Science: Physics (Sem. I) 3.

33 Thermometry and Fibre Optics

Basic

3.6.1 Optical Fibre - Principle

We have seen Total Internal Reflection (TIR) in detail.
The optical fibre Works on the principle of Total Internal Reflection (T.I.R.) i.e. when
monochromatic light is obliquely incident on the interface between optically denser medium and
rarer medium and if angle of incidence is greater than critical angle then no refraction takes place
and onnlyreflection takes place which is called total internal reflection.
ie. Following two conditions are necessary for T.I.R.
(1) #>2 i.e. refractive index of first medium should be greater than that of second medium.
i2)i> e i.e. angle of incidence should be greater than critical angle.
Thus light travels by way of T.I.R. (i.e. light keep bouncing through core) through the fibre
(nipe)even though the fibre is bended many times.
3.6.2 Structure (Construction) of Optical Fibre
Communication optical fibre has cylindrical core surrounded with cylindrical coat of
cladding coated with protective skin (insulation, jacket) as shown.
Thus, when light enters into core, it propagates by means of total internal reflection at core
cladding interface and comes out from the other end.
Core : The light is transmitted within the core. The core is the innermost layer. The
refractive index of core is slightly greater than that of cladding, Typical value of refractive
index of core is 1.48.
Cladding : The clading keeps the light waves within the core because the refractive index
of the cladding material is less than that of the core i.e. cladding acts like a reflector and
keeps the light within the core based on T.I.R. concept. Typical value of refractive index of
cladding is 1.46. The cladding also provides some strength to the core. When bunch of
optical fibres is packed in one cable, the cladding layer avoids the interface between light
rays in the adjacent fibres.
Protective skin : The protective skin protects the fibre from moisture. This protective skin
provides mechanical strength to the optical cable.
Fibre optic cable is made from either glass or plastic. Another name for glass is silica.
pulled such
Special techniques have been developed and the glass or plastic is melted and
that a fine thread like fibre is formed.
Glass has superior optical characteristics over plastic.
Protective skin
Cladding (insulation, jacket)
Core

Core axis
Fibre
Fig. 3.16 : Structure of an Optical
can be joined usina
Dimensions : The length of the optical fibre is normally 1 km. They
suitable connectors. Optical fibre is very thin.
mm to 0.15 mm.
1ts outer diameter ranges from 0.1
value is approximately 50 um).
Core diameter ranges from 5 um to 600 um (typical
um.
Claddingdiameter varies from 125 um to 750
light within the core
The thickness of protective skin varies from 30 to 50 m. To Keep
may be thick of 100 um. Size Â
Cladding must have minimum thickness. The protectIVe skin
features of optical fibres.
Core and cladding determine some
cable.
Many fibres are arouped to form a
 Basic Science : Physics (Sem. I) 3.34
Thermometry and Fibre Optics
Conditions for T.I.R. or propagation of light through optical fibre :
1. Refractive index of core should be greater than refractive index of cladding
(i.e. Mcore >Heladding
2. Entering light must have angle of incidence (0) greater than critical
angle (0.) (certain
angle) i.e. 0 > 0
3.6.3 Optical Fibre Working
In order to understand optical fibre working, we will go through simple
telephone working in short.
example of land-line
Transducer is an electronic device which converts energy from one form into another. ie
transducer is a energy converter.
into
e.g. Microphone (mike) - converts sound (audio) electrical signal
into
e.g. Loudspeaker - converts electrical signal ’ sound (audio)
Land line cable
(Audio) Transducer Electrical
Electric Transducer, Original sound
sound (mike) signal Electrical signal signal speaker
(audio)
Fig. 3.17: Land-line (cable) telephone communication
(Audio) Transducer Electrical Transducer
Sound signal Light
(mike) (LED)

