1974 MAY

University
.

GI-418340 No. Grant Under

State
Oregon
(RANN) Needs National to Applied Research
Foundation, Science National the by Supported

Lissaman S. B. Peter And Wilson E. Robert 1-

MACHINES
POWER WIND
Of
AERODYNAMICS
APPLIED
 1974 July,

California Pasadena,
Inc. Aerovironment,
Lissaman S. B. Peter

and

97331 Oregon Corvallis,

University State Oregon
Wilson E. Robert

by

MACHINES POWER WIND

OF

AERODYNAMICS APPLIED
79 Relations Approximate
74 Gradient Wind Vertical of Effects The
73 Introduction
73 GRADIENT WIND VERTICAL TO DUE MOMENTS AND FORCES 6, CHAPTER

69 Rotor Circular The

64 Rotor Darrieus
61 Wake the of Modeling Vortex
61 MACHINES AXIS CROSS-WIND 5, CHAPTER

59 Theory Vortex
54 Glauert Rotor; Optimum The
49 Models Loss Tip
44 Equations Flow Annulus
39 Wake the of Representation Vortex
39 THEORY VORTEX/STRIP ROTORS; AXIS WIND 4, CHAPTER

34 Actuators Ducted
25 States Flow Multiple of Model Simple
20 Rotation Wake of Effect
17 Theory Rankine-Froude
17 THEORY MOMENTUM GENERAL ROTORS; AXIS WIND 3, CHAPTER

12 Translators Lifting
11 Translators Drag
11 MACHINES POWER WIND TRANSLATING 2, CHAPTER

8 Rotor Circulation-Controlled
7 Design Smith-Putnam
6 Rotor Ducted
6 Machines Axis - Wind
5 Rotor Darrieus
4 Rotor Madaras
3 Rotor Savonius
3 Machines Cross-Wind-Axis
2 Power Wind in Aerodynamics of Role
1 INTRODUCTION 1, CHAPTER

page

CONTENTS OF TABLE
107 FACTORS "F" THE OF USE II, APPENDIX

89 INSTRUCTIONS OPERATION PROGRAM I, APPENDIX

87 SYMBOLS

85 REFERENCES

page (cont'd.) Contents of Table

 45 Element Blade Rotor a for Diagram Velocity 4.5
45 Element Blade Rotor 4.4
43 Rotor Two-Bladed a of System Vortex of Idealization 4.3

41 Shown) Are Blades Two (Only

Rotor Multi-Bladed a for System Lattice Vortex 4.2
40 Disc Actuator 4.1

36 Geometry Windmill Ducted 3.10

32 Angles Pitch Blade Various for States Element Blade 3.9
30 Coordinates Element Blade 3.8
29 Modes Various for Force Blades 3.7
28 Modes Operation Rotor 3.6
26 State Brake Propeller 3.5
25 Wake Vortex Rankine a with Rotor a for
Ratio Speed Tip vs Coefficient Power Maximum 3.4
24 Wake Inotational an with Flow for Velocities
Induced the on Ratio Speed Tip of Effect 3.3

21 Geometry Streamtube 3.2

17 Turbine Wind a Past Flow One-Dimensional 3.1

15 Wind Relative with Airfoil Translating 2.4

14 Ratio Lift-Drag vs Airfoil Translating a From Power 2.3
13 Airfoil Translating 2.2
11 Device Drag Translating 2.1

10 Machines Power Wind of Performance Typical 1.6

8 Turbine Wind Smith-Putnam 1.5

6 Rotor Ducted Enfield-Andreau 1.4

5 Rotor Darrieus 1.3

4 Effect Magnus 1.2

3 Rotor Savonius 1.1

page

FIGURES OF LIST
84 Gradient Wind To
Due Output Power In Reduction Percent 6.3

76 Diagram Velocity Blade 6.2

75 Gradient Wind a in Rotor 6.1

70 Length Equal of Caternary and Circle Troposkien, 5.4

65 Turbine Crosswind-Axis a for System Flow 5.3

63 Actuator Axis Crosswind Bladed Single of System Vortex 5.2

62 Actuator Axis Cross-Wind of Shedding Vortex 5.1

55 Diagram Velocity 4.9

53 00 = Op Turbine Wind
Smith-Putnam the for Speed Wind Versus Output Power 4.8

52 Turbine Wind Smith-Putnam the of Performance Calculated 4.7

48 Rotor a of State Working 4.6

page (cont'd.) Figures of List

78 Sums Trigonometric 6.1

59 Disk Actuator Optimum the for Parameters Blade 4.3

57 Disk Actuator Optimum the for X vs Cp 4.2

56 Disk Actuator Optimum the for Conditions Flow 4.1

page

TABLES OF LIST
 APPLIED AEROOY:\iAMICS OF WIND lvlAGIINES

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTI ON

Recent interest in wind machines has resulted in the reinvention and

analysis of many of the wind power machines developed over the past centuries.

Because of the considerable time period since the last large scale interest

in this country, which occurred over twenty-five years ago (1) a considerable

amount of information that was published is out of print or not generally

available. An excellent bibliography of the work published prior to 1945 was

collected by the War Production Board in a report issued by ｾ･ｷ＠ York Univer-

sity (2). Golding's work (3) published in 1955 also contains an extensive

bibliography and covers the work done in England in the 1950's. It is the

purpose of this paper to review the aerodynamics of various types of wind

power machines and to indicate advantages and disadvantages of various schemes

for obtaining power from the wind.

The advent of the digital computer makes the task of preparing general

performance plots for wind machines quite easy. Simple, one-dimensional

models for various power producing machines are given along with their per-

formance characteristics and presented as a function of their elementary aero-

dynamic and kinematic characteristics. Propeller type wind turb ine theory is

reviewed to level of strip theory including both induced axial and tangential

velocities. It is intended that this publication be of use in rapid eval-

uation and comparative analys is of the aerodynamic performance of wind

power machines.
1.1 Role of Aerodynamics in Wind Power

The success of wind power as an alternate energy sources is obviously a

direct function of the economics of production of wind power machines. In

this regard, the role of improved power output through the development of

better aerodynamic performance offers some potential return, however, the

focus is on the cost of the entire system of which, the air-to-mechanical-

energy transducer is but one part. The technology and methodology used to

develop present day fixed and rotating-wing aircraft appears to be adequate

to develop wind power.

One of the key areas associated with future development of wind power is

rotor dynamics. The interaction of inertial, elastic and aerodynamic forces

will have a direct bearing on the manufacture, life and operation of wind

power systems while at the same time have a minor effect on the power out-

put. Thus the aerodynamics of performance prediction, quasi-static in nature,

is deemed adequately developed while the subject of aeroelasticity remains to

be transferred from aircraft applications to wind power applications.

1.2 Wind Power Machines

Since 1920 there have been numerous attempts in designing feasible wind-

mills for large scale power generation in accordance with modern theories.

This section describes representative types of these designs.

It is convenient to classify wind-driven machines by the direction of

their axis of rotation relative to wind direction as follows:

1. Wind-Axis Machines; machines whose axis of rotation is parall el

to the direction of the wind.

2. Cross Wind-Axis Machines; machines whose axis or rotation is

perpendicular to the direction of the wind.

2
CROSS-WIND-AXIS MACHINES

SAVONIUS ROTOR

The Savonius Rotor in its most simplified form appears as a vertical

cylinder sliced in half from top to bottom; the two halves being displaced as

shown in Figure 1.1. It appears to work on the same principle as a cup ane-

mometer with the addition that wind can pass between the bent sheets. In

this manner torque is produced by the pressure difference between the concave

and convex surfaces of the half facing the wind and also by recirculation ef-

fects on the convex surface that comes backwards upwind. The Savonius design

was fairly efficient, reaching a maximum of around 31%, but it was very inef-

ficient with respect to the weight per unit power output since its construc-

tion results in all the area that is swept out being occupied by metal. A

Savonius rotor requires 30 times more surface for the same power as a conven-

tional rotor blade wind-turbine. Therefore it is only useful and economical

for small power requirements.

Figure 1.1 Savonius Rotor

3
 4

full-sized single A design. this with done being little very in resulted locations, top mountain

on use for unsuitability its with coupled losses, electrical and losses, mechanical design,

aerodynamic poor system's the However axles. car the to connected generators drive and track

the around cars the propel would effect Magnus The motor. electric an by driven and diameter,

in feet 18 high, feet 90 been have to was cylinder Each move. would flat-cars, on vertically

mounted cylinders, rotating which around track circular a construct to proposed Madaras

Effect Magnus 1.2 Figure

produced. be to cylinder the of

axis the and flow the to perpendicular force lift a causing induced is circulation Thus developed.

partly only is separation side lower the On eliminated. completely is separation direction,

same the in moving are cylinder the and flow the when surface, cylinder the of half upper

the On flow. the to angle right a at stream a in placed cylinder rotating a about exists which

pattern flow the shows 1.2 Figure cylinder. a of rotating the involves effect Magnus the achieve

to way simplest The boundary. solid the and fluid the between velocity relative the of reduction

by formation layer boundary suppress to attempts which technique control layer boundary

a involves it essence In effect. Magnus the of principle the on works Rotor Madaras The

ROTOR MADARAS
 5

diameter.

in feet 20 than less are built rotors Darrieus largest the date To uncertain. remains more, or kw

100 production, power of levels higher to rOtor type Darrieus the scale to ability The production.

power economical for candidate promising a it make production cost low for potential associated

and design of simplicity The starting. for input power requires and rotor propeller-type

a of that near performance has rotor Darrieus The Ottawa. in Canada of Council Research

National the of (20) Rangi & South by investigated been recently has Rotor Darrieus The

Rotor Darrieus 1.3 Figure

below. 1.3 Figure in sketched

rotor axis vertical a for 1926 in patent States United a filed Paris of Darrieus Georges

ROTOR DARRIEUS

since. done

been has development further no but testing for Jersey New Burlington, in built was cylinder
 6

they that so designed are blades The mph. 60 to 30 of speeds wind at effective were and pitch

blade the vary to used were motors hydraulic speed rotor constant maintain to order In

Rotor Ducted Enfield-Andreau 1.4 Figure

GENERATOR
INTAKES AIR

TUR8INE

VENT AIR

PROPELLER

VENT AIR

rpm. 95 at wind mph

35 a in kilowatts 100 producing of capable is and diameter in feet 80 was blade The generator.

a drives that turbine a through passes it tower the through flows air As tower. high foot

100 the in created semi-vacuum the through air up draws also pedestal blade the and rotor the

of tip the between difference pressure the time same the At tips. blade the through tower hollow

the from air pulls force centrifugal wind, the by turned are blades the As generator. the and

propeller the between coupling no has it machines conventional Unlike 1.4. Figure in shown as

blades airplane-type hollow two with windmill experimental an built British the 1954 In

ROTOR DUCTED

MACHINES WIND-AXIS
 7

turbines. wind scale large by generation power electrical of possibilities

the illustrated design Smith-Putnam the blade, the of failure structural the of spite In

design. this with experimentation ended and off flew blades the of one 1945 In years. two

for secured be not could replacement a and failed bearing main inch 24 the when 1943 February

until unit test a as operated and 1941 M erected was 1.5, Figure in shown The:turbine,

kilowatts. 1,000 generate

to intended was turbine wind The edge. leading the on ice of inches six with mph 100 and

mph 120 to up wind withstand to designed was plant power The cylinders. oil-filled by damped

itself was coning The speed. constant reasonably a maintain still and gusts sudden against

guard to 20° to up cone to ability an with designed were blades The edgewise. turning by feather

to began blades the increased, velocity wind the As above. and mph 18 of velocities wind

at rpm 28.7 of speed constant a at blades the keeping automatic, was control pitch The

tower. foot 100 a by supported

were and tons 250 about weighed generator and rotor The sections. airfoil 4418 NACA

using blades steel stainless two of consisted and feet 175 was diameter rotor The constructed.

ever largest the was Vermont in Knob Grandpa's at built windmill Smith-Putnam The

