See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/365234003

Soil Salinity Research in 21 st Century in Pakistan: Its Impact on Availability of

Plant Nutrients, Growth and Yield of Crops

Article in Communications In Soil Science and Plant Analysis · June 2021

DOI: 10.1080/00103624.2020.1854294

CITATIONS READS

56 1,027

4 authors, including:

Ghulam Sarwar Sabir Hussain Shah

University of Sargodha Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad-Pakistan
116 PUBLICATIONS 1,270 CITATIONS 64 PUBLICATIONS 535 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Sher Muhammad
Allama Iqbal Open University
71 PUBLICATIONS 729 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

New Research View project

It is part of PhD study and dissertation View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Sabir Hussain Shah on 09 November 2022.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/lcss20

st
Soil Salinity Research in 21 Century in Pakistan:
Its Impact on Availability of Plant Nutrients,
Growth and Yield of Crops

Aaima Syed , Ghulam Sarwar , Sabir Hussain Shah & Sher Muhammad

To cite this article: Aaima Syed , Ghulam Sarwar , Sabir Hussain Shah & Sher Muhammad (2021)
st
Soil Salinity Research in 21 Century in Pakistan: Its Impact on Availability of Plant Nutrients,
Growth and Yield of Crops, Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 52:3, 183-200,
DOI: 10.1080/00103624.2020.1854294

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00103624.2020.1854294

Published online: 14 Dec 2020.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 20

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=lcss20
COMMUNICATIONS IN SOIL SCIENCE AND PLANT ANALYSIS
2021, VOL. 52, NO. 3, 183–200
https://doi.org/10.1080/00103624.2020.1854294

Soil Salinity Research in 21st Century in Pakistan: Its Impact on

Availability of Plant Nutrients, Growth and Yield of Crops
Aaima Syeda, Ghulam Sarwara, Sabir Hussain Shahb, and Sher Muhammadb
a
Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences, College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan;
b
Department of Agricultural Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad, Pakistan

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Salinity is affecting a large area of Pakistan. The country is situated in a semiarid Received 14 August 2020
and arid region where the climate is subtropical continental and the process of Accepted 16 November 2020
salinization and sodification is in progress. Excessive salt rates are adversely KEYWORDS
influencing the biological, chemical, and physical properties of soils. These Soil salinity; salt tolerance;
physical and chemical changes influence the activity of soil microbes and plant saline; sodic; reclamation;
roots, and eventually affect the crop growth and yield. Therefore, it is essential biosaline agriculture; organic
from the food security viewpoint to bring these salt-affected lands into agri­ amendments; inorganic
culture production for the promptly growing population. The paper provides amendments
a brief overview of the different aspects of salt-affected soils regarding their
extent, origin, existence, nature, types, causes, characteristics, visual diagnosis,
effects on soils and plants, salttolerant plant species, management, strategies
adopted in Pakistan to overcome salinity, saline, and bio-saline agriculture.
Different issues of salinity can be managed by adopting strategies that are
helpful in reclamation of such soils. The overview focuses on chemical and
biological amendments as they are the most effective implements in improv­
ing various soil properties (soil permeability and structural stability) of saline/
sodic soils for sustainable food production, thus, authenticating the potential
of inorganic and organic amendments to reinstate soil quality. Salinity effects
can be reduced to a higher level by the addition of fertilizers and these
amendments may also improve nutrient use efficiency. Other sustainable
agronomic practices (crop diversifications, leaching by irrigation water, scrap­
ing, etc are also pointed out that may inhibit and, in some cases, reverse the
conditions of soil salinization.

Introduction
Pakistan is located between latitudes 24° and 37° North and longitudes 61° to 76° East (Mufti, Hussain,
and Arshad 2003). The country’s economy is dependent on the agricultural sector (Khan et al. 2013).
Almost 20% of national income is generated in this very sector (Husain 2012). It contributes 21% in
the gross domestic product (GDP) and 43.7% accounts for total employment. 66% of the population of
the country resides in non-urban areas and their income depends directly or indirectly on the
agriculture sector (Abdullah et al. 2015). In addition, 43.5% of the rural population derive their
livelihood from the agriculture sector (Government of Pakistan [GoP] 2015). It contributes to more
than 60% of the foreign exchange earnings and supports almost 75% of the population (Qureshi 2011).
The agriculture sector recorded a growth of 2.67% during the year 2019–2020 (Table 1).
Soil is the backbone of the economy of an agricultural country. Agriculture of any region
depends upon the soil fertility. Soil salinity is a disease or cancer of soil. By this disease annual
production of different crops and fruits is reducing day by day (Chandio, Mallah, and Anwar

CONTACT Sabir Hussain Shah sabir.hussain@aiou.edu.pk Department of Agricultural Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Allama
Iqbal Open University, Islamabad, Pakistan.
© 2020 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
184 A. SYED ET AL.

Table 1. Contribution of agriculture to the GDP growth (% points).

Sector 2009–2010 2010–2011 2011–2012 2012–2013 2013–2014 2014–2015 2015–2016 2016–2017 2017–2018 2018–2019 2019–2020
Agriculture 0.05 0.43 0.79 0.57 0.53 0.45 0.06 0.69 3.81 0.85 2.67
Source: Economic Survey of Pakistan, 2018–2019; 2019–20

2017). It is usually limited to arid or semi-arid regions (Ahmad et al., 2002). These regions have
low rainfall and high evapotranspiration rates (Khan and Chaudary 2003). The total area of
831 Mha in the world is salt-affected of which 397 Mha comprises of saline soils and 434 Mha
have sodic soils (Hasanuzzaman et al. 2014). In Pakistan, the salt-affected area is 4.5 Mha (Aslam
2016). Various natural or human-induced processes are responsible for soil salinity. Natural
processes include sea salt deposition carried in rain and wind, weathering of parent material, etc.
On the other hand, human-induced processes involve irrigation with saltcontaining water, water
table rise of owing to irrigation excess, poor drainage, etc. The leaching of salts is very low in
these areas, consequently, salt accumulates on the surface of the soil which is a major threat. In
clayey soils, a secondary result of salinity is sodicity where soluble salts have been washed into
the subsoil by the process of leaching due to rainfall (or in some cases, irrigation water) and due
to the negative charges of the clay, remaining sodium is bounded to the soil (Munns 2009). Since
soil properties may adversely be influenced by high salts contents that ultimately affect plant-
available water-holding capacity, water and air movement, root penetration into the soil, seedling
emergence, runoff and erosion. As a consequence, plant growth is inhibited and badly affects the
crop yield. Consequently, there could be limited food security. Therefore, it is essential to
reclaim saline/sodic soils to restore soil fertility levels for sustainable food production. The
work is still going on to limit the salts in the soils by adopting several ways for proper utilization
and remediation of salt-affected soils comprising organic and inorganic amendments, use of salt-
resistant crop cultivars as well as agronomic practices.

Extent of salinity
It is reported that 14 billion ha is the total available land on earth, 6.5 billion ha of which is comprised
of semi-arid and arid regions. The salt-affected area of this semi-arid and arid region is 1 billion ha
(Balal et al. 2013). Worldwide, 20% of total cultivated land and 50% of irrigated areas are under salt
stress. In Pakistan, about 14% of irrigated lands have deteriorated with salinity, while 64% yield losses
are reported due to salinity. Consequently, only about 23 Mha area is left suitable for agriculture (Irum
and Ehetisham-ul-Haq 2017). Over 2.5 Mha of irrigated land is affected by severe surface salinity with
3% affecting lands in Punjab, 18% in Sindh and 2% in NWFP. The moderately affected areas are 4% in
Punjab, 10% in Sindh and 2% in the NWFP (“Salt-Affected Soils,” 2009). According to an estimation,
out of 79.61 Mha of the geographical area of Pakistan, an area of about 4.5 Mha is salt-affected
(Table 2).

Table 2. Extent of salinity (million hectare) in Pakistan.

