Chapter 2 Soft Computing

Soft Computing
Chapter 2 :Fuzzy logic and Fuzzy systems

For BTI, Computer Engineering, MPSTME
Chapter 1:- Introduction to Neural Network- Biological Neurons, McCullah and
Pitts models of neuron, Models of ANN, Neural processing, Neural network learning
rules, Single layer perceptron classifier, Linearly separable classification
• Soft Computing:-
Artificial Neural Network Fuzzy Logic
Genetic Algorithm Probabilistic computing

Chapter 2 Soft Computing 9/23/2023 2
Chapter 2 :Fuzzy logic and Fuzzy systems :- Fuzzy set theory crisp sets Fuzzy set
Crisp relations fuzzy relations fuzzy systems crisp logic predicate logic fuzzy logic fuzzy
rule based system
• Introduction:-
• In a process control situation, “If the temperature is 45 F and the pressure is 55 N/m2, then turn the knob
ON”
• In a process control situation, “If the temperature is moderate and the pressure is high, then turn the knob
slightly right”
• not many human problems require such precision –
• problems such as parking a car,
• backing up a trailer, navigating a car among others on a freeway,
• washing clothes, controlling traffic at intersections, judging beauty contestants, and a preliminary understanding of a
complex system.
• Works with imprecise statements
• The rules have “Linguistic Variables”, typically adjectives qualified by adverbs.
rule based system
• Fuzzy Logic:-
• is an approach to variable processing
• Is a superset of Boolean Logic
• is intended to model logical reasoning with vague or imprecise statements
• refers to a family of many-valued logics,
• the truth-values are interpreted as degrees of truth.
• fuzzy set is a degree of membership, a real number from the interval [0,1]
• makes it possible to obtain an array of accurate conclusions.

rule based system
Fuzzy Logic:- Compare to Machine Learning and Neural Network
• Machine learning refers to computational systems that mimic human cognition, by iteratively
adapting algorithms to solve complex problems.
• Fuzzy logic is a set of rules and functions that can operate on imprecise data sets, but the
algorithms still need to be coded by humans.
• An artificial neural network is a computational system designed to imitate the problem-solving
procedures of a human-like nervous system.

rule based system
Fuzzy Logic:- Pros and Cons of Fuzzy Logic
• Pros • Cons
• Fuzzy logic is more likely to reflect real- • Fuzzy algorithms require broad validation
world problems than classical logic. and verification.
• Fuzzy logic algorithms have lower hardware • Fuzzy control systems are dependent on
requirements than classical Boolean logic. human expertise and knowledge.
• Fuzzy algorithms can produce accurate
results with imprecise or inaccurate data.

Chapter 2 :Fuzzy logic and Fuzzy systems :- Fuzzy set theory, crisp sets, Fuzzy set,
Crisp relations, fuzzy relations, fuzzy systems, crisp logic, predicate logic, fuzzy logic,
fuzzy rule based system
Fuzzy Logic:- Components
• Fuzzification. The process of converting degree of membership of input variables to

specific input values into some degree of fuzzy sets and the detailed fuzzy rules
membership of fuzzy sets based on how well
• Defuzzification. The process of converting
they fit.
the fuzzy conclusions into detailed output
• Fuzzy rules / knowledge base. These are values.
the If-Then rules to follow, often derived
from expert opinions or via more
quantitative approaches.
• Inference method. The way of obtaining
the final fuzzy conclusion, according to the
CLASSICAL/CRISP SETS AND FUZZY SETS
• Fuzzy boundaries are ambiguously specified

• A classical set is defined by crisp boundaries
• Point a is represented by the number 1, and
• no-membership in a set, as point b is represented by 0, then
• point c must have some intermediate value of membership
(partial membership in fuzzy set A∼) on the interval [0,1].

CLASSICAL SETS
• an unordered collection of different elements (is a collection of distinct objects.)

