Word Formation Processes

> ways to form words with the same root or by changing existing words

CLIPPING is when a word is reduced or shortened without changing its meaning.

A. Final or Back Clipping (Memorandum → Memo)
B. Initial or Fore Clipping (Internet → Net)
C. Mid or Middle Clipping (Influenza → Flu)
D. Compound Clipping (Situational Comedy → Sitcom)
BLENDING is when 2 or more words are combined to create a new word. (remove and combine)
Examples: breakfast / lunch → brunch work / alcoholic → workaholic
ACRONYM is when a word is formed from the initial letters and pronounced as a word.
Examples: TIN → Tax Identification Number LOL → Laughing Out Loud
INITIALISM is a word formed from the initial letters but CANNOT be pronounced as a word.
Examples: BPI → Bank of the Philippine Islands
ABBREVIATION is a shortened word or phrase.
Examples: street → st. February → Feb.
COMPOUNDING is when 2 or more words are combined to create a new word. (combine only)
Examples: notebook - 1 word, closed compound
never mind - 2 words, open compound
self-respect - hyphenated compound
FOLK ETYMOLOGY is changing of a word over time.
Examples: Salary - “Salarium” which means salt money
Quarantine - “trentina” which means a 30-day period of isolation for ships arriving from
plague-affected areas

Communicative Styles
> COMMUNICATION is sending and receiving of information and can be one-on-one or between
groups of people, and can be face-to-face or through communication devices.
> MUTUAL INTELLIGIBILITY is to be understood mutually by both listener and speaker.

HOW DO YOU DECIDE WHICH LANGUAGE REGISTER IS APPROPRIATE TO USE?

Addressee/Audience - Who? → Topic - What? → Setting/Situation - Where and When?

INTIMATE is a private language used within family, close friends, or people involved romantically,
that non-verbal communication may be used more often than speaking and is usually spoken with
endearments.
Examples: couple talking about their future plans, family sharing ideas
CASUAL is a conversation with general words and has free and easy participation of both speaker
and listener, and contains more slang and colloquialism.
Examples: phone calls, conversation with friends, colleagues at a cafe
CONSULTATIVE is when one supplies information, and another provides feedback.
Examples: classroom discussion, recitations, teacher-student and doctor-patient conversation
FROZEN does not or rarely changes.
Examples: songs, biblical verses, The National Anthem, court proceedings, weddings, funerals,
marriage ceremonies
FORMAL is more on one-way communication, focuses more on form, and is usually used more in
writing than speaking. It is usually used when conversing with strangers, older people, or other
professionals.
Examples: announcements, SONA, formula letter, academic papers, interviews, meetings

IS IT POSSIBLE TO HAVE TRANSITION FROM ONE COMMUNICATIVE STYLE (LANGUAGE

REGISTER) TO ANOTHER?
YES.
> One communicative style is not applicable to everyone and in all situations.
> Always consider your audience, topic, and situation in choosing the right style to be used.
> One can usually transition from one language register to an adjacent (nearby). However, skipping
one or more levels is usually considered inappropriate and even offensive.

JARGONS are special words that are used by a specific or particular profession or group.
Examples: I need a SCRIPT in order to pick up the medicine. (medicinal jargon for “prescription”)
Your OBJECTION is overruled. (legal jargon)

Text Types
> the original words and form of a written and printed work

INFORMATIVE
> It serves to inform; provides or discloses information; instructive; instructional.
A. Factual Recount - retelling a true event that happened in the past
B. Procedural - procedure to do one thing, steps
C. Diary - daily experiences of a person
JOURNALISTIC
> Radio, print, television, and online journalism that presents information.
• clear and concise • to present insightful information • facts and evidence
A. Print Journalism - focuses on print media, such as newspapers
B. Broadcast Journalism - being broadcast through the means of electrical methods which include
radio and television
C. Yellow Journalism - uses exaggerating words or sensationalism, usually not well-researched and
often only tells one side of the story. It will also sometimes have made-up interviews or imaginary
drawings and tends to be overly dramatic.
LITERARY
> It is defined as a wide variety of imaginative and creative writing that leads to the appropriation of
the cultural heritage of students. Literary is defined as something related or associated with literature
or scholarly learning and writing.
A. Prose - short stories, novels, memoirs, essays, biographics
B. Poetry

Making Inferences
> reading between the lines
> It is a conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning. It is an educated guess based on
observation and background knowledge.

WHAT YOU SEE (text/visual evidence) + WHAT YOU ALREADY KNOW (prior knowledge) =
YOUR INFERENCE (conclusion/prediction)

Types of Poetry
> POETRY is literature that evokes a concentrated imaginative awareness of experience or a specific
emotional response through language chosen and arranged for its meaning, sound, and rhythm.
ELEMENTS OF POETRY
Structure - overall organization of lines
Stanza - series of lines grouped together
Line - not the same as a sentence, doesn’t have to have a complete thought
• couplet (2 lines) • sestet (6 lines)
• tercet (3 lines) • septet (7 lines)
• quatrain (4 lines) • octave (8 lines)
• cinquain (5 lines)
Enjambment - no written or natural pause at the end of a poetic line, so the word flow carries over to
the next line
Example: We were running
to find what had happened
beyond the hills.