Province Total area Cultivated area Salt affected area
Punjab 20.6300 12.2700 1.2340
Sindh 14.0900 5.6500 3.0400
Balochistan 34.7200 1.8400 0.1200
NWFP 10.1700 2.1100 0.1100
Total 79.6100 21.8700 4.5000
Source: Ansari et al. (2007); Aslam (2016). Due to secondary salinization, area of about
40,000 hectare become saline each year (Ansari et al., 2007).
 COMMUNICATIONS IN SOIL SCIENCE AND PLANT ANALYSIS 185

Origin of salts
An area of 16 Mha is occupied by the Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS) of Pakistan. River water of
172 billion cubic meters (BCM) is distributed by IBIS per year. Groundwater levels are risen with IBIS
introduction @15-75 cm/year. The process of evapotranspiration concentrates the salts. As
a consequence, soil and water become salinized (Aslam and Prathapar 2006). More than 30% of the
saline groundwater of the Indus Basin is occupied mainly by Punjab and Sindh. Fresh groundwater in
quantities of almost 200 BCM has been accumulated in saline groundwater areas of the Indus Basin. In
these saline groundwater areas, more than 20 billion cubic meters of fresh groundwater is being
recharged annually (Qureshi et al. 2004). The water reaches the canal system for irrigation once
distracted from the Indus River. This water contains along 33 million tons of salts, whereas only
16.4 million tons of salts are discharged to the sea. It is estimated that annually on average, the salt
stored in the Indus Basin is about 16.6 million tons. After irrigation, the water is used by the crops or
evaporates directly in the atmosphere leaving behind the salts. In brief, about 1 ton/ha of salts is added
to irrigated land. Consequently, in the Indus Basin, saline soils have become the main environmental
problem (Qureshi 2011). In Pakistan, about 8% of the total area is under strongly saline area (Table 3).

Nature of salinity
A saline soil is a soil that contains soluble salts in maximum concentration that affect the growth of the
plant. In soil, electrical conductivity is the measure for salts concentration measurements. The USDA
Salinity Laboratory has defined a saline soil that has an EC of 4 dSm−1 or greater than that. The
electrical conductivity of the ‘saturated paste extract’ is termed as EC (Munns 2009). When a soil has
a SAR value of more than 13 or ESP>15, it holds additional sodium that makes the soil sodic. Excess
sodium may result in dispersion of soil structure which ultimately prevents the soil aggregate
formation, resulting in surface crusting or sealing. Besides that, excess sodium causes poor aeration,
and also reduces movement through the soil and water infiltration (Sonon, Saha, and Kissel 2015).

Existence of salt-affected soils

The salt-affected soils exist in:
a) Sub-humid and semi-arid Indus plains including all the four provinces.
b) Deltaic and coastal regions in the provinces of Balochistan and Sindh.
c) Irrigated arid and semi-arid regions in Punjab, Sindh, NWFP and Balochistan. Irrigated by poor-
quality groundwater is one of the main reasons of salinity in these areas (Ahmed and Qamar 2004).

Processes and causes of salinity

1. Natural salinity (Primary salinity)
Natural salinity is the result of salts accumulation in groundwater and the soil over a longer period
of time. Two natural processes cause natural salinity. One is the parent material weathering containing

Table 3. Situation of surface salinity in Pakistan.

Moderately saline Strongly saline Miscellaneous type Salt free
Area surveyed Slightly saline Area area area area area
Province (MA) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Punjab 25.138 7 4 3 2 84
Sindh 13.396 19 10 18 3 50
Balochistan 8.750 17 5 4 – 74
NWFP 1.517 8 2 2 10 78
Total 48.801 11 6 8 3 72
186 A. SYED ET AL.

soluble salts. e.g. NaCl. The other is oceanic salt deposition (mainly NaCl) carried in rain and wind
(Munns 2009).
2. Human-induced salinity (Secondary salinity)
Anthropogenic activities result in secondary salinization. Some of the most commonly occurring
causes are:
(i) Bare land
(ii) Saline water use for irrigation of lands
(iii) Poor drainage (Munns 2009)
(iv) Seepage from canals
(v) Evaporation of saline water from the surface of soil leaves the salts behind on the surface (Siyal,
Siyal, and Abro 2002)
(vi) Improper slope
(vii) Over irrigation
(viii) Intensive rice cultivation in low water table areas (Khan and Abdullah 2003)
The salt concentration of 500 mg/l (i.e. 500 mg/kg) in the irrigation water has 0.5 t/1000 m3 of salts.
Meanwhile, the annual water requirement of crops is 6000–10000 m3 per hectare, each hectare of land
will get 3–5 t of salt (Munns 2009). The agriculture sector of Pakistan is greatly reliant on the Indus
Basin Irrigation System for its GDP role in the country. Indus Basin Irrigation System is one of the
main reasons for salinity due to the ineffective drainage system (Zaman and Ahmad 2009). Water
availability per acre is decreasing due to the decreased storage capacity of dams. Thus, for the need of
irrigating crops, the farmers are fixing a large number of tube-wells. This is also the reason for salinity.
Salinity is on the peak in most areas of Punjab and Sindh (Ali 2010). In Pakistan, tube-wells have
increased above 900,000. It is estimated that in Pakistan, about 61 billion cubic meters of groundwater
have been driven annually. According to an estimate, more than 70% of brackish groundwater is
pumped by tube-wells in the irrigated agriculture of Pakistan which are inducing secondary saliniza­
tion problems (Farid et al. 2018). Farmers have to use marginal to brackish in quality groundwater due
to the shortage of canal water supplies which may result in sodification (due to sodium salts) and/or
secondary salinization (due to soluble salts) (Zaman and Ahmad 2009).

Groundwater quality
Saline groundwater occupies almost 17% area of Punjab and 75% of Sindh (TDS>3000 ppm) (Qureshi
2015). Sodic/saline soils include 2.3 Mha of land. This extent of salinity is because of the tube-wells of
the Indus Basin that pumps about 70% of the sodic or saline-sodic water (Aslam 2016). Quality criteria
of irrigation water by WAPDA, based on the measurements of sodium adsorption ratio (SAR),
electrical conductivity (EC), and residual sodium carbonate (RSC) are given in Table 4.

Characteristics and classification of salt-affected soils

Saline soils
Soil having maximum levels of soluble salts that inhibit the germination of most plants/crops is termed
as saline soil (Zaman and Ahmad 2009). These soluble salts are mainly the neutral salts, such as
chlorides and sulfites of Na+, Ca2+ and Mg2+. Plants that survive in saline soils usually have stunted

Table 4. Water quality criteria for irrigation (WAPDA).

Classification Electrical conductivity (EC) (dSm−1) Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) Residual sodium carbonates (RSC) (meq/l)
Useable <1.50 <10.00 <2.50
Marginal 1.50 to 3.00 10.00 to 18.00 2.50 to 5.00
Hazardous >3.00 >18.00 >5.00
 COMMUNICATIONS IN SOIL SCIENCE AND PLANT ANALYSIS 187

growth. In saline soils, there is a possible tip-burn on foliage leaves (Corbishley and Pearce 2007).
These soils appeared white in color.

Sodic soils
Soil having a high concentration of exchangeable sodium to affect its properties and ultimately
interfere with the germination of most crops/plants is termed as sodic soil (Zaman and Ahmad
2009). Sufficient levels of exchangeable sodium disperse the soil (Corbishley and Pearce 2007).
Sodium ions also scatter the mineral colloids, which then form a tight soil structure. These soils
appeared black in color because of the dispersion of organic matter (Siyal, Siyal, and Abro 2002).

Saline-sodic soils
Saline-sodic soil contains enough concentration of both soluble salts and SAR which not only interfere
with most crops/plants growth but also affects the soil properties (Zaman and Ahmad 2009).

Visual diagnosis of salt-affected soils

Each of the soil conditions, i.e., sodic, saline-sodic, and saline soils has distinctive features that can be
seen in the field (Table 5). These features help diagnosing the problem (Sonon, Saha, and Kissel 2015).
Soil problems related to salts may be analyzed easily with help of following physical observations/
symptoms (Table 6).

Effects of salt-affected soils

Low production and socioeconomic impact
Soil salinity severely affects the agricultural productivity because high salt concentrations are deleter­
ious to plant growth (Manzoor et al. 2019; Zulfiqar et al. 2019). More than 100 Mha of agricultural land
is rendered uncultivable due to salt and nutrient stress (Athar and Ashraf 2009). It is estimated that at
present, salinity has affected about 20% of the irrigated lands in the world (Shahzad et al. 2017). The
most important impacts are:
i) farm relinquishment are reducing the number of farmers and causing socioeconomic losses
ii) due to low response to inputs, there is low production which ultimately leads to economic losses
iii) dispersion of soil requires more amendments
iv) high cost for the reclamation of soil
v) financial burden on farmer
vi) farmer’s migration to urban areas (Shahid 2013).

Table 5. Salt-affected soils classification based on saturated paste extraction.