• is defined in such a way that the universe of discourse is splitted into two groups members and
non-members.
• listing its elements using the set bracket.
• Set of vowels in English alphabet,
• A = {a,e,i,o,u}
• A = {x:x is a vowel in English alphabet}
• Set of odd numbers less than 10,
• B = {1,3,5,7,9}
• B = {x:1 ≤ x < 10 and (x%2) ≠ 0}
CLASSICAL SETS
• For crisp sets A and B consisting of collections of some elements in X, the

following notation is defined:

CLASSICAL/CRISP SETS {Cardinal number & Cardinality }
• For crisp sets A and B consisting of collections of some elements in X, the

following notation is defined:
• X = {a, b, c}, the cardinal number is nx = 3
• P(X) = {∅, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a,c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}}
• The cardinality of the power set, denoted nP(X), is found as nP(X) = 2nX = 23
=8

CLASSICAL/CRISP SETS {Operations}
• Let A and B be two sets on the universe X.

• Union A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
• Intersection A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
• Complement = {x | x A, x ∈ X}
• Difference A | B = {x | x ∈ A and x B}

CLASSICAL/CRISP SETS {Properties}
• Commutativity • A∩A=A
• A∪B=B∪A • Identity
• A∩B=B∩A • A ∪∅= A
• Associativity • A∩X=A
• A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C • A ∩∅=∅
• A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C • A∪X=X
• Distributivity • Transitivity
• A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) • If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C, then A ⊆ C
• A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) • Involution
• Idempotency • =A
• A∪A=A

CLASSICAL/CRISP SETS {Venn Diagrams of Set Combinations}

CLASSICAL/CRISP SETS {Venn Diagrams of Set Combinations}

CLASSICAL/CRISP SETS {special properties}
• Excluded middle axioms and • De Morgan’s principles.

• axiom of the excluded middle, • A∩B=A∪B
• deals with the union of a set A and its • A∪B=A∩B
complement;
• E1 ∪ E2 ∪···∪ En = E1 ∩ E2 ∩···∩ En
• A∪A=X
• E1 ∩ E2 ∩···∩ En = E1 ∪ E2 ∪···∪ En
• axiom of contradiction,
• represents the intersection of a set A and its
complement.
• A∩A=∅

CLASSICAL/CRISP SETS {Function Mapping}
• Function Mapping of set theoretic form and function theoretic form

1 𝑥∈𝐴
• On the basis of mapping characteristic function is defined as, 𝑋𝐴 𝑥 = ቊ
0𝑥 ∉𝐴
• 𝑋𝐴 𝑥 -membership in set A for element
• Union A ∪ B • Complement 𝐴ҧ
• 𝑋𝐴 A ∪ B = 𝑋𝐴 𝑥 𝑣 𝑋𝐵 𝑥 = max 𝑥𝐴 𝑥 , 𝑥𝐵 𝑥 • 𝑋𝐴ҧ x = 1 − 𝑋𝐴 𝑥
• Intersection A ∩ B • Contentment 𝐴
• 𝑋𝐴 A ∩ B = 𝑋𝐴 𝑥 ∧ 𝑋𝐵 𝑥 = min 𝑥𝐴 𝑥 , 𝑥𝐵 𝑥 • If 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 then 𝑥𝐴 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥𝐵 𝑥

FUZZY SETS
• In classical, or crisp, sets the transition for an

element in the universe between membership and
non membership in a given set is abrupt. For an
element in a universe that contains fuzzy sets, this
transition can be gradual.
• Can be represented as 𝐴ሚ
• This function maps elements of a fuzzy set 𝐴ሚ to a
real numbered value on the interval 0 to 1
• or µ𝐴෨ (𝑥) ∈ [0,1]
FUZZY SETS {Operations}
• Define three fuzzy sets A∼, B∼, and C∼ on the universe X.