Optical fiber
+Light
Transducer
photodiode
Transducer Original sound (audio)
Electrical loud speaker
(Phototransistor) signal
Fig. 3.18: Optical fibre
Optical fibre is like a pipe through which lightcommunication
travels
(working)
is bended many times. (without any loss) eventhough fibre (pipe)
Working:
Message (or data or sound) that we want to transmit is
into light energy i.e. information is included converted into electrical signal and then
in light. Now this light travels
by using T.I.R. phenomena (i.e. light keep through optical fibre Ore
light is a signal carrier. bouncing and comes out of cable at another end). Tnus
Light carries this energy
where light is converted (data, message, sound) and comes out from other end of optical
into electrical
signal and then converted back to original
data/message/sound etc. In this way,
Thus instead of electric signal communication takes place.
as a energy carrier, here light is a
fastest, has high bandwidth,electrically isolated and signal carrier. Lg
hence it has many advantages.
|3.6.4 Acceptance Angle (0,)|
The maximum value of
optical fibre is called the external incident angle for which light will propagate in the
acceptance angle.
0, = sin (NA) or ., =
where, 0, =
sin1(Hcore - clad)
NA =
acceptance angle
numerical aperture
 Science:l Physics (Sem. I) 3.35 Thermometry and Fibre Optics
Basic
also called as acceptance cone half angle.
Itis angle
It simply means that if an external angle is less than .,, TIR takes place and if an external
is more
than it then light does not propagate upto the far end.
m rotated
Acceptance cone: We have seen that 0, is the maximum acceptance angle. If 0, is
core axis, then the cone is formed which is called as acceptance cone. It is just
like a
around the it will cone) then
funnel or ice cream cone. If light is allowed to fall within this funnel (acceptance
end.
propagate upto the far
Hclad Cladding
Acceptance -Core
Acceptance
Cone Cone Hcore
Optical fibre Wclad Cladding
Incident
max
0, Acceptance
ray angle

Fig. 3.19

Normal to core axis

CORE
Core Axis

Pama CORE

Incident Conditions for TLR.

ray 1) External angle should be less than a may
2) Incident angle should be more than 0,

Fig. 3.20

3.6.5 Numerical Aperture (NA)

mneasures the light gathering power of optical fibre.
It is closely related to acceptance angle. It is the amount of external light the fibre wilI
Greater the magnitude of numerical aperture, greater maximum acceptance angle.
dCcept. Numerical aperture is defined as the sine of
NA =
Na = Numerical aperture
where, Refractive index of core
lcore
lclad
Refractive indexX of cladding
NA = sin a
Also,
NA = Numerical aperture
where,
0, = ACceptance angle

3.6.6 Path (Propagation or Transmission) of Light through Optical Fibre

A beam
Fig. 3.21 shows a thin fibre optic cable.
Now, let us see how liaht travel in acable.
of cable as shown.
OT light is focussed on the end angle. Therefore. tota
is greater than critical
The angle of incidence of light beam are reflected throuah the
internal reflection takes place and the light beams
bounces back and passes the surface
Surface of the fibre cables as shown. The beam
Basic Science :Physics (Sem. I) 3.36
Thermometry and Fibre Optics
cable and it exits at the other end. Thus light entering into a glass fibre from one end o.
reflected within the cable (T.I.R.) and this light emerges out from the other
which travels from one end to the other is called 'light is guided' through fibre. end. This Jight
Cladding
Light

SOurce
Core

Fig. 3.21
Because of total internal reflection, the light beam will continue to propagate through the
fibre eventhough it is bent number of times.
Only if bending is more which causes the angle of incidence to change which, in turn, will
cause the loss of light due to refraction. With long little bends, the light will stay within the
cable.

3.6.7 Types of Optical Fibres

Depending on variation of refractive index of core and mode of propagation, the optical
fibres are of different types.
Types of optical fiber
(based on variation
of refractive index of core)

(1) Step index fiber (2) Graded index fiber

(based on mode of (based on mode of
propagation) propagation)

Multimode
(a) Single mode (b) Multi mode graded
step index fiber step index fiber index fiber

Fig. 3.22
Types of Optical Fibres:
Fibre optic cables are classified by two ways:
1. Depending upon the variation in refractive index.
2. Depending upon the mode of propagation i.e. path that light ray propagate.
Types of optical fibres are:
1. Single mode step index optical fibre.
2. Multimode step index optical fibre.
3. Multimode graded index optical fibre.
Plastic Fibre:
Normally plastic - plastic optical fibre is preferred.
Core-doped plastic of high R.I.
Clad-plastic of lowR.I.
Used for shorter run.
Higher attenuation.
Easy to install.
Nice withstand stress.
Less expensive.
Less weight.
 (Sem. I) Thermometry and Fibre Optics
Basic Science : Physics 3.37