Exchangeable sodium per­
Electrical conductivity (EC) Sodium adsorption ratio centage Soil reaction Soil
Class (dSm−1) (SAR) (ESP) (pH) structure
Normal < 4.0 < 13 < 15 6–8 Flocculated
Saline > 4.0 < 13 < 15 < 8.5 Flocculated
Sodic < 4.0 > 13 > 15 > 8.5 Dispersed
Saline- > 4.0 > 13 > 15 > 8.5 Flocculated
sodic
Source: The Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS)
188 A. SYED ET AL.

Table 6. Physical observation of salt-related soil and plant problems.

Problem Symptoms
Saline Soil surface have white crusts. Burnt leaf tips. Plants showing water stress.
Sodic Drainage is poor. Soil surface have black powdery residues.
Saline-Sodic Soil is gray-colored. Plants are water-stressed.
Source: Sonon, Saha, and Kissel (2015); Soil Salinity: Testing, Data Interpretation and Recommendations;
UGA Cooperative Extension Circular 1019.

Environmental impact
Salt affected soils result in reduction of the storage capacity of reservoirs. Poor vegetation leads to the
soil degradation (erosion) and it increases the contamination of groundwater as well (Shahid 2013).

Effect on nutrient availability

Salt-affected soils severely affects the availability of plant nutrients. The main reasons for depletion in
the fertility of such soils are:
i) high levels of certain ions like sodium, carbonates and bicarbonate overwhelm the accessibility of
other ions like calcium, phosphorous, potassium, zinc, manganese, iron, and boron.
ii) the overall availability of phosphorus and micronutrients are decreased due to an increase in soil
pH (especially in sodic soils)
iii) microbiological activity is curtailed to a great extent
iv) during the reclamation process, leaching of salts is also accompanied by leaching of nutrients
v) decreased water uptake by the plants in salt-affected soils ultimately leads to decreased nutrient
uptake because of physiological unavailability of the water.

Effect on plant growth

Plant growth can be directly affected in the sodic soils due to the high alkalinity and toxicity of sodium
carbonate, bicarbonate, and other anions. This ultimately causes damages to plant nutrition and
metabolism. Sodium adsorbed to only 15% or more of a soil’s clay adsorption sites can restrict the root
growth and thus make tillage practices much problematic. There are several negative impacts of high
salinity and high EC of soil that causes dehydration of plant cell, reduction in plant growth and
perhaps death in less tolerant plants (Shahzad et al. 2017). Saline soils have harmful effects that are
linked with decreased osmotic potential of soil solution resulting in nutritional imbalances, specific ion
toxicity, physiological drought or the grouping of all these factors (Batool, Shahzad, and Ilyas 2014).
Carbon fixation can be inhibited by the salt stress because high salt concentration may result in the
closure of stomata which ultimately reduces the carbon dioxide availability in the leaves (Aslam et al.
2011). Salinity can go along with waterlogging as it is often caused by a rise in water tables.
Waterlogging itself reduces the root’s ability to remove salts and increases the rate of salts uptake. It
accumulates the salts in shoots thus interfering with plant/crop growth (Munns 2009). Some specific
symptoms of salt-affected soils are limited root growth, inhibited flowering, marginal, or leaf tip
browning/burning, reduced vigor, and low crop yield (Sonon, Saha, and Kissel 2015).

Effect on plant yield

In salt-affected soils, high salt concentration affects the elongation process of new cells of a plant
because the excess salts accumulate in the plant parts leading to the reduction in the cell wall elasticity.
Excessive salts in the soil reduce development of tissues as well as shrinks the cell contents. All these
factors result in the reduction of crop yield (Aslam et al. 2011).
 COMMUNICATIONS IN SOIL SCIENCE AND PLANT ANALYSIS 189

Effect of sodium on soil properties

Excess sodium (Na+) accumulation in soil affects the exchangeable and soil solution ions, soil pH,
decline of soil hydraulic properties, and disruption of soil structure. Therefore, soils become more
susceptible to crusting, aeration, runoff, and erosion (Qadir and Schubert 2002).

Losses in Pakistan due to salinity

In Pakistan, salinity has mainly caused a 25% reduction in crop yield (Zaman and Ahmad 2009). In
the year 2017, waterlogging and salinity in Pakistan have caused severe losses in crop yield and are
been afraid to reach Rs. 880 million ($28.5 million), while the estimation of total annual economic
damage is 300 USD million (Shahzad et al. 2017). It is estimated that the land losses due to salinity are
28000 to 40000 ha of land and because of low crop yield due to high salinity and sodicity, there is a loss
of about US$ 230 million of revenue per year (Aslam 2016).

Different salt-tolerant plant species

Salt resisting or salt-tolerant plants are the plants that have the ability to grow under saline soils due to
the presence of different mechanisms of salt tolerance in them (Table 7). Such plants are also termed as
halophytes (Aslam et al. 2011). At present, when there is a fast-growing population, an increase in the
food supply is the basic need of the country. There is a need to produce salt-tolerant varieties of crops
which can grow successfully under salt stress (Shahbaz et al. 2012).

Salt tolerance of wheat (Triticum aestivum)

An experimental investigation was carried out the germination of seed. 1.5 dSm−1 and 12 dSm−1 were
the normal and salinity treatments given, respectively. On the basis of reduction of yield, three
varieties i.e. KTDH, Lu-26s and Sarsabz were found tolerant (Khan et al. 2009). Zarlasht was more
susceptible at the germination stage. Though its performance was quite well at the stage of seedling
(Rahman et al. 2008). Field experiments were conducted by Shafi et al. (2010) to evaluate the salinity
tolerance of eleven wheat cultivars (Local, SR-2, SR-4, SR-7, SR-19, SR-20, SR-22, SR-23, SR-24, SR25,
and SR-40). It was recorded that SR-40 followed by genotype SR-23 had maximum K+ concentration
in the shoot, maximum grain yield, and minimum Na+ concentration.

Salt tolerance of rice (Oryza sativa)

An experimental work was taken up in two sets to check the salinity tolerance of five rice varieties.
One set was grown under controlled conditions (non-stress) and the other was grown as salt
stressed. It was proved that Basmati-198, KSK-133, and NIAB-IRRI-9 were relatively the salt-
tolerant cultivars. However, the highest reduction in seedling fresh and dry weights were recorded
in Basmati-385 along with the maximum Na+ uptake, thus proved to be a salt-sensitive variety
(Zafar et al. 2015). NR-1, DM-38-88, Jhona-349 x Basmati-370, DM-59418, DM-63275, and DM-
64198 proved to be better salt-tolerant genotypes than others (Ali et al. 2004). In dense saline-sodic
soils, KS-282 was observed to be the best cultivars showing the non-significant effect of salinity–
sodicity (Khan and Chaudary 2003).

Table 7. Several tree species characteristics used in saline agriculture (Pakistan).

Species Tolerant Uses
Acacia ampliceps Sodicity, alkalinity and salinity Soil conservation, fuel, salt-affected soils reclamation, windbreaks, fodder
Acacia nilotica Moderate sodicity and salinity Fodder, fuel, timber, gum, bark
Source: Philip Hollington (2001).
190 A. SYED ET AL.

Salt tolerance of maize (Zea mays)

Akram et al. (2010a) conducted an experiment in NIAB, Faisalabad, Pakistan. The experiment was
performed in solution culture. It had four salinity levels viz. control, 120, 80, and 40 mM NaCl. Results
revealed that hybrid Pioneer30Y87 and Pioneer32B33 were the best salt-tolerant cultivars at all salinity
levels. Hybrid Pioneer30Y87, Pioneer32B33, and Hycorn 11 plus had the maximum mean root length,
while the minimum root length was recorded in Dekalb922, Dekalb979, and Hycorn984.
Pioneer32B33 showed the maximum shoot length while the minimum was recorded in Dekalb979.
Hybrid Pioneer32B33, Pioneer30Y87, and Pioneer31R88 successfully tolerated 120 mM NaCl salinity.
Dekalb979 observed to be sensitive at the maximum level of salinization (120 mM) and the fresh
weight of shoot was also reduced severely up to 63%. Maqsood et al. (2008) conducted an experiment
and the result showed that the two maize cultivars, were able to survive under natural saline conditions
but the survival rate of the tolerant cultivar (S-2002) was more dominant than that of the salt-sensitive
cultivar (Akbar).

Salt tolerance of barley (Hordeum vulgare)

An experiment was taken up in three replications with a completely randomized design. It was proved
by the results that barley genotypes viz., 4 Shori, MBS8715, and ESBYTM8910 had the highest stress
resistance for the maximum sodium chloride concentration (Askari et al. 2016). Mahmood (2011)
reported that Afzal is the salt-tolerant barley cultivar under salt stress conditions and it can produce
maximum dry mass compared to salt-sensitive cultivar.

