely related evolutionarily. Their resemblance is an example of____.
A. analogy
B. homology
C. divergent evolution
D. speciation

32. Scientists collected and aligned the molecular data below to analyze the relationship of whales to
six other mammals. Which mammal is closest to whale?
A. Camel
B. Peccary
C. Pig
D. Hippo
33. Characteristics of mammals but not of birds include which of the following?
I. Feathers
II. Giving birth to live young
III. Four chambered heart
A. I only
B. I and II only
C. II and III only
D. I and III only
34. An ecosystem undergoes a sudden drastic change that now favors organisms with an extreme
phenotype. This is an example of__________________.
A. genetic drift
B. founder Effect
C. directional selection
D. bottle neck effect

35. The image below shows the structures of limbs in different mammals. All structures shown
have______________.
A. different origin and functions

B. different origin but similar functions
C. same origin and same functions
D. same origin but different functions
36. When single-stranded DNA from a human is mixed with single-stranded DNA from a chimpanzee,
we find that about 99% of the DNA is homologous. This can be taken as evidence that _____________
A. humans and chimpanzees originated in similar environments

B. humans evolved from chimpanzees
C. chimpanzees evolved from humans
D. humans and chimpanzees are closely related
37. Bird guides once listed the Myrtle warbler and Audubon's warbler as distinct species, but applying
the biological species concept, recent books show them as eastern and western forms of a single
species, the yellow-rumped warbler. Experts must have found that the two kinds of
warblers________________.
A. live in the same area

B. look enough alike to be considered one species
C. are reproductively isolated from each other
D. successfully interbreed in nature

38. In a small group of people living in a remote area, there is a high incidence of “blue skin”, a condition
that results from a variation on the structure of hemoglobin. All of the “blue-skinned” residents can
trace their ancestry to one couple, who were among the original settlers of this region. The
unusually high frequency of “blue skin” in the area is an example of _____________.
A. sexual selection
B. natural selection
C. mutation
D. genetic drift
39. Which of the following statements is NOT one of the principal observations upon which Darwin
based his theory of natural selection?
A. The population size of a species would increase exponentially if all individuals that
were born reproduced successfully.
B. Populations tend to remain stable in size, aside from seasonal fluctuations.
C. Environmental resources are limited.
D. Most of the variation observed among individuals in a population is due to
environmental causes; thus, very little variation is heritable (passed on from parent
to offspring).
40. A small, isolated population found on a remote island is more likely to undergo speciation than a
large widespread population because a small, isolated population_____________.
A. is more likely to migrate to other islands or the nearest mainland

B. is more readily adaptable to extreme environmental changes
C. contains much greater genetic diversity
D. is more susceptible to genetic drift
41. The maggot fly is native to North America and originally fed on fruit of the wild hawthorn. Since
the mid-1800s, a population of flies has emerged that instead feed on apples. Maggot flies typically
mate on or near the fruit of their host plants. Many varieties of apples ripen three to four weeks
before the hawthorn fruits do. The different fruit preferences of the two fly populations will most
likely have which of the following effects?
A. The ability to survive on a diet of two different fruits will help the flies learn to eat many
more types of fruit
B. The flies that eat hawthorn fruit will lay some of their eggs on the earlier- ripening apples
to minimize competition among the larvae
C. The hawthorn plants will decrease in number since the number of pollinators is less
D. The single fly species will evolve into two distinct species because of the lack of gene flow
between the two populations

42. Mitochondria are found in most eukaryotic cells and contain their own DNA and ribosomes that
are similar to those typical of many prokaryotic cells. Which of the following statements is justified
by these observations?
A. Mitochondrial DNA ensures a faster way of producing enzymes

B. The mitochondrion is the only location in which eukaryotic cells can synthesize ATP
C. Mitochondrial membranes provide abundant surface area for reactions because of the
infoldings called cristae
D. An ancestral cell most likely engulfed an aerobic prokaryote in a relationship that
proved beneficial for both cells
43. Which of the following ideas is NOT part of Darwin's concept of evolution?
A. Individuals in a population are genetically identical