DESIGN SMITH-PUTNAM

aloft. supported not is equipment generating power

the that is system this of advantage main The system. operated power a by controlled and aided

is wind the into face to rotor the of motion The gusts. heavy of pressure wind under flap can
 8

lift. generate which of all surface, lower the on suction in decrease a and surface upper the

on suction in increase an is there and blowing by induced is circulation time same the At drag.

viscous in increase accompanying an is there but reduced is drag pressure the Consequently,

cylinder. the on back further separation of point the moving thereby cylinder the of

surface upper the of layer boundary energy low the re-energizes Blowing separation. flow delay

to technique control layer boundary a is briefly, principle, This slots. small from blades the

of surfaces upper the around tangentially air of sheets blowing by generated is lift rotor, the of

blades cylindrical the rotating of Instead 1920's. the of Rotor Flettner the and Rotor Madams the

of that to similar quite is Turbine Wind Rotor Circulation-Controlled the of concept The

ROTOR CIRCULATION-CONTROLLED

Turbine Wind Smith-Putnam 1.5 Figure

 9

constructed. been have that rotors

of types various the of comparison performance a gives page following the on 1.6 Figure

rotor.

circular a of simplicity structural the offset to enough large was area) disk the by. divided area

projected (rotor solidity rotor required the ratios speed low-tip at while rotor, the from output

power than greater was jet the drive to power compressor the ratios speed high-tip at that found

was it and University State Oregon at made was design this of investigation analytical An

environment. operating its with cope to structure

rigid very a and control, construction, easy for provides design This controls. pitch complicated

foregoing thereby slot, the of location the adjusting by achieved is coefficient lift constant

spanwise The stiff. very be to it causes blade of type this of cross-section cylindrical a of inertia

of moment large The fastened. solidly was that blade propeller conventional a of difficulties

the without hub the to rigidly mounted be can blade the because needed is coning or flapping no

Second, gusts. sudden with up speed to tend not would rotor the therefore gusts, to insensitive

is cylinder the lift zero at First, advantages. of number a possesses design This
 10

Machines. Power Wind of Performance Typical 1.6 Figure

SPEED SPEED/STREAM PER =TIP RATIO SPEED

6 5 4 3 2

Type Arm Four Dutch

Rotor Darrieus
Rotor Sayonius

Type Blade - Multi American

Type Blade Two Speed High

0
Windmills Type
Propeller for Efficiency Ideal

0.6
 11

(2-1)
D
Sv C v)2 p (1/2) = Dv = P
(Ko

-
by expressed is power the that so v V.Q velocity relative a sees device drag The

velocity. translation the and drag the of product the is P, extracted, power the device a such For

Device Drag Translating 2.1 Figure

device. drag elementary the of action the illustrates

2.1 Figure drag. by driven be to machine the consider First, machine. rotating of element blade

instantaneous an as considered be can translation the since machines rotary various examining in

illustrative be can devices drag-driven and lift-driven translating of Analysis extraction. power

than rather propulsion for used been have devices translating wind-driven Historically,

wind. the of action under line

straight a in loves that device the is machine power wind of type simple most the Perhaps

TRANSLATORS DRAG 2.1

MACHINES POWER WIND TRANSLATING

2 CHAPTER
 16

direction. wind in changes to sensitivity and ground

the to proximity are translators of disadvantages Other land. and machines in investment capital

extensive mean speeds large as disadvantage chief the are rates extraction power high achieve

to translator the for required speeds large The speeds. low at velocity translator of independent

relatively is translator a by produced force the contrast In velocity. translation the with

linearly vary to seen is translator a of output power the velocity, wind the below speeds At wind.
 17

Turbine Wind a Past Flow One-Dimensional 3.1 Figure

motion.

rotational no with axial entirely be to assumed is flow the if power and thrust the determine may

we flow the to energy and momentum, continuity, Applying device. wind a by slowed is which

V. is wind stream free The below. shown as turbine wind a past flow consider (5,6) Froude

E. R. and W. and (4) Rankine by originated theory momentum axial the with Starting

THEORY RANKINE-FROUDE 3.1

output. power to geometry

blade linking approach detailed more a. to proceed then and turbine wind a of output the of

analysis one-dimensional a consider will we step first a As production. power wind scale large

for candidate leading the and machine efficient most the (1), 1940 in as today, remains turbine

wind or windmill type propeller The turbines. wind to attention our turn us let Now

THEORY MOMENTUM GENERAL ROTORS; AXIS WIND

3 CHAPTER
 18

Or

c° 2 2 2
+umv. (v. upA pAu = P
}= 1y,20

p. = pi with flow, isothermal assuming thermodynamics, of law first the From is. power

the however, importance; great of immediately not is thrust The disc. the at change velocity

the twice is ui, - V. change velocity wake final the , 2aV. Ui= - V. that note aV., u-

denote we If velocities. final and initial the of average the is disc the at velocity the i.e.,

2
(3-4) =U
ui +

obtain we expression momentum the with together

2
(3-3) p T
(V02,,

that so wake the and turbine the of side downwind the between again and

turbine the of side upwind the and stream free between used be may Equation Bernoulli the Now

,
(3-2) -p- =p Ap where AAp = T

machine wind the by caused drop pressure the of consideration from Second

=T
(3-1) -ui) (Voo pAu )= (Vo(,

theorem momentum the from First, obtained. be may thrust the for expressions Two
 19

energy, kinetic translational to addition in wake the in energy kinetic rotational is there If sense.

opposite the in rotates wake the (windmill), device extracting energy an of case the in propeller,

the of direction the in rotates wake the propeller, a of case the In rotate. to wake the cause will

machine wind rotating a with interaction rotational, not is stream initial the As rotation. wake of

consideration additional the with accomplished be can modeling one-dimensional Further

88.8%. is coefficient power maximum at efficiency

The 0.5. of coefficient power a yields which 1/2 = a at 100% is efficiency maximum The

2
pAu
= V2
(3-7) a) 441

by given is available power by divided output power efficiency, the Hence Au. but AV., not

is disc the through rate flow mass the since efficiency maximum the represent not does however,

(3-6), Equation rotor. the by out swept that to equivalent area an in contained wind the of energy

kinetic the is denominator the that noted be may it (3-6) equation examining When

obtain we 2a), - (1 V., = ui as

. axam
1/2 =

so zero, is velocity wake final minimum The air. the on turbine the of influence the of measure a

is and factor interference axial the as known is (a) term The defined. is power maximum a Thus

27 pAV.3 1/2
(3-6)
16 Pmax

1/3 = a when maximum a has which

pAV:: 1/2
(3-5) ) 441 =
 20

bounds. establishing in results the to utility affords which model

simple a yielding inserted core rotational a and out subtracted be may velocities angular high

of regions the of contribution the however axis, rotation the near velocities rotational unrealistic

produces irrotational, be to assumed if model, flow wake The estimated. be may removal

power on rotation wake of effect the turbines, wind of analysis the to notation his Adopting

propellers. of analysis the in rotation wake of effect the considered (7) Joukowski

ROTATION WAKE OF EFFECT 3.2

torque. low and velocity angular

,
high means which low is ER2 when occur will extraction power greatest the ETi energy

initial of amount given a for so, energy, kinetic rotational wake greater thereby and momentum

angular wake greater produces torque increased that note velocity), (angular x (torque) = P as

ER2
T2
E ET1 =P

thermodynamics From

Rotation Translation
T2
ER2 + E = Energy Kinetic Final

P= Extracted Power

ETi = Energy Kinetic Initial

velocity.

angular rotor to energy kinetic rotational wake relate will example simple following The

translation. only having wake the of

case the in than extraction power lower expect may we considerations thermodynamic from then
 21

(3-9) =
ri2(01 r2CO

Momentum of Moment

(3-8) uiridr = urdr

Continuity

are: equations resulting The

geometry Streamtube 3.2 Figure

Wake Rotor

streamtube. the illustrates below 3.2 Figure

wake. the in and rotor the at velocities induced

the of values relative the on rotation of effects the of measure a is approach this of outcome main

The obtained. be can coefficient power the for expression an cases, special certain for addition,

In rotor. the at velocities corresponding the and rotational, and axial both velocities, wake the

between relation the express that written be can equations analysis, streamtube a Using
 22

obtained. be also may element annular an for thrust and torque the for Expressions

zero. be to assumed been has drag Fluid

rotor. the at discontinuously changes rotor

the of rotation of direction the opposite is which fluid, the of velocity angular The

radially. vary velocities axial wake and rotor The

velocity. rotational the to due wake the across varies pressure The

noted. be may flow the of features Several

equation. Euler's and equation

Bernoulli's are used equation momentum the of fauns particular The solution. a obtain to order

in co, say variables, the of one of specification needs one and obtained be cannot Closure wake.

the in flow and torque thrust, between relations the obtain to used be may equations four These

\
\ dr]. 2 dr1
1) 1 (3-
) (a)? d wi) (c2
2 2 ( d

obtained. be may velocity

axial in gradient radial the for expression an Finally rotor. the of velocity angular the is 5-2 where

U U1
= 00 2 /
(3-10) ulahri2 2 2 )2 (u1
+ +
(01
(0"

Energy

equation, energy an obtain

may we addition, In fluid. the of velocities angular wake and rotor the are coi and co where
 23

a b A 0/003 y2
power cp
a)2 (1 b2

and

a), (13 4X2 2

(3-12) 1
=a
42 (1 b'

obtain may We

a) (1 Voo
a u

b) (1 V.,

Defining

constant. is velocity axial wake the constant

is r2o) when that seen be may it gradient, velocity radial wake the for expression the From

+ = dT
r2codA
22-2) p(S)

THRUST

= dQ
pur2o3dA

TORQUE
 24

a b = Cp
(3-13) N)b] (1 +
a)2[2Na 11(1

obtain we N::----0/coma, Letting wake. vortex

Rankine a substitute may we wake, vortex irrotational an of lieu In axis. the near velocities

infinite produces constant = r2e) since modification some requires coefficient power The

2. above ratios speed tip for wake

in value the 1/2 approximately always is disc the at change velocity axial the that observed be

may It X. and a of function a as a/b ratio the of variation the illustrates above 3.3 Figure

Wake. Irrotational
an with Flow for Velocities Induced the on Ratio Speed Tip of Effect 3.3 Figure

-u
a:
0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

0.2

0.4
III

0.6

0.8

I.0
 25

the continue to simple quite is it 0 < a For 1. < <a 0 is that device, extraction power draglike

a as operating is device the that assumed tacitly been has it analysis previous the In

STATES FLOW MULTIPLE OF MODEL SIMPLE 3.3

turbines. wind of theories element blade in rotation

wake neglecting of effect the into insight some affords it model, this with associated difficulties

the of spite In model. flow this criticized recently has (8) Goorjian tubes. steam interacting

non- annular, in occur to flow the requires results these at arrive to used model flow The

Wake. Vortex Rankine

a with Rotor a for Ratio Speed Tip vs Coefficient Power Maximum 3.4 Figure

RD.
5 4 3 2 0

I 0
DISTRIBUTION VELOCITY
ROTATIONAL WAKE

0.2

0.3

8 n>

0.4

0.5

0.6
WMAX

least. the are rotation wake the consequently and torque the where ratios speed

tip high at occur coefficient power of values highest the expected be would As 3.4. Figure in

below shown is wake vortex Rankine a with rotor a for coefficient power maximum The
 26

(3-16) 11al 4a = CT

form the in written be can cases three all Thus,

pAV:, X
= , = CT
(3-15) a) (1 4a Force

(3-14) (1. 4a = Cp

that

case this in find we 3.1 Section in as approach same the using analysis the Continuing

State Brake Propeller 3.5 Figure

below, shown is pattern streamline idealized An state. brake or thrust, reverse the in propeller

a is that flow, forward a induces it that so adjusted pitch its with propeller powered a considering

by modeled physically be may This 1. a> for occurs case interesting particularly A
propeller. a of type that of typical is regime flow This flow. wake the

to energy adding and thrust producing propulsion a as act will device the that show to analysis
 28

Modes Operation Rotor 3.6 Figure

a
.5 1 1.0 0.5 0 -0.5
1 i i 1

Flow To _ 0.6
Added Power

op
0.6

F/ow From
Extracted Power n
I I I f I

a
1.5 1.0 0.5 0 -0.5
I
I 1

_ -1.0
1

THRUST

Propeller
.---v-A"

Windmill
0
Theory
Momentum
Brake ---4.--
Propeller _ 1.0
_

/ /
//
(emperical)
Glauert 1
t DRAG
A I I
2.0
 29

Modes Various For Force Blades 3.7 Figure

Direction Wind

a>I
Brake Propellor

0<a<I/2
Windmill

0=a
Vco
Slip Zero
r.r1

a Force
a<0 aVo 9 Blade
Propellor
S7:7=1V., v/
./1 rf2
Rotation of Plane
 30

Coordinates Element Blade 3.8 Figure

a)V. (1

Rotation of
Direction

L'

Direction
Wind

3.8. Figure in sketched is model This itself. disk the at that twice

is flow induced wake the assuming and terms swirl ignoring theory element blade conventional

use and (propeller) rotor axis wind the example, an as consider, will we model simple our For

themselves. elements blade the on forces lifting by represented as that to momentum wake by

represented as force the connect must we modes the of possibility the establish to order In

wake. the in flow the considering by and itself disc

the at flow the considering by both states these of models physical construct can we Thus,

here. down break will model simplified

our since 1 = a of vicinity close the in regimes flow the avoided-discussing have We blade. the

on torque and force the of sense the illustrate also which 3-7, Figure in sketched are states These

1. a> state, brake propeller the enters rotor the negative, increasingly becomes now 0 As

rotation. of plane the to relative angle zero at be to blade the

for is, that 0; = 0 for exist still can state windmill the that noted be should It 1/3. = a at occurring
 31

(3-23) ila 4a 01= sin x a)cos K1 47cxa

a all for write can we Thus cdrircrdr.