Salt tolerance of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum)

Bhatti and Azhar (2002) used the root length data of 9 genotypes and observed that, 2 genotypes viz.
VH-57 and Delcerro were the most salt-tolerant. According to NIAB, cotton genotype NIAB-999 is
salt-tolerant.

Salt tolerance of mungbean (Vigna radiata)

Experiment was conducted on mungbean genotypes to evaluate the effect of salt stress on crops. Salt
stress was proved to be more effective at three stages i.e. vegetative, flowering, and seed filling. It was
not detrimental at the seed development stage. Under saline conditions, NM-92 was considered salt-
tolerant genotype (Ahmed 2009). According to NIAB, salt-tolerant mungbean genotypes are NM-ST
-1 and NM-ST-2.

Salt tolerance of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum)

Raza et al. (2017) conducted an experiment in a glasshouse with three replications of soil salinity viz.,
control, 15 and 10 dSm−1. Results revealed that salt-tolerant cultivars were 017860, PB-017909, ANAHU,
LA-2821, LO-2707, LO-2752, and LO-2831-23. On the other hand, Glacier, Nagina, Zarnitza, 006232,
006233, 017856, BL-1079, LO-2576, LO-2692, and NUTYT-701 were proved to be salt susceptible.

Salt tolerance of trees

Eucalyptus microtheca (Safeda), Acacia nilotica (Kikar), Acacia sclerosperma (Limestone wattle) are
some of the salt-tolerant trees (NIAB).
 COMMUNICATIONS IN SOIL SCIENCE AND PLANT ANALYSIS 191

Salt tolerance of grasses

To evaluate the mechanism of survival of salt-tolerant forage grasses in saline stress, site of the normal
non-saline soils and the salt range of the Faisalabad were selected. Three salt-tolerant forage grasses
viz., Sporobolus arabicus (Arabian drop-seed), Cynodon dactylon (Bermuda grass) and Imperata
cylindrica (Cotton wool grass) were collected. It was observed that S. arabicus showed increased
growth from the Salt Range under saline conditions (Hameed, Ashraf, and Naz 2011). Gulzar, Khan,
and Ungar (2003) reported that S. arabicus was more salt-tolerant than other grasses viz., Polypogon
monspeliensis (Annual beard-grass), Desmostachya bipinnata (Daabh) and Cynodon dactylon.
Leptochloa fusca (Kallar grass) fixes significant amounts of N and can maintain P uptake under salt
stress. It may extract nutrients from deeper soil layers in huge amounts and prospers on low-fertility
saline soils (Hollington 2001). Spatina alterniflora (Cord-grass) is highly salt-tolerant (Ahmed and
Qamar 2004). Cynodon dactylon (Lawn grass) and Panicum antidotale (Bansi grass) also tolerate
salinity (NIAB). In the Punjab region, it was noted that the members of the family Cyperaceae occupy
a variety of habitat types that may survive in brackish and polluted wetlands, wastelands, desert and
semi-desert habitats, agricultural fields, etc. In the brackish Kalar Kahar Lake, Schoenoplectus litoralis
(Bulrush) and Bulboschoenus affinis (Saltmarsh bulrush) were recorded. It was noted that both these
varieties have extensive aerenchyma development and their bulliform cells are extremely developed
(Hameed et al. 2012).

Salt tolerance of shrubs

Arthrocnemum fruticosum (Glasswort) is highly tolerant to salinity (Ahmed and Qamar 2004).
Sesbania formosa (Jantar), Medicago sativa (Lucern), Beta vulgaris (Fodder beet) and Kochia indica
(Kochia) also tolerates salinity (NIAB).

Salt tolerance of some plant species of Thar desert

It is concluded from the experimental study of salt content in Thar flora leaf tissue and growth that
Salvadora oleoides (Diar) and Prosopis cineraria (Ghaf) plant species (60–40%) respond well under
saline conditions in compression of Acacia senegal (Gum acacia) and Tecomella undulata (Rohida)
plant. These findings indicate that in case of drought and salinity resistance S. oleoides showed
a potential to tolerate both stresses and survive effectively in compression of all other three-plant
species. Tolerance to salinity S. oleoides > P. cineraria. A. Senegal > T. undulata (Rajpar et al. 2018).

Salt-affected soils management

Salt-affected soils management include cautious scheming of irrigation systems, use of less brackish
water, selection of salt-tolerant crop species and flush off the salts from the soil surface during the
germination process. It also includes maintenance of tilth so that evaporative discharge can be reduced.
Besides that, the use of mulches may reduce evapotranspiration to higher extent (Shahzad et al. 2017).
Straw (hay), rice hulls, wood chips, peat etc. are some of the effective known mulches. The thickness of
these mulches should be at least 5 cm (Ahmed and Qamar 2004). Salinity can be managed by the safe
use of water of poor quality in agricultural fields (Sharma and Singh 2015). Organic wastes obtained
from the livestock can be converted into organic composts. These composts are vital in maintaining soil
health in salt-affected soils. Salinity can be managed by applying furrow irrigation which can also save
water. Sprinklers are much effective and play a role in the management and reclamation of salt-affected
soils (Zaman and Ahmad 2009). Lands, especially the saline ones, should never be left uncultivated for
prolonged time, because in the fallow lands, there is an endless rise in the groundwater table, which
leaves the salts behind on the soil surface once it evaporates. Any kind of vegetation helps to manage
such soils (Salt-affected soils 2009). In addition, salinity chances can be reduced by constructing more
192 A. SYED ET AL.

dams on Chenab, Indus, and Jehlum rivers as lands will be flooded with less tubewell water which is one
of the causes of salinity (Ali 2010). Microorganisms produce plant growth-promoting hormones and
thus play a major role in improving plant health under stressed conditions. Hormones viz., gibberellins,
indole acetic acid (IAA) and few elements of PGPR (which are unknown) increase the surface area of
roots, number of root tips, and root length. It leads to an enriched uptake of nutrients under stressed
conditions, therefore recover crop yield (Shrivastava and Kumar 2015).

Strategies adopted in Pakistan

Engineering and bioremediation strategies have been adopted in Pakistan for the rehabilitation of salt-
affected soils.

Engineering strategies
Engineering approaches comprises of:
i) installation of drainage on the surface
ii) sub-surface drainage
iii) vertical drainage systems
The aim is to drain surplus water from soils (Qureshi 2016). According to Qureshi (2016),
groundwater table depth and salinity were surveyed in the 1950s in Pakistan. After a detailed survey,
it was decided to install 14,000 tube-wells in fresh groundwater areas. Those tube-wells covered
2.6 Mha of irrigated lands for lowering groundwater table to control waterlogging which is the
cause of salinity. During the last four decades, this Salinity Control and Reclamation Program
(SCARPs) completed 63 projects to cover an area of about 8 Mha with an estimated cost of US$
2 billion. This project was successful in reversing or even controlling the waterlogging and salinity
problem. About three-and a-half decades ago, WAPDA introduced sub-surface drainage technology
in Pakistan to fight the twin threat of salinity and waterlogging (Azhar 2010).

Bioremediation species used in Pakistan

According to Qureshi, Masih, and Turral (2006), the water use efficiency of different plant species
varied under groundwater salinity in the Indus Valley in Pakistan. The species were Prosopis pallida
(mesquite), Acacia nilotica (gum arabic tree) and Acacia ampliceps (Symbol). Results revealed that
A. nilotica used 1,248 mm of water annually on a severely saline site while 2,225 mm on a moderately
saline site. Under excessive soil moisture conditions, Eucalyptus species are best suited for bioreme­
diation (Table 8). They have more bioremediation potential as compared to relatively slow bio-
drainers like Pometia. Pinnata (Fijian Longan) and T. aphylla (Athel). Eucalyptus hybrid and
Eucalyptus tereticornis (Forest Red Gum) are fast bio-drainers mainly due to their capability of having
large leaf area (Qureshi 2016). In the Faisalabad district of the Punjab province, E. camaldulensis
(River Red Gum) tree and saltbushes (Atriplex lentiformis and Atriplex amnicola) have been used
successfully in restoring the productivity of about 400 ha of salt-affected lands (Qureshi 2016).

Table 8. Classification of salt-tolerant woody species.