B. A struggle for existence exists among individuals of a population
C. Individuals that are best adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and
reproduce
D. A population is capable of producing more offspring than the environment can
support
44. Hemoglobin is a protein found in blood. It is used in the study of evolutionary relationships because
most animals have this protein Given the information in the figure below. What type of
evolutionary evidence is shown in the figure?
A. Comparative biochemistry
B. Comparative embryology
C. Homologous structures
D. Geographic distribution

45. During microevolution, a(n) __________________ will become more or less common within a
population.
A. species
B. genes
C. alleles
D. mutations
46. Food chains are the most important part of ecology to study the energy flow through an ecosystem.
Which of the following is NOT true about the flow of energy through ecosystem?
A. The higher the trophic level the lower the energy available
B. A single organism can feed at several trophic levels to take energy from
C. Many food chains interlink to make food web for better flow of energy
D. Detritivores can feed at all trophic levels to obtain energy except producers
47. White-tailed deer live in many areas of the United States. While the grazing deer provide a serene
vista for many homeowners, other homeowners have started to resent their destructive presence
on landscaping. A recent study was done by a small homeowners’ association in San Antonio, Texas.
The study targeted a gated subdivision of 100 acres. The deer population for the first five years
was an estimate by homeowners and the results are plotted in the graph below. According to this
data, the white-tailed deer_______________.
90
80
70
Population Size
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Year
A. are in the lag phase of their growth

B. have no natural predators
C. have reached their carrying capacity
D. exhibit a sigmoid growth curve

48. Organisms that comprise the greatest mass of living substance in a terrestrial food chain are_____.
A. decomposers such as bacteria

B. producers such as grasses
C. primary consumers such as sheep
D. secondary consumers such as human
49. Pyramid below shows all the four trophic levels in a food chain with the amount of energy available
at the first trophic level is 33,000 kcal/m2. Which of the following represents the amount of energy
of the tertiary consumer if only 15% of this energy is transferred in each trophic level?
A. 754 kcal/m2
B. 5025 kcal/m2
C. 113 kcal/m2
D. 11,000 kcal/m2
50. When a seagull eats a big fish which eats a small fish that eats water fleas supported by
phytoplankton, the water-fleas are_________________.
A. top consumers in the food-chain

B. producers
C. secondary consumers
D. primary consumers

51. Which type of factors is this interaction regarding the regulation of the population growth?
A. Human activities factors

B. Abiotic factors
C. Density- independent factors
D. Density- dependent factors
52. Which of the following examples has the greatest effect on decreasing the biodiversity on earth?
A. The climate changes

B. The depletion of the ozone layer
C. The intensive farming and raising of certain species
D. The destruction of the natural habitat of living organisms
53. According to the pattern that is shown the image below, two different species cannot occupy the
same________________.
A. trophic level
B. ecosystem
C. habitat
D. niche

54. According to the pyramid of energy below, what will be the amount of energy obtained by snake?
A. 1 kcal
B. 1000 kcal
C. 100 kcal
D. 10 kcal
55. In the food chain below, the hawk could eat either the snake or the mouse and, thus, could
represent which two different levels of the food chain?
rose bush — grasshopper — mouse — snake — hawk — earthworm
A. producer and primary consumer

B. primary and secondary consumer
C. quaternary consumer and detritivore
D. tertiary and quaternary consumer
56. Interactions among species in an ecosystem defined as +/− would be characteristic of_________.
A. both predation and mutualism

B. predation only
C. mutualism only
D. both predation and parasitism

57. To preserve the biosphere for future generations, humans must______________.
A. put all wild animals in game preserves

B. make use of technology to develop new herbicides
C. settle more people inland, away from the coasts
D. understand how living things interact with their environment
58. All the following are correct about food chains EXCEPT__________________.
A. energy is lost at each trophic level

B. producers are always at the bottom of any food chain
C. bacteria and fungi act as decomposers that recycle nutrients
D. pesticides tend to br concentrated at the producer level,because producers have the
largest mass in a food chain
59. Woolly bats sleep very comfortably inside a pitcher plant that does not contain digestive enzymes.
The feces from the bats are released into the pitcher plant trap where nutrients in the feces are
absorbed and provide the plant with the nitrogen it needs. Which of the following best describes
the relationship between the pitcher plant and the woolly bat?
A. Competition
B. Commensalism
C. Mutualism
D. Parasitism