= a as a solidity local a define can We previously. as result same the by given is force blade the
,
while a), - -4a(1 = CT theory momentum by get we 1 a> state propeller-brake the For

rON.. ratio speed tip local the is x where

(3-22) 0] xsin 0 a)cos ( XC

= CT

(3-21) OrFdr = dT

by given is annulus the on force the Thus

(3-20) 0] sin Or 0 a)cos (1 pnc[Vca =

a, 27csin = CL with and WcCL/2 = F

from circulation the get we itself element blade the at flow considering Now

= CT
(3-19) a) 441

by given is coefficient thrust local the and

(3-18) Ircrdr a)2a (1 pV02 = dT

by given is annulus the on force

the theory, momentum By 1. < a state windmill or propeller the in are we Assuming
 32

than larger much becomes constant) = 8 (following disk the on drag-force the now increased,

slightly is flow induced the a, B, at that Assume follows. as is unstable is B state why of

explanation simplified A approached. is state the how upon depending occur and stable both are

C and A that and unstable is B as shown point the that appears it case, mode triple the For

ratio. speed tip

and solidity of fiuiction a is lines force blade the. of slope the that note to interest of is It

Angles Pitch Blade Various For States Element Blade 3.9 Figure

a
1.5 1.0 0.5 -0.5
AMMO

Brake
Propeller

mode. brake propeller one and modes windmill two

states, equilibrium possible three exhibit 0 > 0 02> range intermediate the in angles The occurs.

mode brake propeller the <82 0 for while occurs, propeller thrusting powered simple the <81 0

for that Note 3.9. Figure from seen be easily most can equation this to solutions of nature The
 33

(16)]. [Shapiro, occur states ring vortex the and wake, turbulent the brake, parachute

the of states anomalous the where rotor descending lifting a with associated that is region this

analysis helicopter In theory. rotor helicopter with connection in problem this on done been has

research extensive quite although region, this in flow for exist theories satisfactory No

1. = a of vicinity the in inadequate

quite considered be must analysis brake propeller simple the Again unacceptable. physically is

which configuration streamline a infinity, downstream and disc actuator the between somewhere

velocity wake zero and wake far- the in reversal flow implies here developed model dimensional

one- simple the 1 < <a 0.5 for example, For 0.5. a> for valid considered be not should thus

model, perturbation small a considered be should analysis present the that here note We

characteristic. the of region X low the at occurs which stall,

blade as same the not is behavior this that Note reduced. is a which in technique feather blade

normal the from distinct quite is which control speed of method a is This energy. dump to state

brake propeller the of flow confused the use to possible be may it loads, torque shaft reduced or

winds incoming high to due speed over rotor prevent to necessary is it where cases in However,

windmill a of range design major the in occur not should 0.5 a> of states that note We

continuity. flow violate somehow will 0.5 < a of value the with annuli outer and inner has

which annulus an on 1 < a giving model a that seen be can it example, For inconsistencies. flow

involves inevitably it that and model idealized an is above the that stressed be should It

occur. can 1 < <a 1/2

with solutions no that is theory element blade in assumption working a Thus arguments.

these to according stable are C and A hand, other the On 1.0. = a towards moves system

the and reduced, further is momentum wake this thus momentum, wake the by represented that
 34

pressure; static freestream at exit duct the leaves flow the that assume to usual is it performance

propeller ducted of calculations In technically. effective not is propeller shrouded the account,

into taken are moments pitching duct other and drag duct when and increased, is speed forward

the as reduces shroud the of effectiveness the friction, skin ignoring even that, shown be can

It speed. forward zero at least at ratio, thrust/power its increase thus can and propeller thrusting

a of contraction slipstream the reduce effectively quite can duct a that established well been has

It propellers. powered of thrust static the increase to used frequently are ducts or Shrouds

ACTUATORS DUCTED 3.4

disc. the for a mean the is given perturbation axial of value the and a, uniform

non- to subjected is rotor the fact in thus remainder, the driving is rotor the of portion one

state autorotative the in that noted be should It state. autorotative the terminology, helicopter in

or 0, = Cp to correspond tests these running, free were these Since 3.9. and 3.6 Figures in shown

was curve This tests. windmill free-running of series a from data using and concepts these

using (10) Glauert by constructed was a versus CT of curve performance generalized A

(18). Townend and Bateman, Lock, by given is problem this

to approach classical A flow. axial for occur which singularities the of some eliminates freedom

of degree additional this of introduction The axis. rotor the to angle small some at yawed

but axial, precisely not is flow freestream the that assuming by removed be can 1.0 = a near

flow of anomalies the of many that Wolkovitch, by described as note, to interest of is It

(17).

Wolkovitch by discussed is a of range entire the for performance Rotor occur. well may 0.5

a> with solutions spurious conditions off-design for However, 0.5. a> for conditions analyze to
necessary seldom is it thus 0.5; than less is a modes operating windmill normal most For
 35

as extracted power the write immediately can we , rh is system the through

flow mass the Assuming system. windmill ducted typical a show we 3.10 Figure In

justify. to hard quite are

which assumptions without device this on made be cannot analysis type momentum a rotor, free

the unlike that shown is it which in follows, this of analysis simple A capacity. extraction power

its increased and rotor the through drawn be to flow more caused has duct the effect In 0.593. of

limit rotor free the exceed will coefficient power the area, rotor on based then, velocity, stream

free the thirds two of level optimal the at flow induced axial wake the keeping still white this,

than larger be to section cross wake optimal the cause to possible is it if Thus, disc. windmill the

of that twice be should section cross wake optimal the windmill free a for that showed have We

expansion. wake the increase to be will duct a of effect the viewpoint, physical a From

(19). Rainbird and Lilley 'y given is windmills ducted of analysis comprehensive

A performance. superior have might windmill ducted a that suggested been frequently

has it duct, a to due performance propeller thrusting in improvement the of Because

there.

pressures low the to due duct the of area entry and edge leading the on force the is contribution

this of part major a and duct, the on thrust forward a by represented is force increased

the that noted be should It contraction. slipstream no been lave will there thrust, the increase will

propeller the as section cross same the of duct cylindrical a even that observe to interest of is It

system. the of ratio thrust/power the increase will this than less be to contraction slipstream final

the causes which duct any Thus area. propeller the half one is slipstream ultimate the propeller,

free static a of case the In section. cross wake ultimate the as taken be may area exit duct the

calculation, of purposes for and velocity slipstream in change further no is there consequently,
 36

required. is assumption additional one theory

momentum using Thus, edge. leading the to close very region the for except calculated, be can

interior duct the on pressure the theory one-dimensional By known. not is duct the of outside

the on field pressure the since theory momentum simple by determined be cannot force duct

the but AAp, by given is force propeller the that true still is it duct, the with case, our For

case. propeller free the for a) - pAVoo(1 = th result the gives immediately

This area. actuator the is A where AAH = AAp = T by given is which actuator the on force the is

system the on force the that stating by obtained readily is equation remaining the theory actuator

free For th. for expression an have not do we that in closed not are equations these that note We

(3-25) 2a riiVao = T

as written be may duct) and (rotor system entire the on force This

= MAR = P
(3-24) a) (1 2a MY!

Geometry Windmill Ducted 3.10 Figure

vs.
 37

higher and flow mass higher a with duct the of downstream expansion wake gives case, the be

must which static, freestream than lower is pressure exit the assuming that, seen be will It

(3-29) 2a =
b) b)(2 (2a C;

(3-28) b) 41 (1 4a = Cp

us give which C*p coefficient pressure exit

duct the and area) exit on (based coefficient power the writing by expressed be can This duct.

the for condition flow exit of assumption the by determined are characteristics performance all

analysis of level this At alone. rotor the of that exceed will area, rotor on based system, ducted

the of coefficient power the then 1.54 exceed ratio area rotor to duct the if that observe and

(3-27) /A 2a)Ae 41 (1 4a = Cp

get we then area, rotor of terms in coefficient

power write we If 0.211. = a at 0.385 = Cp.. give to maximumized be can expression This

(3-26) 2a) 41 4a = Cp

obtain we

A, area exit duct the on coefficient power the basing Then, a). 2 - AepV.,(1 Iii= as determined

be can flow mass the and 2a = b get we then static, freestream is exit duct the at pressure

the that theory, propeller ducted powered in done is as assume, we If b). - V.,,(1 as shown

is which exit, duct the at velocity the assuming by satisfied be to this consider can We
 38

loadings. rotor different

at system given a for even and system, rotor duct every for notably vary will which quantity

this on dependent directly is result the since approximation; poor a is coefficient pressure exit the

assuming- that appears It flow. entire the of modeling a upon depends prediction performance

proper a and method simple any by analyzed be cannot windmills ducted Thus

wake. the surrounding tube vortex associated the with energy, different of wake

a implies disc actuator the of addition essential the since flow homoenergetic uniform a in wing

ring a as simply treated be cannot duct the that note We analysis. this into enter must geometry
pressure ensuring and
duct the of details the Evidently surface. bounding wake the on continuity

flows, external and internal computing contour, a assuming techniques, flow potential by shape

wake the compute to principle in possible is it sections, previous the in described As

pressure. exit duct assumed the of terms in plotted

power
is performance the noted be must it paper Rainbird's and Lilley studying In coefficient.
 39

the that Assume process. shedding ring vortex the of model a create can we porosity, infinite to

zero from switched be arbitrarily may .which disc a actuator, prototype the consider we If

flow. freestream the to parallel is tube vortex

wake the that assumed is it where disc, actuator the for used are assumptions Analogous

deformation. wake for account to necessary is it that

wings loaded highly very of cases in only is it However, situation. inconsistent kinematically

a wake, the through flow downwash be will there that implies This flow. freestream

the to parallel wing the leaves wake vortex the assuming by removed usually is problem the

of nature interactive the however, theory; wing ordinary in occurs situation similar A consistent.
are fields pressure and streamline wake the assure to checked flow induced the and assumed

is strength and geometry initial the where process, iterative an by determined be generally

must strength and shape wake the words other In flow. the of dynamics the and kinematics

the both involve must wake inviscid the of solution proper a Thus equilibrium. in is it whether

determine to wake the on fields flow and pressure the compute to possible then is It wake.

this of flow induced the calculate to Law Biot-Savart the use then and distribution vorticity

wake the stipulate usually we models wake advanced more In flow. the of models developing

in assistance great of be can geometry, its and vorticity, this of generation of mode The vorticity.

of sheet a by represented be may head in discontinuity the flow, inviscid an For mainstream.