Salinity (EC of soil saturation extract in dSm−1)
4.00–8.00 8.00–16.00 >16.00
Eucalyptus citriodora Acacia salicinia Acacia ampliceps
Eucalyptus grandis Eucalyptus occidentalis Acacia stenophylla
Eucalyptus robusta Eucalyptus tereticornis Tamarix aphylla
Source: Ansari et al. (2007).
 COMMUNICATIONS IN SOIL SCIENCE AND PLANT ANALYSIS 193

Economic and environmental impact of saline and bio-saline agriculture

There are three main aspects of saline water irrigation:
(1) sodic and saline soils reclamation prior to cultivation
(2) the reuse of irrigation drainage water
(3) continuous use of salty water for irrigation.
Tree plantations are economically profitable as they are the sources of sustainable raw materials
required for multiple industries such as match manufacturing, pulp or paper (Ladeiro 2012). Bio-
saline agriculture can be defined as the use of living resources (plants, micro-organisms, animals,
insects, and fishes) and improved agricultural activities to obtain a profitable response from saline
land. This technique is used for the effective utilization of salt-affected soils which includes the
cultivation of salt-tolerant cultivars. This technique provides vegetative cover to the soil which
minimizes the rate of evaporation and thus salinization resulting in good economic yield. Salt
tolerance varies from crop to crop. Cotton, barley, and sugar beet can tolerate up to 10 times much
salt compared to fruit trees, clover, and beans (Salt-affected soils 2009).

Reclamation
Salt-affected soils can be brought into productive land by adopting some processes and practices.
These methods and processes are known as reclamation measures. ‘Reclamation of saltaffected soils’ is
the term involving the methods that are used to reduce soil salinity (Siyal, Siyal, and Abro 2002).
Commonly adopted methods include the following:

Lowering groundwater levels through deep tube-wells

In the Indus Basin, over the last four decades, the drainage systems installed were successful both in
reducing salinity and in lowering the groundwater table in salt-affected areas (Qureshi et al. 2008).

Leaching of salts by excess irrigation

In the process of leaching, supplementary water is applied to the field and is permitted to immerse
through the soil and drain away underground (Table 9) (Salt-affected soils 2009). After leaching, EC of
the soil solution becomes lower because extra would be leached below the root zone (Sonon, Saha, and
Kissel 2015). During the leaching process, six inches of surface depth of water for every foot of plant
root takes away 50% of the salt underground. For every foot of root zone, 80% of the salt is leached by
one foot of water and 90% of it is leached by two feet of water (Salt-affected soils 2009). The leaching
efficiency depends largely on:
(i) the amount of applied water
(ii) the uniformity of the water distribution in soil
(iii) the adequacy of drainage
The soil characteristics, the preferred soil salinity level after leaching, the initial salt concentration
in the soil and the root zone depth to which reclamation is desired. The quantity of water required for
reclamation is determined by these main factors (Siyal, Siyal, and Abro 2002). There is a general rule of
thumb in which 6 inches of water removes about half of the salt, 12 inches removes four-fifths of the
salt and 24 inches remove nine-tenths of the salt from the soil (Sonon, Saha, and Kissel 2015).

Table 9. Estimated requirements of leaching for salt removal.

Salt-free water volume (inches) Salt content reduction in soil (%)
6.00 50.00
12.00 80.00
24.00 90.00
194 A. SYED ET AL.

Aquifer storage recovery (ASR) technique to recharge groundwater

During rainy seasons or flood periods, the aquifers are needed to be recharged artificially with an
excess supply of water that can laterally be pumped for use during days of high water demand. It is
effective in minimizing the secondary salinization problems. The aquifer storage and recovery (ASR)
technique can serve as a tool to control falling water tables and to recharge aquifer so as to minimize
salinity levels in the root zone (Farid et al. 2018).

Scraping (Physical removal)

On a temporary basis, soil can be reclaimed by scraping off the salt crust. In this process, the salts
accumulated on the soil surface are removed mechanically. After the topsoil layer is disposed of, the
lower layers with less salt content are cultivated. The scraping of the top layer will decrease salts in the
root zone for longer periods only when scraping is followed by leaching (Siyal, Siyal, and Abro 2002).

Crop diversification
Crop diversification systems should be adopted on the basis of salt-tolerant plant species. It is the key
to the economic and agricultural growth of the future in the regions where salt-affected soils exist. This
system is very significant in the areas where saline aquifers are pumped for irrigation and/or saline
drainage waters are generated (Qadir et al. 2008).

Phytoremediation
According to Qadir et al. (2007), there are several mechanisms of phytoremediation in salt-affected
soils some of which are:
i) Naturally, many saline-sodic and sodic soils have a good source of Ca2+ at different depths within
the soil profile. This source is normally in the form of calcite (CaCO3). But calcite is not adequately
soluble to displace Na+ from the cation exchange site. Plant roots play a part in increasing the
dissolution rate of calcite. As a consequence, the Ca2+ level is enhanced and there is an increased
exchange of Ca2+ with Na+.
ii) Roots and their penetration in the soil results in the formation of pores which improves the
drainage and salt leaching.

Use of fertilizers as amendments

The most important and expensive input in agriculture are the fertilizers. It increases the crop yield
from 30 to 50% (Wasti and Ahmad 2017). An experiment was conducted in salt-affected soil for the
determination of nitrogen effect on two hybrids of maize in salt-affected soil. Hybrid Pioneer 32B33
had better yield and growth compared to Dekalb979. Nitrogen application increased leaf production
and total leaf area for photosynthesis (Akram et al. 2010b). P is very efficient in the remediation of salt-
affected soils. Different phosphatic fertilizers were applied to compare their performance on the yield
and growth of wheat. Results showed that the single superphosphate (SSP) when applied in the soil,
showed better results as compared to diammonium phosphate (DAP), nitrophos (NP), triple super­
phosphate (TSP) and monoammonium phosphate (MAP) on a phosphorus-deficient soil (Ali et al.
2015). Ammonium nitrate or ammonium sulfate is recommended in salt-affected soils as a source of
N (Ali and Aslam 2005). Abdelgadir et al. (2010) observed the effect of nitrogen fertilizer as an
amendment on the growth and yield of two wheat cultivars i.e. Debeira and Wadielneel. N fertilizer
source was urea. The results concluded that Debeira and Wadielneel needed 129 kg N/ha level on
reclaimed high terrace salt-affected soils. But using ammonium sulfate instead of urea as a source of
N is advised because urea losses are maximum (Salt-affected soils 2009).
 COMMUNICATIONS IN SOIL SCIENCE AND PLANT ANALYSIS 195

Application of chemical amendments (Acids, Gypsum)

Application of calcium amendments is essential for the reclamation of salt-affected soils (Table 10).
Ca2+ acts as a soil modifier and improves different soil properties and prevent the soil from salinity/
sodicity hazards (Saqib et al. 2017). The choice of a chemical amendment is dependent on the cost,
availability, time of application, and handling.
1. H2SO4, HCl, HNO3
According to Saqib et al. (2017), acids or acid-forming materials like H2SO4, HCl, HNO3 can be
used as an amendment. In calcareous soils, these acids mobilize the intrinsic Ca2+ and enhance the
CaCO3 conversion into more soluble CaCl2, CaSO4 or Ca(HCO3)2. Acids (H2SO4, HCl, HNO3) are
more effective in decreasing soil pH, EC, and ESP than gypsum. It was proved by an experiment that in
the sandy clay loam soil, application of H2SO4, HCl, CaCl2 and gypsum were equally effective in
decreasing SAR and EC, though gypsum gave a better yield of wheat and H2SO4 produced more yield
of rice.
2. Sulfur
Sulfur not only suppresses the uptake of undesired toxic elements but it also helps in improving
quality and quantity of produce in salt-affected soil. Sulfur also improves chemical properties of salt-
affected soils like EC, pH, and SAR (Ahmed et al. 2016).
3. Gypsum
The soils treated with calcium prevents the surface sealing by removing sodium. For correcting
sodium-contaminated soil, gypsum (calcium sulfate, CaSO4.2H2O) is one of the most commonly used
calcium sources. It is incorporated into the soil and salt-free irrigation water is applied (Sonon, Saha,
and Kissel 2015). Ahmad et al. (2016) proved by an experiment that the superiority of gypsum for
loamy-sand at gypsum 25% (G25), sandy loam at gypsum 50% (G50), and clay loam at gypsum 75%
(G75) expected cost-effective soil reclamation with a reduced SAR and EC below 5.92 (mmol L−1)1/2
and 0.97 dSm−1, respectively. Ahmad et al. (2001) reported that the application of gypsum and CaCl2
increased the yield of both wheat and rice varieties as compared to control. Ahmad et al. (2013) used
different amendment technologies to grow rice crop in salt-affected soil. The treatments followed were
T1 = control, T2 = 100% gypsum requirement (GR), T3 = 50% GR. The results revealed that in T2
(100% GR), 14.60 t ha−1 of rice biomass and 3.50 t ha−1 of paddy yield were achieved. On the other
hand, under control conditions, 7.22 t ha−1 of rice biomass and 1.62 t ha−1 of paddy yield were
achieved.
Zaka et al. (2005) applied gypsum @ 100% GR alone, @ 25 t ha−1 in combination with farmyard
manure (FYM) or chiseling as well as a combination of all the three. Results showed that the highest
grain yields of rice and wheat were obtained from gypsum application. It was proved to be the best
treatment. Gypsum alone or gypsum + FYM gave better results compared to the combination of
gypsum + chiseling. The combination of all three treatments, i.e., gypsum + chiseling + FYM was more

Table 10. Amount of gypsum required for replacing exchangeable sodium.