60. Which of the following statements is/are TRUE for the population in the graph?
I. It is logistic growth
II. The population grows at a steady rate
III. When the population reaches the carrying capacity, it stops growing
A. I only
B. II only
C. III only
D. I and III only
61. The diagrams below represent the structures of certain biological macromolecules. Which of the
following represent(s) the molecule(s) majorly responsible for contributing to the structure of
enzymes?
(A) (B)
(C)
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. A and C

62. The diagram below represents a plant cell. Which part is responsible for water storage and
structural support?
A. Q
B. R
C. S
D. T
63. Helicobacter pylori is a strain of bacteria that can infect the stomach. Based on the graph below,
which line most likely represents the growth of Helicobacter pylori?
A B C
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. None of the above

64. Which of the following is correct about Krebs cycle?
A. No energy carrying molecules are produced during this stage

B. Not functioning in the absence of oxygen
C. Occurs in the inner membrane of the mitochondria
D. Produces the highest amount of energy among all stages of cellular respiration
65. Increasing temperature above the optimum for the enzyme results in loss of enzyme activity. How
is this explained?
A. Less frequent collisions between the enzyme and the substrate

B. Reduced kinetic energy of the enzyme molecule
C. Substrate molecules move faster, and effective collisions are less likely
D. The shape of the active site is changed, and the substrate will no longer fit into it
66. Which letter in the diagram below represents the part of the alimentary canal that help in
regulating glucose and maintaining homeostasis?
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D

67. Which of the following statements is correct about the enzyme-substrate complex during an
enzymatic chemical reaction?
A. It cannot be affected by the presence of other molecules

B. It dissociates once the reaction terminates
C. It is permanent form of the enzymatic reaction
D. It occurs independently of the enzyme’s active site
68. Which of the following properties of water prevents enzyme denaturation in the leaves of
transpiring plants?
A. High heat of evaporation

B. High polarity
C. Low melting temperature
D. Strong covalent bonding
69. If parents both with blood type AB are expecting a child, what is the probability that the child will
have blood type B?
A. 0%
B. 25%
C. 75%
D. 100%
70. A plant with red flowers is crossed with a plant that has white flowers. All resulting offspring have
flowers showing both colors of red and white at the same time. What pattern of inheritance does
the color of the flower petals follow?
√ A. Codominance
B. Incomplete Dominance
C. Independent Assortment
D. Simple dominance
71. Which process results in the synthesis of mRNA transcripts from DNA in the nucleus of a
eukaryotic cell?
A. Replication
B. RNA processing
C. Transcription
D. Translation

72. In the diagram below, what is happening in step 2?
A. Introns are being removed from the mRNA

B. mRNA is cut into two segments so one can only be used
C. mRNA is transcribed into a new mRNA molecule
D. Thymine nucleotides are removed from mRNA
73. What type of inheritance is shown in the Pedigree below?
A. Autosomal dominant
B. Autosomal recessive
C. X-linked dominant
D. X-linked recessive

74. Which of the following shows the base sequence of mRNA produced from the DNA strand below?
3' CCGAAATTCGGG 5'
A. 3' GGCTTTAAGCCC 5'

B. 5' GGCTTTAAGCCC 3'
C. 3' GGCUUUAAGCCC 5'
D. 5' GGCUUUAAGCCC 3'
75. Identify the correct stage of the cell cycle of the following cell.
A. Anaphase
B. Metaphase
C. Prophase
D. Telophase
76. Which of the following correctly shows the process of protein synthesis?
A. DNA → translation → RNA → transcription → protein

B. RNA → transcription → DNA → translation → protein
C. DNA → transcription → RNA → translation → protein
D. RNA → translation → DNA → transcription → protein
77. What could a farmer do to increase genetic diversity among his crops?
A. Apply intercropping to his field

B. Grow local varieties of crops instead of high yielding varieties
C. Use biopesticides rather than chemical pesticides
D. Intensively use fertilizers to grow more crops