the from head total different of flow a of consists system windmill a of wake The

WAKE THE OF REPRESENTATION VORTEX 4.1

THEORY VORTEX/STRIP ROTORS: AXIS WIND

4 CHAPTER
 40

low. fact in is torque the power given a for that so large be must ratio

speed tip the windmill, type propeller a of model approximate an be to this For torque. no is

there hence and wake the in velocity tangential no has system this that observed be will It

disc. the at that twice is wake downstream the in flow induced the

that analysis, momentum the from obtained already result the demonstrating of way another is

This tube. semi-infinite a of end the at that twice becomes flow axial the and removed are flows

radial singular the then system, this to added were strength appropriate of tube vortex another f I

edge. tube the at infinite are flows radial the although section, cross the over flow axial induced

uniform a gives solution the state to except here, these into go not will We end. its at tube

vortex semi-infinite a of flow induced the compute to available are methods Standard

disc. actuator the as diameter same the have will tube vortex the loads, light of hypothesis

an using and developed, is strength constant of tube vortex a assume we if limit, the In

Disc Actuator 4.1 Figure

4.1. Figure in shown as freestream the with downstream convected be will which vortices ring

of series a shed now will disc The motion. rearward the during porous fully and mainstream)

the (against motion forward the during solid is and backwards and forwards oscillated is disc
 41

inside located be could induction different completely of annulus Another systems. tube vortex

circular two superimposing by seen be can as annuli, other affect not does system a such of flow

induced the words, other In cylinder. annular this to confined entirely perturbations tangential

and axial with model self-consistent fully a is this mainstream, the to parallel cylinders circular

right considered be may boundaries wake the which in system loaded lightly a For

Shown) Are Blades Two (Only Rotor Multi-Bladed a for System Lattice Vortex 4.2 Figure

itself. disc the at vorticity radial by

connected geometry, similar of lines vortex spanwise and ring of consists tube vortex inner the of

surface the Then annulus. an is disc actuator the that assume to is model this of variant A

4.2). (Figure

cylinder wake the along vorticity streamwise distributed with strength finite of vortex central

a implies this that see we lines, vortex of kinematics the on Laws Helmholtz's satisfy to order In

circulation. blade constant of system many-bladed a representing disc, the of plane the in lines

vorticity radial of number large a with this model can we theory, disc actuator with Consistent

torque. introduces which one is model simple this to add to refinement next The
 42

realistic. more becomes sheet vortex bounding continuous a of idealization

the that so packed, densely more be to tern sys helix finite the cause will blades of number large

a or ratio, tip-speed large a that also note We 4.3. Figure of system helix the of components

as considered be could. systems vortex streamwise and ring the where 4.2, Figure of wake

the of that to structure similar somewhat contains model bladed finite this that note We

ratio. tip-speed the to related directly

is vortices the of angle helix The 4.3. Figure in sketched as becomes geometry vortex wake the

then flow, local the to parallel lies vortex the that and tips and root the at only occurs shedding

vortex that Assuming occurs. situation different somewhat a velocity finite a at rotating

and blades of number finite a having system rotor realistic more a consider now we If

models. simple in assumed as head, total reduced of be to flow wake the

permits it Thus sheet. the by separated flows the between head total in differences permits rings

vortex of composed sheet vortex bounding continuous a of concept the that also note We

large. be should ratio speed tip the

and blades of number the of product the that requires valid be to theory element blade interactive

non- for Thus annulus. an of induction the isolates effectively which tube wake vortex the

on vorticity streamwise continuous of idealization the is it that apparent is It stations. other all

at flows induced affect will- station spanwise one at geometry in changes where theory, wing in

situation the from different is this that note We interact. not do annuli that assumes which theory

element blade of basis the is independence annular of result interesting This flows. induced

adjacent affecting without changed be can annuli neighboring in blade the of chord or attack

of angle the and annulus that in geometry blade the of only function a is annulus each of system

flow induced the Thus, first. the in flows induced the affecting without one this outside or
 43

here. it

discuss not will we and most than complicated more is model elegant This Model. Goldstein the

termed generally is sheets vortex helical of system a sheds blades the which in model The

wing. ratio high-aspect rolling a as modeled is rotor the where (21), Kuchemann

by given is ratio advance low very at system rotor two-bladed a for analysis An

ratios. advance low at blades few with rotor a for approximation an considered be must theory

element blade that so sections neighboring influence does section spanwise each on load the that

sense the in interaction spanwise is there model bladed finite the for
that noted be will It blade.

the from distance short a adequate quite be may vortex tip strength finite a of idealization the that

so tip the near concentrated is voracity this Generally, edge. trailing the
from shed is voracity

of sheet continuous a and wing yawing a of that to similar quite becomes situation local the Thus

there. washes induced infinite imply would this since tips, the from shed be cannot strength

finite of vortex a Consequently, wing. ratio aspect high a of that to similar is system vortex

and flow the blade each near that illustrate will 4.3 Figure of examination However,

Rotor Two-Bladed a of System Vortex of Idealization 4.3 Figure

 44

a. attack of angle local the and W velocity

relative local the upon based coefficients drag and lift sectional the- are CD and CL where

(4-4) (I)
COS CD sin(I) CL = Cx

(4-3) sing) CD ± 4) cos CL Cy

ID a' + 1 =
(4-2) tan
Vco a
(13,

(4-1) (I)
= a

verified be may relations trigonometric following the diagram, the From

direction. downwind the in blade the to normal is y-direction the and x-direction the in

is rotation of plane The a. attack, of angle local the and 0 angle pitch blade local the to relation

in shown is W, wind, relative the Here 4.5. Figure in rotation of axis the towards looking

tip the from viewed is 4.4 Figure in illustrated rotor turbine wind a of element The

follows. as proceeds station, radial

each at flow 2-D locally assume to seen be can which method, The theory. strip and theory

vortex theory, element blade theory, element blade modified including names of variety a by

called been has velocities induced the with conjunction in used when method This tubes. stream

circular non-interacting in occurs rotor the through flow the that assume to is rotors helicopter

and propellers for calculations performance for method accurate and used frequently A

EQUATIONS FLOW ANNULUS 4.2

 45

Element Blade Rotor a for Diagram Velocity 4.5 Figure

Element Blade Rotor 4.4 Figure

vc.
 46

2
(4-9) Cdr pBc = dQ
w2

is torque blade-produced The disk. rotor the at velocity

angular the twice be to assumed been has stream slip the to imparted velocity angular the where

(4-8) (2an) (27Erdr)ur p = dQ

obtains one theorem momentum of moment the From

tube. stream differential annular an in element blade the from developed torque the to equated

is considerations momentum angular from determined torque the manner, similar a In

11)
sin2 87cr 1-a
(4-7)
BcCY a

obtains one

2a, = b factor interference axial wake local the that assuming and expressions two these Equating

(4-6) pW2Cydr Bc = dTB

c, chord local having each blades B for while

(4-5) ) u
1

(Ka
u (27crdr) p dTm

momentum From considerations.

aerodynamic element blade from predicted force axial the to considerations momentum by

dr thickness of element annular an in generated dT force axial the equating by obtained be may

blade the on developed forces the and a factor interference axial the between relation A
 47

A valid. not is analysis above the therefore, (4-10), and (4-7) equations to leading assumptions

the with consistent not is pattern flow a Such occur. may flow recirculating that seen

be may It 4-6. Figure in below illustrated patterns flow the note procedure, above the qualify

to First, qualification. and modifications some required far so developed expressions The

readily. quite accommodated

be may taper blade and twist changes, section airfoil Blade rotor. the of force axial

and torque overall the determine to integrated be may force axial and torque to contributions

local the and known are properties flow sectional the converges iteration above the Once

repeat and B step to back Go

(4-10) a' Calculate

(4-7) a Calculate

4-4) and (4-3 Cy and Cx Calculate

CD and CL Calculate

(4-1) Calculate

(4-2) (i) Calculate

start) to acceptable is 0 = a' = (a a' and a Guess

S2 V, 0, CD(cc), CL(a),. c, r, Given

procedure: following the by determined be may r station radial given

a at conditions flow local the then available, is data performance sectional airfoil suitable If

.2(1) sin 47cr a' 1+

(4-10)
BcCx a'

relations these Combining

 48

ring vortex (e) windmill; turbulent (d)

windmill; (c) zero-thrust; (b) propeller; (a) Rotor: a of States Working 4.6 Figure

(e)
---s"--"----_,__-------

)d( Cc)

(b) c) (

rotor. a of states

ring vortex and windmill turbulent the quantify to results experimental used (10) Glauert 4-6.

Figure in illustrated states various the through pass can descent autorotational to ascent vertical

from going in helicopter, A section. next the in modified be will consideration This occur.
,
can recirculation 'A a> for hence 2a), - V00(1 = u1 wake the in velocity The considerations.

momentum wake from obtained be may flow recirculating of onset the determining for criterion
 49

follows.

as proceeds velocities induced for equation into factor loss tip the of incorporation The

used. be

can solution simple a yields which model Prandtl the blades, more or three involving situations

for results in difference little is there Since use. to difficult more is it functions, Bessel modified

of series infinite an involves model flow Goldstein's since however, accurate more the is

model Goldstein the models two the Of position. radial and blades of number ratio, speed tip of

function a is F factor The blades. of number infinite an with rotor a for circulation corresponding

the is Fc, and r station radial a at circulation the is F blades, of number the is B where

(4-11)

that such F, factor circulation-reduction is approach Goldstein's and

Prandtl's of result The tips. the at interaction wake to due circulation of reduction the for models

developed and contraction) wake (negligible propellers lightly-loaded about flow analyzed

have (12) Goldstein and (11) Prandtl radius. actual the of 97% of order the on characteristically

radius, actual the of fraction some to radius rotor maximum the reduce to being these

of simplest the approaches, of variety a in treated been have losses tip So-called neglected. be

cannot effects wake the however, machines; power wind most for neglected be can acceleration

radial of effects The pattern. flow assumed the alter can tip the at flow wake-induced

and acceleration Radial dimensional. two be to assumed been has position radial any at flow The

vorticity. shed of pattern the of because modification some requires analysis previous The

MODELS LOSS TIP 4.3

 50

> aF becomes flow recirculating for criteria the

that noted be may It convergence. for required iterations of number the in reduction significant

and performance higher slightly yields (4-12) of lieu in (4-14) equation of use The

II. Appendix in given is (4-14) and (4-13) equations of derivation The

(I) S1I12 8
=
(4-14) aCY aF)aF (1

quadratic a becomes (4-12) equation however, same, the remains (4-13) Equation

aF). - V.(1 = u by given then is rotor the through velocity flow average The velocity. wake the

as manner same the in vary to assumed is (4-5) equation in disk rotor the through u velocity flow

7tr
axial the in made be can analysis the of refinement further A
.
a by given solidity local

a is a quantity the and factor correction tip Prandtl the or correction tip Goldstein the is F where

(I)
cos 4) sin 8F 1+a'
(4-13)
aCx a'

(I) sin2 8F a - 1
(4-12) a
aC

become then (4-10)

and (4-7) Equations 2a'FQ. written is change velocity angular the manner, similar in and 2aFV.

becomes 2aV. change velocity the Thus velocity. this of F fraction a only is change velocity

average the and sheets vortex the on only occurs slipstream the in 2aV., or ul) - (V. velocity,

axial of change maximum the that virtually is correction tip the of meaning physical The
 51

speed tip low At machines. wind concerning generalizations some illustrate to used be can

also 4-7 Figure ratios. speed tip low at available power the increase can but power maximum

the reduces pitch Increased 4-7. Figure in seen be can angle pitch of effect The

curve. the develop to used was correction tip Goldstein The chord. 11'4" an with

feet 175 was diameter turbine The length. foot 65 a along 50 twisted discontinuously has which

airfoil 4418 NACA an employed turbine Smith-Putnam The ratio. speed tip of function a as

(1) Turbine Wind Smith-Putnam the of coefficient power calculated the gives 4-7 Figure

noted. be should analysis previous the of nature approximate the blade, the along

circulation of distribution optimum with rotor frictionless a for derived been has F factor the As