Gypsum amount neededa
Soil exchangeable sodium (CaSO4.2H2O)
lbs/acre Tons/acre-footb Tons/acre-6 inchesc lbs/1000 ft2-1 foot lbs/1000 ft2-6 inches
460 1.70 0.90 80.00 40.00
920 3.40 1.70 160.00 80.00
1380 5.20 2.60 240.00 120.00
1840 6.90 3.40 320.00 160.00
2300 8.60 4.30 400.00 200.00
2760 10.30 5.20 480.00 240.00
Source: U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff, 1954 (with modifications); aGypsum amounts are given to the nearest 0.1 ton; bSoil of 1 acre-
foot weighs approximately 4,000,000 pounds; cSoil 1 acre-6 inches weighs approximately 2,000,000 pounds.
196 A. SYED ET AL.

efficient in improving the soil condition. The amount of gypsum required in replacing exchangeable
sodium in the soil is provided in the table below (Sonon, Saha, and Kissel 2015).
4. Citric acid
An experiment was conducted in a greenhouse to study the growth and yield response of wheat
(Triticum aestivum L.) in saline-sodic soil. Various soil conditioners were applied viz., citric acid (CA),
polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), ethylene diamine tetra-acetic acid (EDTA) and gypsum (GYP). Gypsum was
applied @ 100% GR while other conditioners were added to the soil each @ 5 g kg−1 of soil. The results
revealed that exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) and soil sodium adsorption ratio (SAR)
decreased in all treatments followed by the order: CT>PVA>EDTA>CA>GYP. Application of CA
positively affected the plant growth as compared to other soil amendments that include the height of
the plant, number of tillers per plant, number of spikes per plant, plant dry weight, and grain yield. CA
application also increased the photosynthetic rate, chlorophyll contents, stomatal conductance, and
transpiration rate significantly (Zia-Ur-Rehman et al. 2016).

Organic amendments
Application of organic matter has a great impact on salt-stressed soils.
1. Residues of crop
The incorporation of crop residues in the soil improved P availability and lowered the SAR (5% and
4%) and EC (2% and 6%) of slightly salt-affected and saline-sodic soils, respectively (Mahmood et al.
2013).
2. Green manuring
In saline soils, green manuring improves soil physical and chemical properties and provides
essential nutrients. Yield per hectare will be increased by continuous cropping along with appropriate
use of organic and inorganic amendments (Maqsood et al. 2013). Application of farmyard manure and
leguminous crops provides organic matter and other nutrients, increases soil porosity for moisture
absorption and aeration, and enhances soil microorganisms, thus improving the overall condition of
the soil (Salt-affected soils 2009).
3. Bacterial exo-polysaccharides
Exopolysaccharides (EPS) are the polymers of monosaccharides. The microorganisms that inhabit
in decomposing organic residues, rhizosphere, and roots of the plants are responsible for the synthesis
and release of EPS in the soil. The bacterial EPS are involved in improving the fertility of the cultivated
soils by the formation and stability of soil micro-aggregates. The study of bacterial EPS extracted from
Microbacterium sp. MAS133 isolated from a salt-affected soil showed that the bacterial inoculation
had a positive effect on soil aggregation around roots and reduced the negative impact of salinity on
plant growth. Thus, the EPS-producing bacteria was proved to be a valuable biological tool in the
reclamation of salt-affected soils (Ashraf, Hasnain, and Berge 2013).

Effects of organic amendments

1. Effects of organic materials on soil physical properties
Organic matter is a prerequisite in bonding and adhesion properties and thus promotes the soil
aggregates stability. In actuality, the Na+ proportion in the exchange complex could replace by the Ca2
+
contained in composts. Thus, in saline soils, the flocculation of clay minerals plays a significant role
in the control of erosion (Diacono and Montemurro 2015).
2. Effects of organic materials on soil chemical properties
The CEC and the soluble and exchangeable K+ in the soil, which is a competitor of Na+ under
sodicity conditions, can be increased by the addition of poultry manure and compost to the soil, thus,
 COMMUNICATIONS IN SOIL SCIENCE AND PLANT ANALYSIS 197

limiting the Na+ adsorption on the exchange sites. Moreover, under drought and salinity stress, K+
plays a vital role in maintaining the turgor pressure of plant (Diacono and Montemurro 2015).
3. Effects of organic materials on soil biological properties
The organic manure is an important cost-effective agro-technological approach. The incorporation
of manure is effective in minimizing the toxicity conditions caused by salinization. Biogas slurry,
a byproduct of biogas production, not only prevents the salt degradation of soil, but also conserves its
fertility and productivity status (Saqib et al. 2017). In dryland conditions of saline soils, it has been
verified that compost application and non-composted manure can reduce ESP (by 50% than una­
mended soil) and may also act as a pH buffer in alkaline and saline soils, influencing the microbial
activity (Diacono and Montemurro 2015).

Conclusions
A sustainable and an ideal agricultural system is the system which protects the environment, sustains
and improves human health, profits consumers and producers both spiritually and economically, and
produces enough food for a growing population. Salt-affected soils are one of the most significant
limitations to agricultural production in Pakistan. In this survey, we made an attempt to bring light on
some critical features of salt-affected soils. Soil and environment can be degraded by the indiscrimi­
nate use of brackish water. Practitioners and researchers have tried either to adjust the environment to
suit the plant or modify the plant to suit the saline environment. Soil takes millions of years to establish
but salinity has caused huge losses within a few decades in Pakistan and elsewhere. Salt-tolerant plant
varieties developed through plant breeding and genetic engineering help to stabilize these enormously
saline soils. Under proper management, saline agriculture can be a cost-effective venture. The use of
organic and inorganic amendments in an appropriate way is an effective measure in restoring and
reversing soil quality in salt-affected soils. Proper agronomic practices such as leaching by irrigation
water, scrapping, crop diversification also reduces salt stress.

References
Abdelgadir, E. M., E. M. Fadul, E. A. Fageer, and E. A. Ali. 2010. Response of wheat to nitrogen fertilizer at reclaimed
high terrace salt-affected soils in Sudan. Journal of Agriculture and Social Sciences 6 (3):43–47.
Abdullah, D. Z., S. A. Khan, K. Jebran, and A. Ali. 2015. Agricultural credit in Pakistan: Past trends and future prospects.
Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences 5 (12):178–88.
Ahmad, M., N. Hussain, M. Salim, and B. H. Niazi. 2001. Use of chemical amendments for reclamation of saline-sodic
soils. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology 3 (3):305–07.
Ahmad, M. J., M. Arif, A. Iqbal, M. Khalid, and N. Akhtar. 2013. Chapter 18: Rice production in salt-affected soils of
Pakistan using different reclamation techniques. In Developments in Soil Salinity Assessment and Reclamation, eds. S.
Shahid, M. Abdelfattah and F. Taha. Dordrecht:Springer.
Ahmad, S., N. Khan, M. Z. Iqbal, A. Hussain, and M. Hassan. 2002. Salt tolerance of. Cotton. Asian Journal of Plant
Sciences 1 (6):715–19. doi:10.3923/ajps.2002.715.719.
Ahmed, K., G. Qadir, A. R. Jami, A. I. Saqib, M. Q. Nawaz, M. A. Kamal, and E. Haq. 2016. Strategies for soil
amelioration using sulphur in salt affected soils. Agronomical Research in Moldavia 49 (3):5–16.
Ahmed, M., and I. Qamar. 2004. Productive rehabilitation and use of salt-affected land through afforestation (A review).
Science Vision 9 (1–2):1–14.
Ahmed, S. 2009. Effect of soil salinity on the yield and yield components of mungbean. Pakistan Journal of Botany 41
(1):263–68.
Akram, M., M. Y. Ashraf, R. Ahmad, E. A. Waraich, M. Hussain, N. Hussain, and A. R. Mallahi. 2010b. Performance of
autumn planted maize (Zea mays L.) hybrids at various nitrogen levels under salt affected soils. Soil and Environment
29 (1):23–32.
Akram, M., M. Y. Ashraf, R. Ahmad, E. A. Waraich, J. Iqbal, and M. Mohsan. 2010a. Screening for salt tolerance in maize
(Zea mays L.) hybrids at an early seedling stage. Pakistan Journal of Botany 42 (1):141–54.
Ali, M. 2010. Agriculture problems in Pakistan and their solutions. South Asia Partnership Pakistan. Retrieved from
https://sappk.wordpress.com/2010/03/08/agriculture-problems-in-pakistan-and-their-solutions/
198 A. SYED ET AL.