• For a given element x of the universe,
the following function-
theoretic operations for the set-theoretic operations of
union, intersection, and complement are defined for
𝐴ሚ, 𝐵෫
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶ሚ on X


FUZZY SETS {Properties}



CRISP RELATION
• CARTESIAN PRODUCT
• The elements in two sets A and B are given as A = {0, 1} and B = {a, b, c}. Various
Cartesian products of these two sets can be written as shown:
• A × B = {(0, a), (0, b), (0, c), (1, a), (1, b), (1, c)}
• B × A = {(a, 0), (a, 1), (b, 0), (b, 1), (c, 0), (c, 1)}
• A × A = A2 = {(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0), (1, 1)}
• B × B = B2 = {(a, a), (a, b), (a, c), (b, a), (b, b), (b, c), (c, a), (c, b), (c, c)}

CRISP/CLASSICAL RELATION
• The relation between two set is called binary relation, and represented as A1 × A2
• If three, four, or five sets are involved in a subset of the full Cartesian product, the relations are called
ternary, quaternary, and quinary, respectively.
• A subset of the Cartesian product A1 × A2 ×· · ·×Ar is called an r-ary relation over A1,A2, . . . ,Ar
• For us , whenever the term relation is used without qualification, it is taken to mean a binary relation.
• The Cartesian product of two universes X and Y is determined as,
• X × Y = {(x, y) | x ∈ X, y ∈ Y}

CRISP/CLASSICAL RELATION
• The strength of this relationship between ordered pairs of elements in each universe is measured by the
characteristic function, denoted χ, where
• a value of unity is associated with complete relationship and
• a value of zero is associated with no relationship, i.e.,
1 (x, y) ∈ X × Y
𝑋𝑥𝑋𝑌 𝑥, 𝑦 = ቊ
0 (x, y) ∉ X × Y

CRISP RELATION {Operations}

CRISP RELATION {Composition}
• Let R be a relation that relates, elements from universe X to universe Y, and

• R = {(x1, y1), (x1, y3), (x2, y4)}
• Let S be a relation that relates, elements from universe Y to universe Z.
• S = {(y1, z2), (y3, z2)}
• “Composition”, can find a relation, T, that relates the same elements in universe X (that R
contains) to the same elements in universe Z (that S contains.)
• There are two common forms of the composition operation;
• one is called the max–min composition and
• the other the max–product composition

CRISP RELATION {Composition}
• The max–min composition

• T = R◦S
• χT(x, z) = ‫ڀ‬y∈Y (χR(x, y) ∧ χS(y, z))
• The max–product composition
• T = R◦S
• χT(x, z) = ‫ڀ‬y∈Y (χR(x, y) . χS(y, z))

FUZZY RELATION {Composition}

• FUZZY COMPOSITIONS
• Let 𝐴 ̃ be a fuzzy set on universe X and 𝐵 ̃ be a fuzzy set on universe Y;
• then the Cartesian product between fuzzy sets 𝐴ሚ and 𝐵෨ will result in a fuzzy relation 𝑅̃෨ ,
• 𝐴ሚ × 𝐵෨ = 𝑅෨ ⊂ X × Y
• where the fuzzy relation 𝑅෨ has membership function
• µ 𝑅 ǁ (x, y) = µ 𝐴 ǁ× 𝐵 ǁ (x, y) = min µ 𝐴 ǁ (x), µ 𝐵 ǁ (y)

• for a fuzzy set (vector) 𝐴 ̃ that has four
elements, hence column vector of size
4 × 1, and for a fuzzy set (vector) 𝐵 ̃
that has five elements, hence a row
vector size of 1 × 5, the resulting
fuzzy relation, 𝑅෨ , will be represented
by a matrix of size 4 × 5, i.e., 𝑅෨
• will have four rows and five columns.
This result is illustrated in the
following example.


FUZZY RELATIONS

FUZZY RELATIONS

FUZZY RELATIONS

FUZZY RELATIONS

TOLERANCE AND EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS - CRISP RELATION
• Reflexivity, Symmetry, and Transitivity Relations

used in graph theory.
• Consider the simple graphs in Fig. 3.8. This figure
describes a universe of three elements,
• Labeled as the vertices of this graph, 1, 2, and 3,
• or in set notation, X = {1, 2, 3}
• When a relation is reflexive every vertex in the graph
originates a single loop, as shown in Fig. 3.8a.
• If a relation is symmetric, then