78. A population of wolves was separated by the formation of a canyon. After millions of years, they
evolved into two separate populations. This is known as_______________.
A. behavioral isolation
B. geographic isolation
C. polyploid isolation
D. temporal isolation
79. Which is a type of eukaryote that may exist as unicellular or multicellular organisms and often
have cell walls made of chitin?
A. Archea
B. Bacteria
C. Plant
D. Fungi
80. Which of the following is correct about evolution?
A. Evolution always occurs at the same speed

B. Evolution always occurs in a single direction
C. Evolution occurs in populations as well as individuals
D. Mutations are considered a mechanism through which evolution can occur
81. Based on binomial nomenclature, which organism is most closely related to Panthera tigris?
A. Neofelis nebulosa
B. Panthera Leo
C. Canis tigris
D. Canis familiaris
82. Adaptive radiation can be best described as_______.
A. a group of unrelated organisms re-evolve the characteristics of an

ancestral species
B. a group of unrelated organisms independently evolve analogous
structures
C. a group of related organisms independently evolve similar characteristics
even after their divergence from a common ancestor
D. a group of related organisms divergently evolutes in a new environment
into a multitude of new forms

83. What is one advantage of monoculture farming practice?
A. It lowers the amount of extra land required

B. It decreases the demand for fertilizers
C. It decreases greenhouse effect
D. It increases the diversity of soil microbes below ground
84. The Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium applies if which of the following conditions are met?
A. The population size is very large, and all individuals are equally fit
B. The population size is small, and some individuals are fitter than others
C. The population size is very large, and some individuals are fitter than others
D. The population size is small, and all individuals are equally fit
85. Which of the following homologous structures can be used as an evidence of evolution for the
chordates?
A. Blood vessels
B. Eyes
C. Spinal cords
D. Vertebral columns
86. The graph below follows the growth of a bacterial population. Which letter on the graph represents
the point where the population is at carrying capacity?
A. a
B. b
C. c
D. d

87. The diagram below represents a food web in an ecosystem. Which oof the following is a correct
prediction if the population of hawks in this area increases?
A. The prey populations of hawks might decrease

B. The prey populations of hawks might increase
C. The producers’ populations might increase
D. The producers’ populations remain unchanged
88. Which of the following is an example of a density independent factor affecting an ecosystem?
A. Build-up of toxins
B. Climate temperature
C. Limited nutrients
D. Predation

89. The ecological relationship between two different species is shown in the graph below. What
ecological relationship does the graph represent?
A. Parasitism
B. Extinction
C. Commensalism
D. Mutualism
90. Based on the food chain below, if a disease causes the number of herbivores to decrease, what will
be the effect on the numbers of green plants and carnivores?
green plant → herbivore → carnivore
Number of green plant Carnivore

A. Decrease Decrease
B. Increase Increase
C. Increase Decrease
D. Decrease Increase
91. Which of the following is NOT an example of a density- dependent factor to limit the growth of a
population?
A. Diseases
B. Competition
C. Earthquakes
D. Predators

92. The ecological relationship between two different species is shown in the graph below. What
ecological relationship does the graph represent?
D. Commensalism
B. Competition
A. Parasitism
C. Predation
93. To focus a specimen under high power, which labeled part of the microscope would most likely be
adjusted?
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D

94. A pedigree of a family shows males having colorblindness but females do not. Which of the
following traits represent color blindness?
A. Autosomal dominant
B. Autosomal recessive
C. X-linked dominant
D. X-linked recessive
95. In Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly), dosage compensation is carried out by which of the
following?
A. Decreasing the transcription of the X in the female

B. Degrading one X chromosome in all female cells
C. Degrading one X chromosome in all male cells
D. Increasing the transcription of the X in the male

96. A scientist is studying the phylogeny of 4 species (species 1,2, 3, and 4). To this end, she sequenced
a fragment of DNA and she obtained the following alignment:
Species 1 AATCGGA
Species 2 CAGGTAC
Species 3 AATCTGA
Species 4 CATGTGC
With this alignment, she constructed a phylogenetic tree using the parsimony method (a method that
minimizes the number of changes on a phylogeny).
Which of the 4 phylogenetic trees below is supported by the DNA sequences?
A.
B.
C.
D.