Ali, M., L. Ali, M. U. Din, M. Sattar, M. Q. Waqar, M. A. Ali, and L. Khalid. 2015. Comparative performance of wheat in
response to different phosphatic fertilizers. International Journal of Agricultural Research 2 (6):1–9.
Ali, Y., and Z. Aslam. 2005. Use of environmental friendly fertilizers in saline and saline sodic soils. International Journal
of Environmental Science & Technology 1 (4):97–98. doi:10.1007/BF03325862.
Ali, Y., Z. Aslam, M. Y. Ashraf, and G. R. Tahir. 2004. Effect of salinity on chlorophyll concentration, leaf area, yield and
yield components of rice genotypes grown under saline environment. International Journal of Environmental Science
& Technology 1 (3):221–25. doi:10.1007/BF03325836.
Ashraf, M., S. Hasnain, and O. Berge. 2013. Chapter 42: Bacterial exo-polysaccharides: A biological tool for the
reclamation of salt-affected soils. Developments in Soil Salinity Assessment and Reclamation. Dordrecht: Springer.
Askari, H., S. K. Kazemitabar, H. N. Zarrini, and M. H. Saberi. 2016. Salt tolerance assessment of barley (Hordeum
vulgare L.) genotypes at germination stage by tolerance indices. Open Agriculture 1 (1):37–44.
Aslam, M. 2016. Agricultural productivity current scenario, constraints and future prospects in Pakistan. Sarhad Journal
of Agriculture 32 (4):289–303. doi:10.17582/journal.sja/2016.32.4.289.303.
Aslam, M., and S. A. Prathapar. 2006. Strategies to mitigate secondary salinization in the indus basin of Pakistan:
A selective review. International Water Management Institute Research Report 97, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Aslam, R., N. Bostan, M. M. Nabgha-e-Amen, and W. Safdar. 2011. A critical review on halophytes: Salt tolerant plants.
The Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 5 (33):7108–18.
Athar, H. R., and M. Ashraf. 2009. Chapter 1 strategies for crop improvement against salinity and drought stress: An
overview. Salinity and Water Stress. Dordrecht: Springer.
Azhar, A. H. 2010. Impact of subsurface drainage on soil salinity in Pakistan. The Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences 20
(2):94–98.
Balal, R. M., M. A. Aqueel, M. A. Shahid, H. Tariq, and A. Siddiqua (2013, April 26). In Pakistan, salinity is one of the
country’s most serious environmental problems. Pak Agri Outlook. Retrieved from https://agrihunt.com/articles/
pak-agri-outlook/in-pakistan-salinity-is-one-of-the-countrys-most-serious-environmental-problems/
Batool, N., A. Shahzad, and A. Ilyas. 2014. Plants and salt stress. International Journal of Agriculture and Crop Sciences 7
(14):1439–46.
Bhatti, M. A., and F. M. Azhar. 2002. Salt tolerance of nine Gossypium hirsutum L. varieties to NaCl salinity at early stage
of plant development. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology 4 (4):544–46.
Chandio, N. H., Q. H. Mallah, and M. M. Anwar. 2017. Evaluation of soil salinity and its impacts on agriculture: Nexus
of Rbod-III, Pakistan. Sindh University Research Journal 49 (3):525–28. doi:10.26692/surj/2017.09.10.
Corbishley, J., and D. Pearce (2007). Salinity in Pakistan, Thailand and Australia. Growing trees on salt-affected land.
ACIAR Impact Assessment Series Report No. 51.
Diacono, M., and F. Montemurro. 2015. Effectiveness of organic wastes as fertilizers and amendments in salt-affected
soils. Agric 5:221–30.
Farid, H. U., A. Bakhsh, M. U. Ali, Z. M. Khan, A. Shakoor, and I. Ali. 2018. Field investigation of aquifer storage
recovery (ASR) technique to recharge groundwater a case study in Punjab province of Pakistan. Water Supply 18
(1):71–83. doi:10.2166/ws.2017.083.
Government of Pakistan [GoP]. 2015. 2014-15 economic survey of Pakistan. Islamabad, Pakistan: Ministry of Finance
Division, Economic Advisor’s Wing.
Gulzar, S., M. A. Khan, and I. A. Ungar. 2003. Effects of salinity on growth, ionic content, and plant–water status of
Aeluropus lagopoides. Communications in Soil Science and Plant 34 (11&12):1657–68. doi:10.1081/CSS-120021303.
Hameed, M., M. Ashraf, and N. Naz. 2011. Anatomical and physiological characteristics relating to ionic relations in
some salt tolerant grasses from the Salt Range, Pakistan. Acta Physiologiae Plantarum 33 (4):1399–409. doi:10.1007/
s11738-010-0674-8.
Hameed, M., T. Nawaz, M. Ashraf, A. Tufail, H. Kanwal, M. Sajid, A. Ahmad, and I. Ahmad. 2012. Leaf anatomical
adaptations of some halophytic and xerophytic sedges of the Punjab. Pakistan Journal of Botany 44:159–64.
Hasanuzzaman, M., K. Nahar, M. M. Alam, P. C. Bhowmik, M. A. Hossain, M. M. Rahman, M. N. V. Prasad, M. Ozturk,
and M. Fujita. 2014. Potential use of halophytes to remediate saline soils. BioMed Research International Article ID
589341, 12. doi:10.1155/2014/589341.
Hollington, P. (2001). Success stories in saline agriculture in Pakistan: From research to production and development.
BAC Saline Agriculture Conference, Balochistan Agriculture College.
Husain, I. 2012. Agriculture sector: Issues and prospects. DAWN. February 10, Karachi, Pakistan.
Irum, A., and M. Ehetisham-ul-Haq (2017, July 24). Phosphorous dynamics in salt-affected soils and its management.
AGRIHUNT. https://agrihunt.com/articles/fertilizer-industry/phosphorous-dynamics-in-salt-affected-soils-and-its-
management/.
Khan, A. A., and M. S. Chaudary. 2003. Waterlogging and salinization: A serious threat for our agriculture. Pakistan
Geographical Review 58 (1& 2):1–17.
Khan, F. Z. A., M. Sagheer, M. U. Hasan, H. T. Gul, F. Hassan, S. A. Manzoor, and A. Wahid. 2013. Agricultural
dynamics in Pakistan: Current issues and solutions. Russian Journal of Agricultural and Socio-economic Sciences 8
(20):20–26.
 COMMUNICATIONS IN SOIL SCIENCE AND PLANT ANALYSIS 199