4) sin R 2
(4-16)
Rr =B
f

where

7C

(4-15) Lexp cos =F

A r -1
2

by

given is factor F Prandtl's calculations. the in factor dominant a being instead correction, loss tip

a be to ceases approach this cases such In blade. entire the over appreciable is loss tip the ratios

speed tip low at that noted be may it consideration practical a As determined. be can F(p,,g,,a)

= F factor correction tip Goldstein the thus and RpIr = tiao is ratio speed tip corresponding

The cot.* IA
relation the via ratio speed local a defines 4) angle The /R). r (q), F = F

that so (I), of value local the on F of calculation the bases approach Lock's (13). Lock of method

the following determined be may rotor loaded heavily a for correction tip Goldstein The
 52

and (4-12) equations 00, = °pitch

(4-13)
(4-13) and (4-12) equations 5°, = Opitch
(4-14) and (4-13) equations 00, = °pitch
Turbine. Wind Smith-Putnam the of Performance Calculated 4.7 Figure

R
12 l0 8 4

0.1 o

0.2 cq 0_

itl>8

0.3

0.4

0.5

stability. the greater the curve, the steeper The speed. original its to

rotor the return will turn in which output power positive in result will speed rotational decreased

velocity, wind constant for since stable, be will (feathered) output power zero at operation

rotor the negative, is 0 = Cp at curve power the of slope the If zero. become will output power

net the ratio speed tip large some at Finally velocity. angular increasing with power in decrease

rapid a in result will coefficient drag high A dominant. becomes drag of effect the coefficient,

power peak the above ratios speed tip At speed. design the below operating when stalled

be can stations, inboard the partieularly rotor, the of much and ratios speed tip low at large is

(1) angle The coefficient. lift maximum the by influenced strongly is coefficient power the ratios,
 53

-= Op
Turbine
Wind Smith-Putnam the For Speed Wind Versus Output Power 4.8 Figure

Rn
V.
0.5 0,4 0.3 0.2 0.1

a.
0
1.1J
cc

0 N)

a.
In
0 111

10

12

4-7. Figure in shown calculations turbine wind Smith-Putnam the illustrates

4.8 Figure I/X. by given is velocity while Cp/X3 to proportional directly is power the variables,

our as X and Cp Retaining velocity. wind versus power of plot a is performance rotor illustrates

that display of type Another velocity. wind given a for speed rotation and efficiency, output,

power concerning infollnation yields ratio speed tip versus coefficient power of plot A
 54

8) 1 (4- a(1a) = a'(1a')x2

equation energy the is This

required. is relation another variables, dependent two involves power the for integral the Since

Vco Voo Vco

= a' and o,
=a , =x
u V rQ

=
RS)

where

(4-17)
° x2 = pVco37CR2 Y2
= CP
dx 3
ix 8

is coefficient power the for relation The

ratio. speed tip given a for output power maximum the yielding results the constraint; energy

an to subject stationary made is integral power The power. the for integral an up set and blades)

of number infinite an with rotor a to corresponds (i.e., disk actuator rotating a as rotor the treat to

is used approach The windmill. optimum the for model simple a developed has Glauert

GLAUERT ROTOR; OPTIMUM THE 4.4

fluctuations. speed wind to sensitivity

greatest the hence and velocity wind in increase given a for power in increase greatest the give

will coefficient power maximum of point the near Operation coefficient. power maximum of

location the is importance considerable of point Another velocity. starting the controls drag and

output power maximum the controls stall the angle, pitch and RPM constant at that Note
 55

(4-18) a) (1 a = a')x2 a'(1+

that So

a')rS2 (1+ = tan

(4-19)
a'rf) 4\7,0 (1
are These velocity. relative the to normal is velocity induced total the that condition

the under developed be may tan for expressions Two velocity. relative the to perpendicular

hence and lift to due be must rotor the at induced velocity the drag, of absence .the In

Diagram Velocity 4.9 Figure

Rotation of Plane

Direction Wind

assumed. be may flow two-dimensional conditions, these Under variations.

circumferential no with streamtubes annular in uniform be to assumed is flow The plane.

rotor the at velocities the consider to is relation this illustrating of way unique most the Perhaps
 56

00 .2222 0 1/3

2.630 .2144 0.031 .33

0.753 .1656 0.292 .31

0.374 .1136 0.812 .29

0.157 .0584 2.375 .27

0 0 00 .25
x afx2 a' a

Disk Actuator Optimum The For Conditions Flow 4.1 Table

rotor ideal an of most that seen be can it more, or 7 of ratios speed tip reach easily rotors speed
.
high Since 4.1. Table in given are x and atx2, a', a, in variation The 1/4.
._
a . ._

1/3 Hence,

(4-22) 1) a)(4a (1 = atx2

that so

(4-21)
1 4a = a,
3a

yields solution The

a) - a(1 = =
at)x2 + a'(1 0 x) a', G(a, With

(4-20)
" JO =
x)dx a' Fla rX
P
C

posed now is problem variational The

 57

lift. is blade the on acts that

force only the zero, is drag the that assumed have we since course, Of configuration. blade the

to relation in forces and velocities the illustrate to used be may 4.5 Figure determined. be may

(I) angle the and velocity relative the position, radial each for known are a' and a quantities the

As theory. element blade the using model this from obtained be may infoimation Further

.593 10.0
.582 7.5
.570 5.0
.532 2.5
.512 2.0
.480 1.5

.416 1.0
.288 0.5

voo
Cp
RS-2

Disk Actuator Optimum The For X vs Cp 4.2 Table

1.6. Figure in illustrated is

ratio speed tip with Cp of variation The zero. approaches rotation wake the and 0.593 approaches

coefficient power the ratios, speed tip large At wake. the in energy kinetic rotational large the

of because low is coefficient power the ratios speed tip low At 4.2. Table in given is ratios speed

tip various for coefficient power The

2V
t
2V (2/9) -->
a'x2
Go, --> x as i.e. vortex
rV 02 cor2

irrotational an of form the in distributed velocity rotational the and 1/3 = a with operate will
 58

.7. xa-.= at maximum a approaches that chord a have will

CL constant and X given a for blade optimum an that noted be may It results. the gives 4.3 Table

determined. be may blades the of shape the that so x of function a as known are a' and a Now

4)cos4) sin 8nr a' 1+

(4-28)
(I) sin BcCL a'

(I)sin2 87cr a - 1
(4-27) cos BcCL
if, a'

that So

=
(4-26) a)a'dr (a 47cr3pVc00 dQ

= dT
(4-25) a)adr (1 4npA72

2a) = b (assuming yield expressions momentum The

2
(4-24) dr (I)
sin CL 2 rpW = dQ
Bc

and

2
(4-23) dr q) cos pW2CL = dT
Bc

by given are c chord

having each blades B containing annulus an on acting torque and thrust incremental The
 59

as Now Law. Biot-Savart the of integration direct a is method straightforward most the but

equations, differential partial solving by obtained been have element blade a at volocity induced

the for solutions Several blade. the of element each at velocities induce filaments vortex trailing

the while blade the on lift local the produce to serves voracity bound the scheme, this In

accuracy. of loss without neglected be may flow in variation chordwise the solidity, low

very have rotors windmill most Since line. vortex a of lieu in sheet vortex bound a by replace be

should blade the flow, the represent fully to order In section. blade the over chordwise vary will

flow induced the that note may one However, Law. Biot-Savart the via determined be to section

each at flow induced the enables scheme simple This line. vortex bound a as modeled is rotor

the of blade each wings, to applied as theory vortex of concepts the Following lift. represent

to vortices bound of use the involves model frequently-used A disk. actuator optimum the

describe to used model flow the from respects many in differs real-rotors over flow The

THEORY VORTEX 4.5

.116 7.60 5

.161 5.39 7

.228 3.73 10

.329 2.43 15

.418 1.73 20

.536 1.00 30

.497 0.35 50

27tVcc
(i)
Bcf/CL

Disk Actuator Optimum The For Parameters Blade 4.3 Table

 60

propeller. optimum

the define to required techniques analytical cover (26) Weinig and (25), Lerbs (24), Theodoresen

Betz, of writings The surface. screw rigid a as back move to wake the requires criteria

This used. be may (23) criteria Betz the theory vortex using rotor optimum an For

velocities. induced calculate and geometry wake assume we here forces calculates

and geometry deformation a assumes one where materials of strength elementary in used that

to likened be may approach This wake). the in up rolls also (which sheet vortex a as considered

be also may propeller a by shed wake the wing), the of downstream distance snort a up

roll to happens (which sheet vortex a is wing a from wake the as Just answers. acceptable very

gives theory Prandtl's of results the wake, sheet vortex the thru flow which velocities impossible

physically calculate can one although and wing the of plane the in lie to assumed is wake the

Theory, Lifting-Line Prandtl in Now coupled. are vortices the all unless established be cannot

configuration) (or trajectory vortex the other, each on acting each filaments, vortex of array

large a of superposition the of consist will wake the Since wake. the in filaments vortex the of

trajectory the of knowledge the input an as requires it appear, may method this as straightforward
 61

increased. is number blade and ratio speed tip the as cancel will component vorticity streamwise

the is, that system; type ring simple a to converge will sides the on system crisscross the

that Note 5.2. Figure in shown as appears system wake final the Thus occurs. situation similar

a portion forward the across passage On path. the of portion upper the over lift zero assumes

it as vortex bound its sheds finally and shown, as pair trailing a and vortex starting a sheds it

sector, leeward the up moves blade a As 5.1. Figure in shown is model This path. the to relative

attack of angle zero at and velocity constant at path square a follow to constrained are but axis,

the about path circular a in move not do these assume simplicity for and blades, lifting slender

having machine axis crosswind a consider model, realistic more somewhat a construct To

system. ratio speed

tip high many-bladed a for model acceptable an be may this that see we Again develops. disc

actuator rotor the of that to similar system wake a and shed are device the as section cross of disc

actuator oscillating an as simply modeled be to device the assume we if that first note We

literature. the in discussed been not has this since actuator, axis crosswind a of system

vortex the construct to interest of is it 4.1, Section in discussed approach the Continuing

WAKE THE OF MODELING VORTEX 5.1

MACHINES AXIS CROSS-WIND

5 CHAPTER
 62

Actuator Axis Cross-Wind of Shedding Vortex 5.1 Figure

ION ROTAT
OF AXIS V..
WIND
 63

uniform. not is flow axial induced the

since system, axis wind a of coefficient power ideal the achieve cannot machine cross-axis ideal

an even that appears it Thus uniform. not is flow axial internal induced the that and tube the

across distributed linearly is vorticity spanwise this that shown be easily can It tube. the within

vorticity spanwise internal is there since case previous the from different importantly is This

5.2. Figure in sketched as system vortex wake a obtain now we ratios, advance high assuming

and system path square the for used those to similar arguments Adopting changing. continually

is vorticity starting and trailing shed the consequently and lift the then axis, fixed a about rotate

blades the where system axis crosswind a of case realistic more the consider now we If

flow. external zero and

flow, axial internal uniform a section, cross circular of one of that as same the is section cross

arbitrary of tube vortex infinite an of induction the for solution the that shown be can It

Actuator Axis Crosswind Bladed Single of System Vortex 5.2 Figure

, 1

;-1\ 1
.--

, ,
WIND
 64

R c

a sin 2rc --=

CL

0 = CD

0=p

assumptions, following the adopt shall we analysis the simplify to order In

5.3. Figure in illustrated

system flow the giving a), - V.0(1 velocity has flow incoming the itself device the at then

2aV,o, is perturbation windwise wake the if that obtain we Thus wake. the in value their half

one are device the at flows induced the assume will we theory, vortex with Consistent

side. the to deflected be can wake the that so force, cross-wind

a as well as windwise a experience can devices these general, In forces. wake the to equated

be may station each at device the on forces the that sense the in quasi-independently behaves

station axis) the to (parallel spanwise each that assume we considered device the For

flows. induced the determine to equations

sufficient obtains one forces wing and wake the equating By flows. induced unknown contains

forces these for expression The itself. surface lifting the at theory airfoil an by as well as

wake the of analysis momentum a by system the on forces the express to is which theory, wing

of approach standard the adopt we device crosswind-axis Darrieus-type a analyze To