K67.1 Single Mode (Single Path) Step Index Optical Fibre

SGingle mode step index optical fibre caries only one mode. As the name suggests it supports
in the order of 9 um and
only single propagation path which is linear. The core has small diameter
oneianed for single specific wavelength. Light traveling through this cable follows single path.
Cladding
-Core

Cladding Core

Light Only
one Refractive
SOurce index
mode

Radial distance
(b) Refractive index profile of
(a)Single mode step single mode step index optical fibre
index optical fibre
Fig. 3.23
of refractive index
In step index type, material of core has complete uniform distribution
of cladding. Step index
throughout its thickness. The refractive index of core is greater than that(sharply defined step)
refers to the fact that the refractive index profile suddenly decreases cladding
index and
from core to cladding. It simply means that core has one constant refractive
has another refractive index.
Path: There is only one path which is linear.
Because of small core diameter (thickness), this type of optical fibre has low modal dispersion
for short distance.
(iow widening tendency). Normally, such a fibre is used
Less attenuation can run over longer distance.
Larger bandwidth.
Fibre
E.6.7.2 Multimode (Many Paths) Step Index Optical through such a fibre
Multimode step index optical fibre carries many modes i.e. light travelling
täkes many paths through the core.
distribution of refractive index throughout ite
Step index material of core has complete uniform
thickness. Cladding
Core

gatio

Source Ray
propa

of
Light
SOurce light Core
Refractive
Cladding index
Many paths
Zig-zag paths
Radial distance

index (b)Refractive index profile of

(a) Multimode step multimode step index optical fibre
optical fibre
Fig. 3.24
is greater
of core index than that of cladding. As we have seen, step index ref
to the that theindex
refractive
Thefact refractive profile suddenly decreases from core to cladding.
Basic Science :Physics (Sem. )
3.38 Thermometry and Fibre Optics
larger (more core diameter ie thi,
In multimode step index fibre, the central core is much
light propagates in zig-zag direction as shown. There are many paths. As a result, all ligbt ra!
the length of the fibre.
do not take same time to travel through
multimode
Path (Propagation): There are many paths for ray propagation, hence called
There are many zig-zag paths.
Inexpensive, easy to couple light into fibre.
3.6.7.3 Muitimode (Many Paths) Graded Index Optical Fibre
modes ie
As we have seen (multimode), multimode graded index optical fibre carries many
the core.
light travelling through such a fibre takes many paths through
core varies with
Graded index central core has non-uniform refractive index. Refractive index of
maximum at centre (axis) and decreases
the radial distance from the axis. The refractive indeX 0s
gradually towards the outer edge as shown in Fig. 3.25.
Cladding
Core

Cladding

Core
Ray of
propagation

Refractive
index

Many paths
Curved (curled, coiled helical) paths Radial distance
(a) Multimode graded (b) Refractive index profile of
index optical fibre multimode graded index optical fibre
Fig. 3.25
Because of graded variation in refractive index across the core, the light rays bend smoothiy.
The light propagates in curved fashion.
The light rays near the edge of the core take a longer path but travel faster since the index 0
refraction is lower and the light near the axis take shorter path but moves little slower. Inen all ui
modes (light paths) tend to arrive at one point simultaneously.
The result is that it has less modal dispression.
Path (propagation) : Light through muitimode graded index optical fibre is curved (CUne
coiled, helical). There are many curved paths.
Path (Propagation) of Light through Different Types of optical Fibres:
Multimode graded index
Single mode step index Multimode step index
optical fibre optical fibre optical fibre
Many paths (many
Only one path i.e. carries Many paths i.e. carries
single mode. many modes. modes).
Curved (curled, helical)
paths of rays.
other end
Linear path. Zig-zag paths of rays. Rays reach at because
time
Rays reaching at other end at same rays move
linear path are different because, longer path path
faster and shorter
longer path rays reach later rays move slower.
and shorter path rays reach
earlier.
 Science:Physics(Sem. l) 3.39 Thermometry and Fibre Optics
Basic
pifference between Different Types of Optical Fibres Refraction:
index
single mode step Multimode step index Multimode graded index
optical fibre optical fibre optical fibre
Core :
Has
less Core diameter Core diameter is larger Core diameter is large and
about 10 um. than single mode and it varies from 50 to
Refractive index of Core is which varies from 50 to 200 um.
uniform throughout its 200 um. Refractive index of core is
thickness. Refractive index of core is not uniform throughout the
uniform throughout the fibre. It is maximum at
fibre. Core axis and goes on
decreasing away from the
Core axis and it is
minimum at core cladding
interface.
Path :
Light travels via only in one Light travels via many Light travels via many
path which is linear. zig-zag paths. curved (curled, helical)
path of rays.