97. Which of the following occurs when sucrose is loaded from the source cells into the phloem?
A. High water potential at T

B. High water potential at W
C. High water potential at Y
D. High water potential at Z
98. Which of the following is true about cyclic phosphorylation?
A. Lost electrons from photosystem II are replaced by electrons from

photosystem I
B. NADPH and H+ are produced as a result of photoactivation
C. Photoactivated electrons pass along the electron transport chain before
returning to photosystem I
D. Photolysis of water molecules occurs to release electrons that replace
electron lost from the reaction center
99. According to the pressure flow hypothesis, which of the following occurs directly after actively
loading the sugar into the sieve tube element at the source?
A. Sugars are pushed down to the sink cell

B. Sugars are unloaded from sieve tube elements into the sink cell
C. Water diffuses from the sieve tube elements into xylem
D. Water diffuses from the xylem into the sieve tube elements

100. A student tested 2 food samples (Sample A and Sample B) using different reagents. The color in
sample A changed to blue-black after adding few drops of iodine solution and violet in sample B
after adding few drops of biuret solution. Which molecules are found in samples A and B?
A. A: fructose and B: oil

B. A: protein and B: oil
C. A: starch and B: protein
D. A: sucrose and B: glucose
101. Which of the following best explains commensalism?
A. +/0
B. -/+
C. -/-
D. -/0
102. Which of the following is the most effective way to protect biodiversity?
A. Crop rotation
B. Habitat fragmentation
C. Habitat preservation
D. Land development
103. What is one advantage of monoculture farming practice?
A. It decreases greenhouse effect

B. It decreases the demand for fertilizers
C. It increases the diversity of soil microbes below ground
D. It lowers the amount of extra land required
104. Which of the following shows the base sequence of mRNA produced from the DNA strand below?
3' CCGAAATTCGGG 5'
A. 5' GGCUUUAAGCCC 3'

B. 3' GGCTTTAAGCCC 5'
C. 5' GGCTTTAAGCCC 3'
D. 3' GGCUUUAAGCCC 5'

105. In the binomial system of nomenclature, which two classification groups provide the scientific
name of an organism?
A. Class and order

B. Genus and species
C. Kingdom and phylum
D. Phylum and species
106. The burning sensation that is felt during intense exercise is caused by the accumulation of which
substance in the muscles?
A. Ethanol
B. Lactate
C. Oxygen
D. Pyruvate
107. A hemophilic son was born to normal parents. What would be the genotype of his mother?
A. XHXH
B. XHXh
C. XHY
D. XhY
108. Which of the following is a density-independent limiting factor?
A. Damming rivers
B. Food shortage
C. Infectious diseases
D. Water usage

109. Which cell structure stores and releases neurotransmitters by calcium-triggered exocytosis?
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
110. Where does the majority of chemical digestion occur?
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D

111. Which feedback mechanism maintains human body temperature when the surrounding
temperature increases?
A. The blood vessels in the skin constrict, sending a message to the brain. The
brain sends a response to temperature-sensitive receptors in the skin to
prevent loss of heat
B. The muscles in the skin contract, sending a message to the brain. The brain
sends a response to decrease the blood flow in the blood vessels of the skin
to prevent loss of heat
C. The temperature-sensitive receptors in the brain send a message to the
muscles of the skin to contract allowing more heat to be lost
D. The temperature-sensitive receptors in the skin send a message to the brain.
The brain sends a response to increase the blood flow in the blood vessels of
the skin to lose heat
112. Which of the following tissue types is responsible for support and bonding of body parts?
A. Connective tissue
B. Epithelial tissue
C. Muscular tissue
D. Nervous tissue
113. In which of the following skin layers the secretory portion of the sweat glands are found?
A. Adipose tissue
B. Dermis
C. Epidermis
D. Subcutaneous
114. At which stage of action potential, the sodium channels open within the cellular membrane to allow
sodium ions to enter the cell and become more positive?
A. Depolarization
B. Hyperpolarization
C. Polarization
D. Repolarization

115. Which stage of cell division do the following figure represent?
A. Anaphase I
B. Anaphase II
C. Metaphase I
D. Metaphase II
116. What is the ecological definition of a population?
A. A group of different species that live together in a particular geographic area