• in the graph for every edge pointing (the arrows on the edge lines in Fig. 3.8b) from vertex i to vertex j (i, j = 1, 2,
3), there is an edge pointing in the opposite direction, i.e., from vertex j to vertex i.
• When a relation is transitive, then
• for every pair of edges in the graph, one pointing from vertex i to vertex j and the other from vertex j to vertex k (i,
j, k = 1, 2, 3), there is an edge pointing from vertex i directly to vertex k, as seen in Fig. 3.8c (e.g., an arrow from
vertex 1 to vertex 2, an arrow from vertex 2 to vertex 3, and an arrow from vertex 1 to vertex 3)


TOLERANCE AND EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS - FUZZY RELATION

TOLERANCE AND EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS - FUZZY RELATION

Chapter 2 :Fuzzy logic and Fuzzy systems :- Fuzzy set theory crisp sets Fuzzy set Crisp
relations fuzzy relations fuzzy systems crisp logic predicate logic fuzzy logic fuzzy rule based
system
Questions for Practice
• Compare constrained relation and non

• Explain the operations and properties over a
constrained relation fuzzy relation
• Give the cardinality of classical relation • Discuss fuzzy composition techniques
• Mention the operation performed on classical • What are tolerance and equivalence relations
relations • Write short note on fuzzy equivalent relation
• List the various properties of crisp relations • How are a crisp tolerance relation and fuzzy
• What is the necessity of composition of a relation tolerance relation converted to crisp
• What are the various types of composition equivalence relation and fuzzy equivalence
techniques
relation respectively
• Define fuzzy matrix and fuzzy graph
• Explain with suitable diagrams and examples of
• Give the cardinality of Fuzzy relations fuzzy equivalence relation.
• What is meant by non iterative fuzzy sets

system

system

system

rule based system
LOGIC AND FUZZY SYSTEM
let P and Q be two simple propositions on the same universe of discourse that can be combined using the following
five logical connectives
Chapter 2 (Part 2) Soft Computing 9/23/2023 48

rule based system
TAUTOLOGIES
• Refers to compound propositions that are always true,
• are useful
• for deductive reasoning, for proving theorems, and for making deductive inferences.
• example, if A is the set of all prime numbers (A1 = 1, A2 = 2, A3 = 3, A4 = 5,...) on the real line universe, X, then the
proposition ‘‘Ai is not divisible by 6’’ is a tautology.
• One tautology, known as modus ponens deduction, is scheme used in forward-chaining rule-based expert
systems.

Chapter 2 :Fuzzy logic and Fuzzy systems :- Fuzzy set theory crisp sets
Fuzzy set Crisp relations fuzzy relations fuzzy systems crisp logic predicate
logic fuzzy logic fuzzy rule based system
Contradiction
• Compound propositions that are always false
• For example, if A is the set of all prime numbers (1, 2, 3, 5, . . .) on the real
line universe, X,
• then the proposition ‘‘Ai is a multiple of 4’’ is a contradiction.
• Some simple contradictions are listed here:
• B∩B
• A ∩ ∅; A ∩ ∅
rule based system
EQUIVALENCE
• As mentioned, propositions P and Q are equivalent, i.e., P ↔ Q, is true only when both P
and Q are true or when both P and Q are false
• For example, the propositions P: ‘‘triangle is equilateral’’ and Q: ‘‘triangle is equiangular’’ are equivalent
because they are either both true or both false for some triangle. This condition of equivalence is shown
in Fig. 5.4, where the shaded region is the region of equivalence.

rule based system
Deductive Inferences
The modus ponens deduction is used as a tool for making inferences in rule-based systems.
we have a rule of the form IF A, THEN B
we deduce, in rule form, IF A’, THEN B’
Defined in function-theoretic terms as χR(x, y) = max[(χA(x) ∧ χB(y)), ((1 − χA(x)) ∧ 1)]