Rays reach at the other

end at different time
because longer rays reach Rays reach at other end at
later and shorter rays same time because longer
reach earlier. rays are faster and shorter
rays are slower.

More mnodal dispersion. Less modal dispersion.

Less modal dispersion.
Communication
.6.8 Advantages of Optical Fibres in
Over Ordinary Cable Communication
* n case of optical fibre since light is a
signal carrier, communication is speedy.
communication, electricity is signal carrier.
lcase of ordinary cable safe data
S Optical fibre communication is
electrically isolated since light carries signal i.e.
transfer takes place speedily.
bandwidth (10 GHz) 1.e. extra information bandwidth, hence many sianals an
gnt has high cable ror every signal, there may be
Ve Sent throuah single fibre but in case of ordinary
mesh or number of cables from terrace to
diTerentcables reguiredie in future we may not find

4.
terrace. of their light weight
and flexibility can be handled very
Lighter weight: Optical fibres because
easily than that of heavy copper cables.
S. interference: Ordinary cablesof are metallic, hence it picks up
Opposition
electromagnetic
to inductive
waves interfere and may be
which
cause distortion. But optical fibre since
electromagnetic waves.
6 they are not metallic, do not pick up
temperature resistant.
7. Longer
Cross life, easy maintenance,
talk immunity: There is no signal leakage and hence cross talk between neighbouring

Tibres are almost absent

Basic Science : Physics (Sem. I) 3.40 Thermometry and Fibre Optics
3.6.9 Applications of Optical Fiber (Fibre)
Light has three important properties and has many applications.
() Light is fastest - Therefore speedy communication.
(ii) Light has high bandwidth -Therefore it cancarry large and variety of signals.
(ii)Optical fibre is electrically isolated, therefore, safe to use.
1. Used in communication system:
For illumination and image transmission.
For data storage and transmission (speedy transmission).
Used in broadcast (e.g. cable companies) to communicate cable signals from source to
user - It can handle many channels.
To carry TV signals.
Tocarry telephone signals - clear and speedy conversation.
Tocarry telex signals.
To carry fax signals - (fascimile sender)
2. Used in medical equipment:
For inspection of internal body parts.
Used in opthalmology (eye doctor).
Used as a light guide during surgery (focus on internal part).
Used in imaging tools (to create image of internal organ).
For laser surgery.
Used in endoscope to see inner body parts, opthalmoscope to see eye structure.
3. Used in internet and computer networking:
Used to connect user and server.
Optical fibre can transmit large data very speedily through optical fibre (cable) internet
connection.
Two or more computers from same building are connected using optical (fibre) cables (To
exchanging information).
4. Used in space and automotive industry:
Different sensors like pressure sensor, chemnical concentration sensors, e.g. temperature
sensor uses property of change in refractive index due to change in temperature.
Different detectors (e.g. smoke detector).
Automatic liquid level controller or sensor.
Used in satellite communication, radar
communication.
Used in industrial automation system.
5. Used in military
applications:
Optical fibre based inspection device uses
To transmit data securely and with
micro-camera.
privacy.
Network between army, navy and air force.
Controlling operations of weapon system.
Fibre optic smoke sensor is used to detect the presence of
explosive substance.
Used for signaling purpose in
military.