B. A group of unrelated species that interact with living and nonliving components
within the environment
C. A group of related species that interact with living and nonliving components
within the environment
D. A subset of individuals of one species that occupies a particular geographic area
117. Which of the following statement is correct regarding the "induced-fit model' in enzyme-substrate
interaction?
A. The active site of the enzyme changes its shape to accept a substrate
B. The enzyme directly binds to the substrate to form an enzyme-substrate complex
C. The shape of the enzyme is changed by the chemical reaction
D. The structure of the active site of the enzyme is changed by the substrate
118. A student immersed a small piece of potato tissue in a 0.25M sucrose solution and the tissue
showed no change in mass. What would the student find out when he immerses the piece in a 0.10M
sucrose solution?
A. The mass would have decreased because the water potential of the cells has
increased
B. The mass would have decreased because the water potential of the solution
has increased
C. The mass would have increased because the water potential of the cells has
decreased
D. The mass would have increased because the water potential of the solution
has decreased

119. Which statement is correct about the viral lytic cycle?
A. The viral DNA destroys the host's DNA and takes over its cellular functions
B. The viral DNA integrates into the host's DNA
C. The viral DNA replicates along with the host's DNA replication
D. The viral DNA replicates independently from the host's DNA replication
120. Cystic fibrosis is a chronic and frequently fatal genetic disease of the body’s mucus glands. It is
caused by an autosomal recessive mutation. In the European population, one out of approximately
10,000 babies is born with the disorder. What is the frequency of the cystic fibrosis allele in the
European population assuming the Hardy-Weinberg conditions are met?
A. 0.0001
B. 0.01
C. 0.1
D. 1.0
121. Which of the following macromolecules contains sulphur?
A. Carbohydrates
B. Lipids
C. Nucleic acids
D. Proteins
122. Adaptive radiation can be best described as_______.
A. A group of related organisms divergently evoluted in a new environment

into a multitude of new forms
B. A group of related organisms independently evolve similar characteristics
even after their divergence from a common ancestor
C. A group of unrelated organisms independently evolve analogous structures
D. A group of unrelated organisms re-evolve the characteristics of an ancestral
species
123. Which of the following occurs when a skeletal muscle contracts?
A. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) breaks down acetylcholine at the

neuromuscular junction
B. ATP causes linkage between the heads of myosin and actin to break
C. Ca++ ions are actively pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum using
ATP
D. Myosin heads bind actin, forming cross-bridges between the myosin and
actin filaments

124. A student measures the amount of DNA present in diploid cells at G1 phase of cell cycle. If this
amount is X, what would be the amount of DNA present in the same cells at the metaphases of
meiosis I?
A. 0.5 X
B. X
C. 2X
D. 4X
125. The following pedigree represents the inheritance of an autosomal recessive syndrome in a family.
If the affected male in generation II marries a normal female who is homozygous for the trait, what
is the possibility to have an affected child?
A. 100%
B. 25%
C. 50%
D. 0%
126. Under normal conditions, which of the followings should not be present in human urine?
A. Erythrocytes
B. K+
C. NaCl
D. Urea
127. What is the effect of a low pH on the affinity of hemoglobin for the oxygen?
A. It increases at the beginning and subsequently decreases

B. It has no effect
C. It increases
D. It decreases

128. Which of the following cell structure is responsible for making proteins?
A. Lysosome
B. Mitochondria
C. Peroxisome
D. Ribosome
129. Which of the following is an example of asexual reproduction in prokaryotes?
A. Binary fission
B. Conjugation
C. Transduction
D. Transformation
130. DNA replication takes place in which phase in the cell cycle?
A. Growth phase
B. Prophase
C. Synthesis phase
D. Telophase
131. The two sequences shown below represents DNA molecules isolated from the same cell. What can
be concluded regarding these sequences?
ATTCAGGAAAT
ATTCTGGAAAT
A. Initially it was in the nucleus then transferred to the cytoplasm

B. Initially it was the same sequence then it has mutated
C. They are two identical alleles of the same gene
D. They represent two complementary sequences