ROTOR DARRIEUS 5.2

 65

Turbine Crosswind-Axis a for System Flow 5.5 Figure

Wind
 66

in dO/Q of increment time a spend will airfoil the period, time this Of 27c/Q. is which period one

be shall analysis our of interval time the so revolution every itself repeat will process The

(5-5) I
0 sin Rd01 =

by dO to related is dx width The dO. + 0 position to

0 position angular from goes airfoil the when dx width of be streamtube the Let occupies. airfoil

the which streamtube the in lost momentum the to airfoil the on force the equate can we Now

cos 0 sin vavt + 0 sin one

(5-4)
ij 0) (v ej sin2 vavt
obtain we

(5-3) p*xf = P
as expressed be can airfoil the on force the Since

2
(5-2) a sin 7tcW = WCL =F

that so

(5-1) = pWF = L
pW2cCL

write can we law, Kutta-Joukowski the with starting

and assumptions above the Using stall. near aerodynamics nonlinear the model to analysis

numerical requires performance ratio speed tip low The small. is a attack of angle maximum

the where ratios speed tip high at analysis inviscid an to limited be then will results Our
 is blades B with rotor a for torque average The

(5-10) 0 sin2 a)2 K20 pncR = Q

by given is torque The

components. radial and torque into resolved be may force blade the defined, is a that Now

Kt, 2R
(5-9) sinOI RS2 Bc = a

blades B for or

Vco 2R
(5-8) 0 sin a=
I

RS2 c

blade one for a factor interference axial the for expression

an yields RO = Vt and a) - V.0(1 = Va that assumption the under forces two these Equating

(5-7) a 2K0 a)Ko (1 0 sin pRd0 =

I
dFmomentum
20n I

as streamtube the in force the yields equation momentum the Now

(5-6) 0 sin2 2pncVtVa = dFblade

dO

as 2760 period time the for equation force blade the write may we 0 ± angles the to respect with

symmetrical be to seen is (5-4) equation from contribution force streamwise the Since wake.

the of portion rear the in dO/S2 of increment time another and streamtube the of portion front the
 68

then is torque drag The R.Q. W is velocity local the that assuming by approximated

simple be may losses drag the speeds, tip low at operate not will rotor of type this Since

3. about of ratio speed

tip starting a have would radius foot 20 a and chord foot one a with rotor three-bladed a that so

1+2
Bc
(5-14) Xstart
4

obtain we max 14° = a. Using ratio. speed

tip starting the express to (5-13) equation rearrange may we am to equal set is a When

2R X X
(5-13) a tan
Bc 1 am

where Tr/2 =0

point the at approximately occurs attack of angle maximum The attack. of angle maximum

and drag of consideration with made be can refinements Further 0.401. am= = BcX/2R
quantity the when 0.554 of coefficient power maximum a yields expression This

R2 32 R 37r
(5-12) =7rX Cp
B2c2X2 3 BcX 4 Bc

by given is coefficient power sectional corresponding the and

(5-11)
) 32R R 37T = Q
(BcX)2 3 BcX 4 [pnBcRY,20]
 69

rotation. of axis

the and tangent blade the between 7 angle local the and curve troposkien the illustrates below

5.4 Figure reduced. are lift the of component usable the and speed rotational the both since

substantial is rotation of axis the to closer blades the bringing by caused performance on effect

The parabola. or curve sine a by approximated is and integrals elliptic by described is curve

The troposkien. name the given and (22) Blackwell by investigated been has shape required The

tensile. entirely are loads the that so catemary the to similar shape a in blade the deploying by

removed be may loads bending These blades. the in loads bending substantial in result and large

are loads inertial the rotor, Darrieus-type the for required speeds rotational high the At

ROTOR CIRCULAR THE 5.3

2
Cp that seen be may it and
3
D =C
C

62 4 3
(5-16) a3X3 + 2 X 2 16 noX = C
\ CD 13n

becomes coefficient power The diameter.

disc to circumference blade of ratio the Bc/2R, = a as defined be may solidity a point, this At

(5-15) X3
2R -= p
AC
CDBc

is coefficient power the to contribution the and

2 2
(5-14) pVcc, = BcR f2 pR QD
3 D 2 2
BCX3 C CD
 70

8 32
=
dz
(5-18) y + y cos aX % y cos pnBcVco
2
3o-2X2CS2 dQ

is axis rotor the along dz slice a by generated torque The R. of independent is product this

since Rmax = R point the at ratio speed tip and solidity the as taken be may crX product the where

(5-17) 0 sin y cos aX = a

becomes a for expression the rotor, the of height unit a analyze

we If 5.2. Section in as manner same the in proceeds rotor curved the of analysis The

Length Equal of Caternary and Circle Troposkien, 5.4 Figure

R/Rm
1.5 1.0 0.5
,

0.5

Circle
Catenary
Troposkien

1.0
 71

rotor. wind-axis the for developed that to similar theory element blade a of development

by model above the in included be can stall and drag of effects The 0.461. = amax = erX

at occurs 0.536 of coefficient power maximum a which for blade circular the is case simple

one accomplished; be may geometry arbitrary an for (5-19) equation of integration The

y
8
+ y cos GX
3n
y cos R
A dzy2pVA
2 dz
(5-19) a2X2
COS2
72--8 4rcaX ciQ
p
dC

is coefficient power incremental the and

U
 73

height with relation law

power a by approximated frequently is terrain rough over flow mean the contrast, By length.

Monin-Obukhov the parameter, stability a and roughness surface the velocity, friction surface the

parameters, three involved relation Their stratification. unstable and neutral stable, encompasses

that flow mean the for relation a developed have (14) Obukhov and Monin terrain flat

over layer surface atmospheric the in structure wind of made been have studies Extensive

complete. more much is terrain

flat over flow of knowledge the contrast By terrain. rough over layer surface atmospheric the

in turning wind considerable of presence the reported has (13) Slade turning. wind and spectra

turbulence on data no or little is there terrain, rough over flow for exists data gradient wind

some While bather. considerable a represents terrain rough of regions in particularly conditions,

flow local of knowledge of lack The machines wind to adapted be must variations flow

the of effects the of magnitude the predict to techniques secondly, known; be must conditions

flow local the First, turbines. wind of operation and design the to difficulties double-edged

present all elevation with turning and-wind gustiness gradient, wind Vertical unidirectional.

nor steady uniform, neither be will flows Real occur. can motion rotor and irregularities

flow both reality, In rotor. the of rotation of plane the to perpendicular be to and parallel and

unifoim be to assumed was wind relative the previously, covered rotors of analysis the In

INTRODUCTION 6.1

GRADIENT WIND VERTICAL TO DUE MOMENTS AND FORCES

6 CHAPTER
 74

coordinates.

(t,n) the now are 4 Chapter of (x,y) the Thus XYZ. coordinates the with confusion avoid to order

in (t) tangential and (n) normal designated been have element blade a on forces incremental the

noted be should it further, proceeding Before significant. is that rotor the of bottom and top the

between difference velocity the is it since scale, upon dependent is moments these of magnitude

the expected be would As moment. pitching the and variation torque the are these of largest

The 6-1. Figure in illustrated as moments and forces induce will gradient wind vertical A

GRADIENT WIND VERTICAL OF EFFECTS THE 6.2

I. Appendix in described program

the in included are forces and moments flapping (15), Ribner of analysis the using treated

be can yaw Rotor moments. and forces large induce can flapping and yaw rotor Both

gradient. wind to due loads aerodynamic the

with only deal will section This present. are moments and forces mechanical certain moments

and forces aerodynamic the to addition In turbine. wind a of operation and design the both hence

and dynamics system overall the effect will moments and forces These occur. can moments

pitching and forces side dependent time torque, in variations periodic however, output, mean

turbine the on effects order first no have previously studied flow the from departures The

relation. above the use shall we turbines wind for required is feet)

200 to 100 range limited a over variation wind the that fact the and parameters, fewer requires

it since (6-1), equation of simplicity the of Because one. than less is 11

coefficient the where

(6-1) -
\hJ VR

(Z
 75

steady- the from generated be can moments and forces order second and first the for Expressions

rotation. of angle the with df',1 and dFt force the in variations cause will turn in attack

of angle in variation The attack. of angle increased an be will gust) or gradient to (due velocity

increased of effect principle the that seen be may it ratios speed tip high At a. attack of angle

the and w velocity resultant the both increases Vw in increase The disk. half lower the in blade

a for than higher be will velocity axial the disk, rotor the of half upper the in blade a For

V. velocity wind local the with

replaced been has V. velocity freestream the that in illustrations previous from differs diagram

velocity This diagram. velocity blade the illustrates page following the on 6.2 Figure

Gradient. Wind a in Rotor 6.1 Figure

MOMENT PITCHING

AG

X CI:1)R
TORQUE
 76

2
(6-3) T2 + Z TlA + =1T dFt
Z2 A

form the in (6-2) equation Rewriting blade. ith the of rotation of angle the to

refers Ai where 0i, rsin = AZ distance The elevation. with velocity wind in variation the to due 0)

= (Z values hub their from change forces These dFn. for obtained be may expression similar A

Vref 2 au , au u
=u and dFt = dFt where
a2Ft aFt

2 zz 0
(6-2) u +dF, u2
z
+ AZ Uz dFtu + dFt = dFt
2 'AZ [dF,

that so hub rotor the about Series Taylor a of terms in expressed be may element

rotor a on force differential The manner following the in aerodynamics performance state

Diagram Velocity Blade 6.2 Figure

-a) I ( Vw

t
 77

NI. of evaluation by approach the

indicate us let straightforward, is differentiation of method the As moments. and forces the of

magnitude the determine to order in evaluated be to remain T2 and T1 N2, N1, terms The

blades.

of numbers various for summations the of values the gives page next the on 6.1 Table
moment. yawing order second or first no induces gradient

wind that noted be may it and evaluated been has blades spaced equally B over summation The

odd is
B unless
i=1
2
(6-6) dr + 2N1drIsin2
jdOi fr3N2
Oi

MOMENT PITCHING

i=1

(6-5) sin2 r3T2dr

s
E fr2Tidr + drirTo = Q

TORQUE

2. B where blades,

B over summing and blade the over integrating by moments and forces following the obtain we

2
(6-4) +N2 N1AZ + dF=N0
z2

manner same the in dFr, expressing and

 78

Z=0
az 4) cos a
(6-9) AZ sin++ cos4)+CL CL pVRcv = N1
sin2 + CD
au 2
(I))

is result final The

all La al a+ aa au
(6-8) c
a4) acL acL

constant remains i3 and cc +

13 = (I) As comment. some requires CL of ation differenti The-

VR

(z). vw
= u and rS,
VAT v where

Z=0 Z=0
au = AZ az au =
(6-7) Z CD cos++
)(CL v2 + f(u2 a pA/;'c
N1
sinliloauzi aU a(dFn)

i=1
4
0 sin3Qt 0 Oi sin3
3

i=1
4
0 30t cos --- 0 O1 cos Oi sin2

i=1
2 3/2 cos2Qt 1 0; sin2

4 =B 3 =B 2=B

Sums Trigonometric 6.1 Table

 79

obtained. be may expressions following

the that shown be may it drag neglecting by and (1) situ') ratios speed tip high At

RELATIONS APPROXIMATE 6.3

obtained. be can approximations form

closed case, this In blades. the of portions outer the over constant are c and CL of value the and

small is (I) angle the if made be can simplification considerable (6-12), and (6-11) equations from

seen be can As moments. and forces other the by obtained are integrals type Similar

hub 's
R R R TC
=
a' + CD sin CLa + Lk1 12
(6-12)
sin24))CL ft r
(I)
)(1. sind)1(1 X
d(-1.) tr)4

and

"-hub
R,RR1 cc
cos 2 (I)+ sin 1.k2 ,j
'it
=
(6-11) \
ar9 (1)CD cos3 2 (I)CL COS2
N 7
C
(f3 cl))CL ft 1

as evaluated are 12 and I integrals the where

Z=0 Z=0)
VRdZ2 dZ VR = CQ A, = Y2pVinR3
(6-10) +12
d2Vw R2 dVw QA

analysis preceding the from evaluated be may coefficient torque in variation The
 80