Modus ponens deduction can also be used for the compound rule IF A, THEN B, ELSE C,
Then similarly

rule based system

rule based system
FUZZY LOGIC

rule based system

rule based system

rule based system
APPROXIMATE REASONING
•fuzzy logic is to form the theoretical foundation for reasoning about imprecise propositions
•Suppose we have a rule-based format to represent fuzzy information. These rules are expressed in
conventional antecedent-consequent form, such as,
•Rule 1: IF x is A∼, THEN y is B∼, where A∼ and B∼ represent fuzzy propositions (sets).
•Now suppose we introduce a new antecedent, say A’∼, and we consider the following rule:
•Rule 2: IF x is A’∼, THEN y is B’∼ From information derived from Rule 1, is it possible to derive the
consequent in Rule 2, B’∼ ? The answer is yes, and the procedure is fuzzy composition.
•The consequent B∼ can be found from the composition operation ,B∼ =A∼ ◦R∼.
•The two most common forms of the composition operator are the max–min and the max–product
compositions.

rule based system

rule based system

rule based system
OTHER FORMS OF THE IMPLICATION OPERATION

rule based system
FUZZY SYSTEMS

rule based system
FUZZY SYSTEMS – FUZZY Propositions
• Fuzzy Predicates:- In fuzzy logic the predicates can be
fuzzy, for example, tall, short, quick
• Fuzzy-predicate modifiers: In fuzzy logic, there exists a
wide range of predicate modifiers that act as hedges
• Fuzzy quantifiers. The fuzzy quantifiers such as most,
several, many, frequently are used in fuzzy logic.

rule based system
FUZZY SYSTEMS - LINGUISTIC HEDGES
•In linguistics with adjectives (nouns) or adverbs (verbs)

•like very, low, slight, more or less, fairly, slightly, almost,
barely, mostly, roughly, approximately…...
•We will call these modifiers ‘‘linguistic hedges’’:
•that is, the singular meaning of an atomic term
•As an example, let us look at the basic linguistic atom, α, and
subject it to some hedges
•The expressions shown in Eqs. (5.26)– (5.28) are linguistic hedges
known as concentrations [Zadeh, 1972]
rule based system
•Concentrations.
•For example, by using Eq. (5.26) for the hedge very, a membership
value of 0.9 is reduced by 10% to a value of 0.81
•Dilations
•For example, using Eq. (5.29) for the hedge slightly, a membership
value of 0.81 is increased by 11% to a value of 0.9, whereas a
membership value of 0.01 is increased by an order of magnitude to
0.1.
•Intensification.
•This operation acts in a combination of concentration and dilation.
•It increases the degree of membership of those elements in the set
with original membership values greater than 0.5, and
•it decreases the degree of membership of those elements in the set
with original membership values less than 0.5.
rule based system

rule based system
FUZZY RULE BASED SYSTEMS
There are three general forms,
a. Assignment statements
a. Eg y = small, color = orange,
b. Utilize =
b. Conditional statements
a. Eg IF y is very cool THEN stop, IF Ais high THEN B is low ELSE B is
not low.
b. Statements are IF THEN rule based.
c. Unconditional statements
a. They can be of the form go to sum, stop, divide by a, turn pressure low.
any compound rule structure may be decomposed and reduced to a number of

simple canonical rules as given in Table 5.8
rule based system
FUZZY RULE BASED SYSTEMS
a. Aggregation functions combine input values a. Decomposition functions decompose

into a single output value, which represents all compound rule structure into a number of
the inputs simple canonical rule forms
a. Involves more than one rule a. Multiple conjunction antecedents
b. Obtaining Overall consequents from b. Multiple disjunctive antecedents
individual consequents provided by each c. Conditional statements with ELSE
rule d. Nested IF–THEN rules

rule based system
Properties of set of RULEs
The properties for the sets of rules are
– Completeness,
– Consistency,
– Continuity, and
– Interaction.
(a) Completeness A set of IF–THEN rules is complete if any combination of input values result in an
appropriate output value.
(b) Consistency A set of IF–THEN rules is inconsistent if there are two rules with the same rules-antecedent
but different rule consequents.
(c) Continuity A set of IF–THEN rules is continuous if it does not have neighboring rules with output fuzzy
sets that have empty intersection.
(d) Interaction In the interaction property, suppose that is a rule, “IF x is A THEN y is B,” this meaning is
represented by a fuzzy relation R2, then the composition of A and R does not deliver B
Questions/problems