TYPES OF POETRY
Haiku - Japanese poem in 3 lines following a 5-7-5 syllable pattern
Example: I call to my love
on mornings ripe with sunlight,
the songbirds answer.
Acrostic Poem - initial letters of each line spell out a word
Example: HOUSE
Home
Open and inviting
Universal
Safe and warm
Everything
In some cases, the acrostic poem does not start with the initial letters, like:
Pick uP a pen
Think of a tOpic
Be crEative
Use your iMagination
Sonnet - has 14 lines, follows a specific rhyme scheme
- “sonneto,” Italian word meaning “little song”
- Main Types: Italian, English/Shakesperean, Spenserian Sonnets
Example: How Do I Love Thee? By Elizabeth Barrett Browning
Lyric Poem - short poem, first person perspective/POV, expresses an emotion or describes a scene
- does not tell a story and is often musical
TYPES OF LYRIC POEMS:
Ode - praises an individual, an idea, or an event written in celebration, appreciation, or
dedication
Example: Row after row with strict impunity
the head stones yield their names to the element,
 the wind whirrs without recollection;
in the riven troughs the splayed leaves pile up
(Allen Tate, Ode to the Confederate Dead)
Elegy - poem/song that serves as a lament for a celebration of a deceased person
Example: O Captain! my Captain! rise up and hear the bells;
Rise up—for you the flag is flung—for you the bugle trills,
For you bouquets and ribbon’d wreaths—for you the shores a-crowding,
For you they call, the swaying mass, their eager faces turning;
Here Captain! dear father!
This arm beneath your head!
It is some dream that on the deck,
You’ve fallen cold and dead.
(“O Captain! My Captain!” by Walt Whitman)
Narrative Poetry - form of poetry that tells a story
Example: Sing, Goddess, sing of the rage of Achilles, son of Peleus—
that murderous anger which condemned Achaeans
to countless agonies and threw many warrior souls
deep into Hades, leaving their dead bodies
carrion food for dogs and birds—
all in fulfillment of the will of Zeus.
(Iliad by Homer)
TYPES OF NARRATIVE POETRY:
Ballad - poem that has a musical rhythm and can be sung
Example: There was three kings into the east,
Three kings both great and high,
And they hae sworn a solemn oath
John Barleycorn should die.
They took a plough and plough'd him down,
Put clods upon his head,
And they hae sworn a solemn oath
John Barleycorn was dead.
(John Barleycorn: A Ballad, 1782)
Limerick - humorous poem consisting of five lines, rhyming pattern is AABBA
Example: There was an Old Man with a beard
Who said, “It is just as I feared!“
Two Owls and a Hen,
Four Larks and a Wren,
Have all built their nests in my beard!”

Modal Verbs
> also called modals/auxiliary verbs, these express ideas like permission, obligation, and prohibition

MODALS EXPRESSING PERMISSION

Can less polite/informal
Could more polite/formal
May most polite/formal
MODALS EXPRESSING OBLIGATION
Can’t against the rule, law, or signs posted
Mustn’t prohibition comes from the speaker
MODALS EXPRESSING PROHIBITION
Should weak obligation, advice, suggestions
Must internal obligation (speaker)
Has to external obligation (a rule, written law, etc.)
Have to external obligation (a rule, written law, etc.)
Had to external obligation (a rule, written law, etc.)

Punctuation Marks
> a set of symbols used to separate and clarify the meaning of sentences and written elements

QUOTATION MARKS (“ ”) are used to indicate direct speech and quotations.

• quoted or spoken language
• title
COLON (:)
• before a list
• explanation
SEMICOLON (;)
• to help sort out a monster list
• to separate closely related independent clauses
COMMA (,)
• to separate the elements in a series
• use comma before a conjunction to connect two independent clauses
• to set off introductory elements
• to separate parenthetical elements or appositives
• use a comma between a city and a state, date and year, a name and a title when the title comes after
the name, and before a suffix in a name

Conditionals
> complex sentences which consists of:
a condition or if-clause - dependent clause (cannot stand alone), and
a main clause - independent clause (can stand alone)

TYPES DESCRIPTION FORMULA EXAMPLES

Type 0 • general truths If + Present 1.If you heat ice, it melts.

• repeated Simple + Present 2. You get water if you mix hydrogen and
condition Simple oxygen.
3. If he takes vitamins every day, he doesn’t
get sick.

Type 1 • possible If + Present 1. If she studies for the tests, she will get
condition and Simple + high scores.
probable result will/won’t + Base 2. She will be late if the train is delayed.
verb
Type 2 • unreal or If + Past Simple + 1. If I were a boy, I would understand how
impossible would + Base it feels to love a girl.
outcome verb 2. If I were rich, I would travel all over the
world.

Type 3 • past regret or If + Past Perfect 1. If I had remembered to call my friend

different reality (had + past last night, she would have sent me an angry
participle) + text.
would have + Past 2. I would have believed you if you hadn’t
participle lied to me before.

Normal and Inverted Word Order