Z=0 Z=0
, 2 dZ VR hh dZ VR
=120' hh
0.14 d2Vw 1 0.104 dVw 1

yield data wind term long The turbine.

wind Smith-Putnam the from data the using by obtained be may values representative Some

4B 5B
a) 12
OaCLa (1 crXCL

and

2B
2
a (1 GCL

where

i=1 Z=0 Z=0

\
B dZ VR
VR(I7,2 TCR pV12(.'
(6-14) i
0 2
S111 E R2d2Vw (
+12
RdVw
1 = 3

QA
2

CHANGE TORQUE

i=1 Z=0
dZ VR 4 2 pV127ER
(6-13)
Oi sin2 RdVw a) La
crXC M

MOMENT PITCHING
 81

X =Q
CQ = Q
P ,
0.4 = C C pVircR3
cP

3
=
2
CT pV0TR2 Y2 CT D

torque. the to moments the and turbine wind

the of drag the to forces the reference us let Accordingly, judge. to difficult are numbers The

TcR3 Y2pV12:
(6-16) Mt) (1cos 0.00153 =
QA

VARIATION TORQUE

Y2pV12(.7cR3
(6-15) 20t) (1cos 0.0173 =
MY

MOMENT PITCHING

machine, Smith-Putnam the of motion flapping the neglecting obtain, we

0.33 = a

a
0.6 = CL 5.5 = CL

2=B 6 =X

ft. 87.5 = R 0.083 = a

below listed values the using and

 82

0.17. r yields terrain smooth over

flow for evidence Experimental 1/6. = ii when value maximum a has expression This 3.
to equal approximately is (6-19) equation in expression bracketed the that noted be may It

appreciable. be will

scale large for variation torque The C. low and X large have will point design the below speeds
wind at RPM constant at operating rotor a example For (6-19). equation from estimated maybe

load and solidity ratio, speed tip scale, of effects The hub. rotor the of height the is h where

a)CL 5(1 h 4Cp CQ

(6-19) ri +111 + 2,92
sin2 4XCL (112
} a)2CLa Xo.(1 CQ A

obtain we (6-1) equation by given profile aw 1 power the Adopting

change. torque percentage the express to modified be may which change

torque the for expression an gives (6-14) Equation discussion. more requires itself variation

torque The power. also hence and torque in decrease 4.6% a to up be to seen is variation

torque The torque. the of value the of 52% of variation a to amounting appreciable, quite

be to seen is moment pitching the while insignificant quite are forces drag and yaw The

cos
(6-18) 200 (1 =O.023 Q A

VARIATION TORQUE

(6-17) 200 cos (1 0.259

MOMENT PITCHING
 83

4.8. Figure with along 6.3 Figure of results the using

by obtained be may gradient to due variation power the of magnitude absolute The example. this

in included not was blades the of motion Flapping turbine. wind Smith-Putnam the for gradient

wind to due output turbine mean in decrease percentage the illustrates page following the on 6.3

Figure zero. approaches output turbine net the as greatly increases gust) (or gradient wind to due

output turbine in variation percentage the that so speed tip with appreciably changes however

turbine wind a of output net The ratios. speed tip of range wide a over constant approximately

is gradient wind the to due torque in variation The gradient. wind to due output power in change

the evaluate to used be also may variation torque the for developed expressions The
 84

Gradient Wind To Due Output Power In Reduction Percent 6.3 Figure

Vco
RS/ RATIO, SPEED TIP
14 12 10 8 6 4 0

10

12

120)
z16)1 (si vi Velocity Wind - 14
Neglected Flapping Blade 813=0°
_
Turbine Wind Smith-Putnam

16
 85

1972. No.3, 17, Vol. Soc., Helicopter Amer. J. Descents. Steep

in Helicopters for Boundaries Ring Vortex of Prediction Analytical J., Wolkovitch,

1955. York, New McGraw-Hill, Engineering, Helicopter of Principles J., Shapiro,

1948. D.C., Washington, 820, Report NACA Yaw, in Propellers S., N. Ribner,

163-187. pp 1954, 24, No. 151, Vol. Trudy, Institut, Geofizicheskii

Leningrad, SSSR, Nauk Akademiia from translated Atmosphere, the of
Laver Ground the In Mixing Turbulent of Laws Basic M., A. Obukhov, and S. A. Monin,

293-7 p. 1969, April 8, Vol. Meteorology, Applied of Journal H., D. Slade,

1929. 440, p.
123, (A) Proc. Soc. Roy. Propellors, Screw of Theory Vortex the On S., Goldstein,

1919. 193-217, p. Nachr. Gottinger

Betz, A. by Energieverlust, gerngstein mit Schraubenpropellor to Appendix L., Prandtl,

1926. 1026, M & R Br, Airscrew, an of States Ring

Vortex and Brake Windmill the in Results Experimental of Analysis The H., Glauert,

1935. Berlin Springer, Julius 324. p.

L, Division 6, Vol. Editor-in-chief), Durand, F. (W. Theory Aerodynamic H., Glauert, 9

543-4. p. 1972, April, No.4, 10, Vol. Journal, AIAA M., P Goorjian, 8

1918. Moscou, de Technique Superieure

l'Ecole de Aeronatuiques Essais et Calculs des Bureau du Travanx E., N. Joukowski, 7.

,1889. 390 p. 30, Vol. Architects, Naval of Institute Transactions, R.E., Froude, 6,

1878. 47, p. 19, Vol. Architects, Naval of Institute Transactions, W., Froude,

1865. 13, p. 6, Vol. Architects, of-Naval Institute Transactions, J., W. Rankine,

1956. York, New

Library, Philosophical Power, Wind by Electricity of Generation The W., E. Golding,

1946.
31, January D.C., Washington, PB25370, Board, Production War Development,
and Research Production, of Office Turbine. Wind the on Report Final N.Y.U.,

1948. York, New Inc. Company, VanNostrand Wind, the From Power C. P. Putnam,

References
 86

Command. Atl. Air Div. Documents

Air Ohio: Dayton, Author. by revised and Luftschraube der Aerodynamik ,
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Barth. J.A.
Leipzig: Turbomaschinen von Schaufeln die um Stromung Die 1935, F., Weinig,

73-117. 60, Engrs., Marine

and Architects Naval Soc. Trans. Circulation," of Distribution Arbitrary an
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1948.
York, New Inc., Co.; Book McGraw-Hill Propellers, of Theory Theodore, Theodorsen,

68-92. pp. 1943), Bros., Edwards Arbor: Ann (reprint 1927 Gottingen, Betz,
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Kgl. der Nach. Energieverlust," Geringstem mit ler "Schraubenpropel 1919, A., z, Bet
Mexico. New Albuquerque,
1974, April, SLA-74-0154, Report Energy Laboratories Sandia Turbine, Wind
Vertical-Axis of Type Troposkien a for Shape Blade E., G. Reis, and F., B. Blackwell,
1953.
York, New McGraw-Hill, Propulsion, of Aerodynamics Weber, J. and D., Kuchemann,

1973. 10-12, October Alberta, Calgary, Engineers, Agricultural of Society

American the of Region Northwest Pacific the of Meeting Annual 1973 the at
Presented Canada, Ottawa, Council, Research National the at Developed Turbine
Wind Vertical-Axis the of Economics and Performance The R., Rangi, and P. South,

1956. 102, No. Report CoA Cranfield, Windmills. Ducted of

Performance and Design the on Report Preliminary A Rainbird, J. W. and M. G. Lilley,

1925. 1014. M & R. A.R.C., Br. Results. Experimental

Including Pitch, Small of Airscrews in Applications with Airscrews of
Theory Vortex the of Extension An Townend, H. C. H. and Bateman, H. H., N. C. Lock,
 rotor the at velocity flow Axial

area surface projected translator or Rotor

radius rotor Local

radius Rotor

Pressure

air the from extracted Power

rate flow Mass th

length unit per force lift Sectional L'

LID ratio, drag to Lift

length unit per force drag Sectional D'

or 13/(l/2)pAK3 coefficient, Power Cp

PA1/2)pSVG,3

rotation' of plane the to normal coefficient force Section Cy

rotation of direction the in coefficient force Sectional Cx

coefficient drag Sectional CD

coefficient lift Sectional CL

chord Blade

1-u1N.,, b wake the in factor interference Axial

blades of Number

co/20 -= a' rotor the at factor interference Tangential a'

- a rotor the at factor interference Axial a

u/Voc, 1

area disc rotor Projected A

Symbols
 88

rotor the of downwind velocity angular Fluid

velocity angular Rotor

density Fluid

6 5, Chapters angle, rotation blade 4; 3, Chapters angle, pitch Blade

velocity Translator

exponent relation Wind-height 11

velocity relative the and rotation of plane the between Angle (i)

5,6. Chapter angle,

to
pitch blade 2; Chapter velocity, translation the normal the and wind the between Angle

attack of Angle

Greek

rON., ratio, speed Local

R.Q/Vc. ratio, speed Tip X

element rotor the to relative velocity Resultant

velocity wind stream Free

wake the in velocity flow Axial

I XICENHddV
 89

specified. conditions Operating

radius.

percent of function a as twist and chord i.e., specified, be must geometry Blade

0012. and 4418, NACA than other

if used, section airfoil to conform to rewritten be must NACAXX Subroutine

made. changes

and/or inputted be must infointation following the geometry propeller given a For

changes. program other without placed be can section airfoil any for

curvefit a which for subroutine empty an is NACAXX 4418; profile NACA for coefficients drag

and lift sectional determines NACA44 subroutine 0012; profile NACA for coefficients drag and

lift sectional determines NACA00 subroutines functions; Bessel modified calculates BESSEL

subroutine factor; hub-loss the arid factor loss tip the calculates TIPLOS subroutine parameters;

related and factors interference angular and axial determines CALC subroutine station;

given a at angle twist and chord calculates SEARCH subroutine output; for titles and listing

input prints TITLES subroutine functions; output and input integration, performs PROP program

main the subroutines: eight with program main a of consists package program The

respectively. punch card and

printer, line reader, card the to refer program the in 62 and 61, 60, numbers unit Logical

systems. other on implementation for differences

small some be may there therefore University, State Oregon at package operating OS-3

the under 3300 CDC a using written was It integration. numerical of method pass Rule/three

Simpson's a utilizes and language Fortran the in written is package program The

PROGRAM LOADS AND PERFORMANCE TURBINE WIND

 90

degrees - THETI(I) stations for angle Twist

-
ft (CI(I)) stations dor Chord

(I) RR stations for radius Percent

1 Prandt - 1
- HL
None 0- controller mode loss Hub

None 2-
Goldstein 1
Prandtl - 0 - GO controller model loss Tip

NACAXX subroutine in be to curvefit Profile - 9999

0012 NACA - 0012
4418 NACA - 4418 - NPROF Profile NACA
NF specification geometry blade for stations inputted of Number

degrees - SI angle Coning

ft - H level sea above Altitude

seeAppendixII Wilson, tl
original 10

AMOD Code Model Interference Axial

X ratio speed Tip

mph - V velocity Wind

B blades of Number
degrees - THETP angle Pitch

DR incrementation) integration for radius of (percent Percentage Incremental

ft - HB radius Hub

ft - R blade of Radius

are: inputted be to parameters The

 91

program. the to changes

without profiles other use to user the enables This (degrees). attack of angle of function a as

coefficients drag and lift sectional for fit curve a add must one subroutine a is NACA)0( used.

be to is NACAXX subroutine means 9999 of input an 4418; profile NACA the for data drag and

lift sectional calculate to used be to is NACA44 subroutine means 4418 of input an 0012; profile

NACA the for data drag and lift sectional calculates that subroutine a is which used, be to is

NACA00 subroutine means 0012 of input An used. be to is method Prandtl's means 1.0 of input

an while used, be will model loss hub no means 0.0 of input An model. loss hub the controls

it HL; is controller third The used. be to is model loss tip no means 2.0 of input an and model,