rule based system
FEATURES OF THE MEMBERSHIP FUNCTION :-
• The core of a membership function of fuzzy set A∼ is
• defined as that region of the universe that is characterized by complete and full membership in the set
A∼.
• That is, the core comprises those elements x of the universe such that µA ∼ (x) = 1.
• The support of a membership function for fuzzy set A∼ is
• defined as that region of the universe that is characterized by nonzero membership in the set A∼.
• That is, the support comprises those elements x of the universe such that µA ∼ (x) > 0.
• The boundaries of a membership function for fuzzy set A∼
• are defined as that region of the universe containing elements that have a nonzero membership but
not complete membership.
• That is, the boundaries comprise those elements x of the universe such that 0 < µA ∼ (x) < 1

rule based system
FEATURES OF THE MEMBERSHIP FUNCTION :-
• A normal fuzzy set is one
• whose membership function has at least one element x in the universe whose membership value is unity.
• For fuzzy sets where one and only one element has a membership equal to one, this element is typically referred to as the prototype of the set, or
the prototypical element.
• A convex fuzzy set is described with increasing values for elements in the universe.
• whose membership values are strictly monotonically increasing,
• or whose membership values are strictly monotonically decreasing,
• or whose membership values are strictly monotonically increasing then strictly monotonically decreasing

rule based system
TYPES OF THE MEMBERSHIP FUNCTION :-

rule based system
FUZZIFICATION:-
• is the process of making a crisp quantity fuzzy.
• hardware such as a digital voltmeter generates crisp
data, but these data are subject to experimental
error.
• The information shown in Fig. 4.6 shows one
possible range of errors for a typical voltage
reading and the associated membership function
that might represent such imprecision.

rule based system
FUZZIFICATION:-
• If we agree that anyone older than 60 years
as ‘old’, then the membership value of a
person above 60 years is 1, while that of a
person below 60 years is less than 1. We can
define the membership function of A as
follows

rule based system
FUZZIFICATION:-
Develop a reasonable membership function for a square, based on the geometric properties of
a rectangle
We take L as the length of the longer side and l as that of the smaller side, If l/L = 1 the
rectangle is a square. We shall use exponential expression for the membership function

Questions

Chapter 2 :Fuzzy logic and Fuzzy systems :- F`uzzy set theory crisp sets Fuzzy set Crisp
system
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Soft Computing

Chapter 2 :Fuzzy logic and Fuzzy systems

Artificial Neural Network Fuzzy Logic

Genetic Algorithm Probabilistic computing

Chapter 2 Soft Computing 9/23/2023 4

Chapter 2 Soft Computing 9/23/2023 5

Chapter 2 Soft Computing 9/23/2023 6

• Fuzzification. The process of converting degree of membership of input variables to

• Fuzzy boundaries are ambiguously specified

Chapter 2 Soft Computing 9/23/2023 8

• an unordered collection of different elements (is a collection of distinct objects.)

• For crisp sets A and B consisting of collections of some elements in X, the

Chapter 2 Soft Computing 9/23/2023 10

• For crisp sets A and B consisting of collections of some elements in X, the

Chapter 2 Soft Computing 9/23/2023 11

• Let A and B be two sets on the universe X.

Chapter 2 Soft Computing 9/23/2023 12

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Chapter 2 Soft Computing 9/23/2023 14

Chapter 2 Soft Computing 9/23/2023 15

• Excluded middle axioms and • De Morgan’s principles.

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• Function Mapping of set theoretic form and function theoretic form

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• In classical, or crisp, sets the transition for an

• Define three fuzzy sets A∼, B∼, and C∼ on the universe X.

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• Let R be a relation that relates, elements from universe X to universe Y, and

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• The max–min composition

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• Reflexivity, Symmetry, and Transitivity Relations

• If a relation is symmetric, then

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Questions for Practice

• Compare constrained relation and non

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