132. What type of synapses within the central nervous system is shown in the picture below?
A. Axo-axonic
B. Axo-dendritic
C. Axo-somatic
D. Dendro-dendritic

Answer Key of Practice Questions
Question Answer
1 B
2 C
3 D
4 D
5 D
6 D
7 D
8 D
9 D
10 D
11 B
12 B
13 B
14 B
15 C
16 C
17 C
18 B
19 A
20 D
21 D
22 D
23 D
24 D
25 D
26 D
27 B
28 B
29 C
30 D
31 A
32 D
33 C
34 C
35 D
36 D
37 D
38 D
39 D
40 D
41 D
42 D

43 A
44 A
45 C
46 D
47 B
48 B
49 D
50 D
51 D
52 D
53 D
54 D
55 D
56 D
57 D
58 D
59 C
60 D
61 A
62 C
63 A
64 B
65 D
66 B
67 B
68 A
69 B
70 A
71 C
72 A
73 D
74 D
75 A
76 C
77 A
78 B
79 D
80 D
81 B
82 D
83 A
84 A
85 D
86 D
87 B

88 B
89 D
90 C
91 C
92 C
93 A
94 D
95 D
96 D
97 D
98 C
99 D
100 C
101 A
102 C
103 D
104 A
105 B
106 B
107 B
108 A
109 D
110 C
111 D
112 A
113 B
114 A
115 D
116 D
117 D
118 C
119 D
120 D
121 D
122 A
123 D
124 C
125 D
126 A
127 D
128 D
129 A
130 C
131 B
132 B

References
1- EmSAT Sample Tests. (2017). The Emirates Standardized Test. Retrieved October 8, 2022, from
https://emsat.moe.gov.ae/emsat/default.aspx
2- McGraw Hill. (2021). Inspire Biology, Student Edition (1st ed.)
3- Revision Notes. (2022). Save My Exams. Retrieved October 1, 2022, from
https://www.savemyexams.co.uk.
4- Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms. (n.d.). SlidePlayer. Retrieved October 1, 2022, from
https://slideplayer.com/slide/12272065
5- Enzymes. (n.d.). Raja Narendra Lal Khan Women’s College. Retrieved October 1, 2022, from
http://www.rnlkwc.ac.in/pdf/study-material/bmlt/enzyme.pdf
6- Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity. (2014). The Wayback Machine. Retrieved October 1, 2022, from
https://web.archive.org/web/20210616080107/https:/alevelbiology.co.uk/notes/factors-
affecting-enzyme-activity/
7- Cellular respiration notes. (2017). Warren County Schools.
https://www.warrencountyschools.org/userfiles/2623/Classes/10683/CellularRespirationNot
es.pdf
8- Student’s Guide: How to Use a Light Microscope. (n.d.). Microscope Com. Retrieved October 1, 2022,
from https://www.microscope.com/students-guide-light-microscope
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_Cell_Transport___Solubility_-_ppt-Cell_Transport_Notes.pdf
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17- Images of Summary Notes section were used as per the Creative Commons licensing regulations

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EmSAT BIOLOGY

Summary Notes and Practice Questions

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Note on how to navigate the document:

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Chemical Test for Resulted color

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Induced fit Model

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- Glycolysis means "splitting sugars."

- The Krebs Cycle:

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- The Electron Transport Chain (ETC):

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- Parts and functions of the light microscope:

- Comparison between the light microscope and the electron microscope

Characteristic Light Microscope Electron Microscope

Magnification Up to 2000X Up to 2,000,000X

Resolution 200nm 0.5nm

Image produced by Visible light Electron beam

Lenses Glass Electromagnetic

Specimen Live or dead Always dead

Required stain Not always Always

EMSAT BIOLOGY: SUMMARY NOTES & PRACTICE QUESTIONS- ATHS-CDU 18

- The cell theory includes three main ideas:

- Two basic cell types:

- Eukaryotic cell structure:

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- Levels of organization in the human body:

Cell → Tissue → Organ → Organ System

- Types of tissues in the human body:

Type Function Location

- Human body systems: A summary table can be viewed in this website.

- How neurons generate and transmit impulses?

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- Cell division is a key to growth, repair, and reproduction of organisms.

- Two main phases: Interphase and M phase

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