Prandtl's choose will program the then two, than greater is blades of number the unless used, be

to is model Goldstein's means 1.0 input the used, be to is model Prandtl's means 0.0 of input An

model. loss tip the determines GO used. be will form root square the means 1.0 of input an while

used, be also will form Glauert the means 0.0 of input An used. be will factors interference

angular and axial of calculation for method which determines AMOD NPROF. and HL,
,
GO, AMOD are These -inputted. be must that controllers operation several are There

width. character-field 140 of basis the on printed be will Output

NPROF 41-50
GO AMOD TBETP 31-40
(I) THETI (21-22) NF X HB 21-30
CI(I) 81 V DR 11-20
I) RR( HL H B R 1-10
NF) Card 4 5 (Card 4 Card 3 Card 2 Card 1 Card Columns

format: following the in be should Input

 92

form. binary

to program the convert to desirable be would it desired, are runs many if Therefore, 3300. CDC

the on compiled be to seconds ten approximately takes program the that noted, be also should It

(F5.1,5X,F10.5,F10.5) FORMAT 20
(RR(I),THETI(I),I=1,NF) (60,20) READ

(F10.3) FORMAT 40
HL (60,40) READ

(2F10.3,12,8X,F10.2,14) FORMAT 30
H,SI,NF,GO,NPROF (60,30) READ

(4F10.3) FORMAT 10
B,V,X,AMOD (60,10) READ

(4F10.3) FORMAT 10
R,DR,HB,THETP (60,10) READ

used. statements Format and Read input the are following The
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 97

END 279
RETURN 278
C 277
=#,I4) PROFILE #,F20.5,10X,=NACA= RPM FORMAT(//# 200 276
USED#) MODEL HUBLOSS NO FORMAT(//# 779 275
PRANDTL#) BY MODELED HUBLOSSES FORMAT(//# 778 274
USED#) MODEL LOSS TIP NO FORMAT(//# 659 273
*) FORMULA GOLDSTEINS BY MODELED LOSSES TIP FORMAT(//# 101 272
#) FORMULA PRANDTLS BY MODELED LOSSES TIP FORMAT(//# 100 271
USED#) METHOD INTERFERENCE AXIAL STANOARO FORMAT(//# 320 270
USED#) METHOD INTERFERENCE AXIAL WILSON FORMAT(//# 310 269
NO#) PHI#,10X,=RE 1#P#,9X, 268
FORMAT(//6X,#MY#,16X,#W#,15X,#Q#,11X,#CT#,13X,#T#,9X,#CP#,13X, 59 267
1CX=,9X,#CY=,9X,#FX#,8X,*FY#,12X,MX#) 266
FORMAT(///4X,#R#,10X,#PC-R#,8X,#F,7X,#ALPHA,9X,#CL=,9X,=CD#,9X,# 58 265
FT=,18X,#FN#) FORMAT(///9X,=A#,14X,#AP*,26X, 70 264
1XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX#) 263
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX FORMAT(//# 95 262
1HA#) 261
ALP -DEGREES -- ATTACK OF ANGLE F#/ -- FACTOR LOSS TIP FORMAT(# 71 260
NC:1#) RE
-- NUMBER REYNOLDS #/# PHI -- DEGREES -- PHI ANGLE FORMAT(# 69 259
P#) -- KILOWATTS -- POWER CP# -- COEFFICIENT POWER FORMAT(# 68 258
--T#) LB -- THRUST CT-#/ -- COEFFICIENT THRUST FORMAT(# 67 257
Q#) -- FT-LB -- TORQUE --W#/# FT/SEC -- VELOCITY RELATIVEC FORMAT(= 66 256
MY#) -- FT-LB 1-- 255
MOMENT-Y-DIR/BLAOE MX#/# -- FT-LB MOMENT-X-DIR/BLADE FORMAT(= 65 254
1--FY#) 253
LB - FORCE-Y-DIR/BLADEFX=/# -- LB -- FORCE-X-DIR/BLAOE FORMAT(= 64 252
CY#) FORCE-Y-DIR OF COEF CX4= FOKCE-X-DIR OF COEF FORMAT(# 63 251
00#) -- COEFFICIENT DRAG CL=/= -- COEFFICIENT LIFT FORM4T(# 62 250
--FT#) FORCE TANGENTIAL FN4= -- FORCE NORMAL FORMAT(# 169 249
AP#) 1CTOR 248
FA INTERFERENCE ANGULAR A4# -- FACTOR INTERFERENCE AXIAL FORMAT(# 61 247
PC-R*) -- RADIUS PERCENT R#/# -- FT -- RADIUS FORMAT(# 60 246
RECORD4///) OUTPUT DATA FORMAT(///////# 57 245
FORMAT(//5X,F5.1,8X,F10.5,10X,F10.5) 56 244
1) 243
ANGLE-DEGREES# RADIUS#,5X,=CHORD-FT=,5X,#TWIST PERCENT FORMAT(///# 55 242
1) 241
=#,I2 SPAN ALONG STATIONS DATA OF ==,F7.3,5X,#NUMBER 1ANGLE-DEGREES 240
LEVEL-FT=#,F10.2,5X,#CONING SEA ABOVE SITE OF ALTITUDE FORMAT(//# 54 239
=#,F6.3) RATIO SPEED 110X,#TIP 238
=#,F7.2, MPH - VELOCITY =#,F3.0,10X,#WIND BLADES OF NO. FORMAT(/ 53 237
=,F7.4) DEGREES - ANGLE RADIUS-FT=#,F5.2,10X,=PITCH 110X,A-IUB 236
=#,F6.4, PERCENTAGE RADIUS-FT,F7.2,10X,ANCREMENTAL FORMAT(///# 52 235
#) RECORD INPUT DATA FORMAT(///# 51 234
1INE#) 233

1045 05/17/74 TITLES 3.12 VERSION FORTRAN 0S3

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 66

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21DACI*):1Dc:1*(V-I1)*1A+91=91 0117
liDdOIDA*1A+S1=S1 6017
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AD-1-(IHA)SODANCID-(1-1c1)NIS*V1D=c1X0 66£
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61701 17L/L1/S0 31V3 ZI'E N0IS2GA Nt0:11):10A ESO

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 END 516
RETURN 515
AI=((.5*Z)**V)*S 514
CONTINUE 30 513
C=AK*C 512
AK=AK+1. 511
S + S=B/(C*E) 510
E=P 40 509
5 TO GO 508
D=D-2. 507
P=D*TK*P 506
40 TO GO IF(TK.LE.0.0) 505
TK=D-1. 5 504
P=1. 503
D=V+AK 502
B=(.25*Z*Z)**AK 501
K=1,10 30 DO 500
1. C= 499
AK=0.0 498
S=0.0 497
C 496
MODEL LOSS TIP 495
GOLDSTEIN THE FOR FUNCTIONS BESSEL CALCULATES BESSEL C 494
C 493
BESSEL(Z,V,AI) SUBROUTINE 492

1045 05/17/74 3.12 VERSION FORTRAN 053

 END 545
RETURN 25 544
CD=1.0 543
25 TO GO IF(CD.LE.1.0) 542
+SD5*(A-AMAX)**4 CD=SD3+SD4*(A-AMAX)**2 541
CL=0.0 540
61 TO GO IF(CL.GE.0.0) 539
CL=(AO*A)-(A2*(A-AMAX)**2) 538
25 TO GO 537
CD=SD0+(SD1+A)+(SD2*A*A) 536
CL=A0*A 535
24 TO GO IF(A.GT.AMAX) 534
A=ALPHA 533
AMAX=0.218 532
SD5=12570. 531
SD4=0.0006 530
SD3=0.0168 529
SD2=.130 528
SD1-0.0006 527
SDO=0.0058 526
A2=7.*A0 525
A0=5.73 524
C 523
529. 669,PAGE NO. REPORT NACA IN PUBLISHED DATA NACA OF CURVEFIT C 522
POLYNOMIAL ORTHOGNAL A BY OBTAINED WERE EQUATIONS THE C 521
AIRFOIL. 0012 NACA A FOR ALPHA; ATTACK, OF ANGLE GIVEN A AT C 520
DRAG AND LIFT OF COEFFICIENTS THE DETERMINES - NACA C 519
C 518
NACA00(ALPHA,CL,CD) SU8ROUTINE 517

1045 05/17/74 3.12 VERSION FORTRAN 0S3

 END 575
RETURN 100 574
0.1851985 - CD=+0.0131686686494*ALF 573
+1.934 -0.029*ALP CL= 60 572
10 TO GO 571
3.23 + -0.11*ALP CL= 570
60 TO GO IF(ALP.GE,16.0) 50 569
10 TO GO 568
- 0.00738*ALP**2 - 0.214377*ALP CL= 567
0.0248
50 TO GO GE.15.5) IF(ALP. 30 566
10 TO GO 565
0.6078 + 0.0731*ALP CL= 564
30 TO GO IF(ALP.GE.12.0) 20 563
100 TO GO 562
0.00629752 1+ 661
0.0000023229*ALP**3 + 0.00002732*ALP**2 + CD=0.0001695356*ALP 10 660
100 TO GO 559
1+0.00661 558
0.000000704*ALP**3 - 0.000028188623*ALP**2 + CD=0.00001644&ALP 557
10 TO GO IF(ALF.6G.+2.0) 556
0.3975 + CL=0.099375*ALP 555
20 TO GO IF(ALP.GE.8.0) 554
ALP=ALPHA*180./3.141593 553
C 552
401. PAGE 824, NO. REPORT NACA IN PUBLISHED DATA NACA OF CURVEFIT C 551
POLYNOMIAL ORTHOGNAL A BY OBTAINED WERE EQUATIONS THE C 550
AIRFOIL. 4418 NACA A FOR ALFHA; ATTACK, OF ANGLE GIVEN A AT C 549
DRAG AND LIFT OF COEFFICIENTS THE DETERMINES - NACA C 548
C 547
(ALPHA,CL,CD) NACA44 SUBROUTINE 546

1045 05/17/74 3.12 VERSION FORTRAN 053

 00026 SUBPROGRAM. OF LENGTH
NACAXX FOR ERRORS NO

END 597
RETURN 585
CD AND CL FOR PROGRAM FIT CURVE ADD C 584
ALP=ALPHA*188./3.141593 583
C 582
DEGREES. IN ATTACK OF ANGLE C 581
OF FUNCTION A AS COEFFICIENTS DRAG AND LIFT SCCTIONAL FOR C 580
EQUATICNS FIT CURVE INSERT MUST ONE STORED. PREVIOUSLY NOT C 579
PROFILE A FOR USE FOR SUBROUTINE EMPTY AN IS NACAXX C 578
C 577
NACAXX(ALPHA,CL,CD) SUBROUTINE 576

1045 05/17/74 3.12 VERSION FORTRAN 0S3

II xiaNadav
 107

2
W CL = Frft

Kutta-Joukowski from time, same this At

blade per = total

F
a'rS2 4nrF

above calculated circulation the of function a is F circulation the Hence,

between. in decreasing and blades the near increasing 0, of function a is a' blades finite For
1

a'r0 47r FtotalB

constant. is a' i.e., (0), a' # a' blades of number infinite an For

velocity
tangent
wake

= "total
{2a1rf2}rd0
2n

path circular a Using

ds = 'total

Hence

blades the by "generated"

circulation the to equal be must wake the in circulation the conserved, is vorticity Since

FACTORS "F" THE OF USE THE

 then also, disk rotor the at localized be to "a" Consider

y
dr c C 2 pW = a)2a\T,27urdr (1 pVco
-B

element dTmomentum
dTblade

by determined is thrust Now

(I)
cos sirul) 8F a' 1+
aCx 1

a since
Bc

1+a' W CLW Bc dp sin CL

(I) cos ID airS2 47trF Cx

Combining

= dFx , =
cCxdr pW2 pcVxfdr

= Since
(ixd) d-C)x

sin(I) CL
rT

NOW
is FL to rtotal of ratio the circulation generated drag the included rtotal
 109

2(S+F2) a=
F) (1 4SF
+ F = 2S
VF2

a)2
- (1.
S a.' 2
(1) 8sin2 =
aF)aF (1
aCY