Khan, M. A., and Z. Abdullah. 2003. Salinity–sodicity induced changes in reproductive physiology of rice (Oryza sativa)
under dense soil conditions. Environmental and Experimental Botany 49 (2):145–57. doi:10.1016/S0098-8472(02)
00066-7.
Khan, M. A., M. U. Shirazi, M. A. Khan, S. M. Mujtaba, E. Islam, S. Mumtaz, A. Shereen, R. U. Ansari, and M. Y. Ashraf.
2009. Role of proline, K/Na ratio and chlorophyll content in salt tolerance of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Pakistan
Journal of Botany 41 (2):633–38.
Ladeiro, B. 2012. Saline agriculture in the 21st century: Using salt contaminated resources to cope food requirements.
Journal of Botany Article ID 310705. doi:10.1155/2012/310705.
Mahmood, I. A., A. Ali, M. Aslam, A. Shahzad, T. Sultan, and F. Hussain. 2013. Phosphorus availability in different
salt-affected soils as influenced by crop residue incorporation. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology
15:472–78.
Mahmood, K. 2011. Salinity tolerance in barley (Hordeum vulgare L.): Effects of varying NaCl, K+/Na+ and NaHCO3
levels on cultivars differing in tolerance. Pakistan Journal of Botany 43 (3):1651–54.
Manzoor, M. Z., G. Sarwar, A. Zafar, F. Mujeeb, and F. Khadija. 2019. Maintenance of nutrients’ concentration in
sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) using brackish water through leaching fraction strategy. Journal of Pure and Applied
Agriculture 4 (1):29–37.
Maqsood, M. A., S. Hussain, T. Aziz, and M. Ashraf. 2013. Chapter 50: Sustainable agriculture through integrated soil
fertility management on degraded lands. Developments in Soil Salinity Assessment and Reclamation. Dordrecht:
Springer.
Maqsood, T., J. Akhtar, M. R. Farooq, M. A. Haq, and Z. A. Saqib. 2008. Biochemical attributes of salt tolerant and salt
sensitive maize cultivars to salinity and potassium nutrition. Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Sciences 45 (1):1–5.
Mufti, S. A., S. Hussain, and M. K. Arshad. 2003. Mountains of Pakistan, contribution of mountains in Pakistan’s water
resources status and prospective. Islamabad: GCISC.
Munns, R. 2009. Chapter 11 strategies for crop improvement in saline soils. Salinity and Water Stress. Dordrecht:
Springer.
Qadir, M., J. D. Oster, S. Schubert, and K. L. Sahrawat. 2007. Phytoremediation of sodic and saline-sodic soils. Advances
in Agronomy 96:197–247.
Qadir, M., and S. Schubert. 2002. Degradation processes and nutrient constraints in sodic soils. Land Degradation &
Development 13 (4):275–94. doi:10.1002/ldr.504.
Qadir, M., A. Tubeileh, J. Akhtar, A. Larbi, P. S. Minhas, and M. A. Khan. 2008. Productivity enhancement of salt-
affected environments through crop diversification. Land Degradation & Development 19 (4):429–53. doi:10.1002/
ldr.853.
Qureshi, A. S. 2011. Water management in the Indus Basin in Pakistan: Challenges and opportunities. Mountain
Research and Development 31 (3):252–60. doi:10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-11-00019.1.
Qureshi, A. S. 2015. Improving food security and livelihood resilience through groundwater management in Pakistan.
Global Advanced Research Journal of Agricultural Science 4 (10):687–710.
Qureshi, A. S. 2016. Perspectives for bio-management of salt-affected and waterlogged soils in Pakistan. In Agroforestry
for the management of waterlogged saline soils and poor-quality waters. Advances in agroforestry, ed. J. Dagar and
P. Minhas, 13: 97–108. New Delhi: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-81-322-2659-8_6.
Qureshi, A. S., M. N. Asghar, S. Ahmad, and I. Masih. 2004. Sustaining crop production in saline groundwater areas:
A case study from Pakistani Punjab. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 55 (4):421–31. doi:10.1071/AR03205.
Qureshi, A. S., I. Masih, and H. Turral. 2006. Comparing water productivities of transplanted and direct seeded rice for
Pakistani Punjab. Journal of Applied Irrigation Science 41 (1):47–60.
Qureshi, A. S., P. G. McCornick, M. Qadir, and Z. Aslam. 2008. Managing salinity and waterlogging in the Indus Basin of
Pakistan. Agricultural Water Management 95 (1):1–10. doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2007.09.014.
Rahman, M. U., U. S. Soomro, M. Zahoor-ul-Haq, and S. Gul. 2008. Effects of NaCl salinity on wheat (Triticum aestivum
L.) cultivars. World Journal of Agricultural Sciences 4 (3):398–403.
Rajpar, I., M. S. Lashari, S. K. Brahman, M. Ali, Z. H. Shah, B. N. Mangan, and A. H. Shah. 2018. Salinity and drought
stress tolerance of some plant species of Thar desert, Pakistan: Implications in bio-saline agriculture. Pakistan Journal
of Botany 50 (2):465–69.
Raza, M. A., A. Saeed, H. Munir, K. Ziaf, A. Shakeel, N. Saeed, A. Munawar, and F. Rehman. 2017. Screening of tomato
genotypes for salinity tolerance based on early growth attributes and leaf inorganic osmolytes. Archives of Agronomy
and Soil Science 63 (4):501–12. doi:10.1080/03650340.2016.1224856.
Salt-affected soils. 2009.DAWN. June 5. https://www.dawn.com/news/437306/salt-affected-soils
Saqib, A. I., K. Ahmed, G. Qadir, M. Q. Nawaz, M. Rizwan, M. A. Zaka, and I. A. Warraich. 2017. Comparison the
efficient reclamation of different inorganic materials with organic amendments to rice-wheat crop sustainable
production in salt-affected soils. Cercetari Agronomice in Moldova 50 (1):19–29.
Shafi, M., J. Bakht, M. J. Khan, M. A. Khan, and S. Anwar. 2010. Effect of salinity on yield and ion accumulation of wheat
genotypes. Pakistan Journal of Botany 42 (6):4113–21.
Shahbaz, M., M. Ashraf, F. Al-Qurainy, and P. J. C. Harris. 2012. Salt tolerance in selected vegetable crops. Critical
Reviews in Plant Sciences 31 (4):303–20. doi:10.1080/07352689.2012.656496.
200 A. SYED ET AL.

Shahid, S. A. 2013. Chapter 1: Developments in soil salinity assessment, modeling, mapping, and monitoring from regional
to submicroscopic scales. Developments in Soil Salinity Assessment and Reclamation. Dordrecht: Springer.
Shahzad, R., S. Jamil, S. U. Rahman, and M. Z. Iqbal. 2017. Salt Stress and its impact on crop productivity in Pakistan.
AGRIHUNT. May 10. https://agrihunt.com/articles/salt-stress-and-its-impact-on-crop-productivity-in-pakistan/#:~:
text=Salinity%20may%20be%20defined%20as,negatively%20affect%20the%20crop%20production.&text=
Agricultural%20productivity%20is%20severely%20affected,are%20harmful%20to%20plant%20growth.
Sharma, D. K., and A. Singh. 2015. Salinity research in India-achievements, challenges and future prospects. Water and
Energy International 58 (6):35–45.
Shrivastava, P., and R. Kumar. 2015. Soil salinity: A serious environmental issue and plant growth promoting bacteria as
one of the tools for its alleviation. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences 22 (2):123–31. doi:10.1016/j.sjbs.2014.12.001.
Siyal, A. A., A. G. Siyal, and Z. A. Abro. 2002. Salt affected soils and their reclamation. Pakistan Journal of Applied
Sciences 2 (5): 537–40.
Sonon, L. S., U. Saha, and D. E. Kissel. 2015. Soil salinity: Testing, data interpretation and recommendations. UGA
Cooperative Extension Circular 1019, Georgia.
Wasti, S. E., and I. Ahmad. 2017. Pakistan economic survey of Pakistan 2016-2017, Islamabad, Pakistan.
Zafar, S. A., S. Shokat, H. G. M. Ahmed, A. Khan, M. Z. Ali, and R. M. Atif. 2015. Assessment of salinity tolerance in rice
using seedling based morpho-physiological indices. Advancements in Life Sciences 2 (4):142–49.
Zaka, M. A., O. U. Rehman, H. U. Rafa, and A. A. Khan. 2005. Integrated approach for reclamation of salt affected soils.
Journal of Agriculture & Social Sciences 1 (2):94–97.
Zaman, S. B., and S. Ahmad. 2009. Salinity and waterlogging in the Indus Basin of Pakistan: Economic loss to
agricultural economy. Managing Natural Resources for Sustaining Future Agriculture 1:4–8.
Zia-Ur-Rehman, M., M. Rizwan, M. Sabir, S. A. Shahjahan, and H. R. Ahmed. 2016. Comparative effects of different soil
conditioners on wheat growth and yield grown in saline-sodic soils. Sains Malaysiana 45 (3):339–46.
Zulfiqar, I., N. Y. Zahid, A. A. Qureshi, and I. A. Hafiz. 2019. Impact of biostimulants to improve the growth of local
fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) under salinity stress. Journal of Pure and Applied Agriculture 4 (1):38–50.

View publication stats