2.

Geomechanics

2.1. Mechanical Behavior of Rock

2.2. Fracture Mechanics

2.3. Rock Friction and

Mechanical Behavior of Fractures
 Knowledge of Geomechanics is Important in Characterization,
Evaluation and Management of Naturally Fractured Reservoirs

● Determine origin, type and orientation of fractures from rock mechanic principles

● Characterize distribution and intensity of fractures from stress/strain analysis

using
-- Mechanical stratigraphy
-- Bed thickness
-- Bed curvature

● Evaluate potential impact of stress-dependent fracture permeability on reservoir

productivity and fracture-formation damage during production history

● Manage reservoir dynamics due to production-induced changes in stress state

using coupled geomechanical-deformation / fluid-flow models to predict
-- Reservoir fracture fluid-flow behavior
-- Time and type of pressure maintenance program
-- Optimum location of infill-production and waterflood-injection wells
-- Activation of faults – earthquakes due to waterflooding and production
-- Optimum wellbore trajectories to minimize casing failure due fault slip
 2.1. Mechanical Behavior of Rock
• Experimental Rock Deformation
- Nature of Experiments
- Elastic Deformation
- Inelastic Deformation

• Effect of Environmental Parameters of Strength and Ductility

- Confining Pressure
- Pore Pressure
- Temperature
- Time (Strain Rate and Creep)

• Brittle / Ductile Transition

• Strength and Ductility of Common Sedimentary Rocks
• Mechanical Stratigraphy
Mechanical Behavior of Rock Depends on the
Interaction Between:

Environmental Parameters Intrinsic Properties

Confining Pressure Composition

Pore Pressure Grain Size

Temperature Porosity

Time (Strain Rate) Permeability

Differential Stress Size of Body

Pore Fluid Composition Bedding Thickness

Pre-existing Mechanical
Discontinuities
In Situ State of Stress

Earth’s Surface
σob

 h mi n

 ob  HM AX  h min

 HM AX
In Situ Stress State
 Overburden Stress and Pore Pressure
Gradients

For normal conditions:

SV =   g V
dSV/dV = 1.0 psi/ft (22.5 kPa/m)
for  = 2.3 g/cm3
dP/dV = 0.45 psi/ft (10.0 kPa/m)
 Relationship between Pore Pressure,
Overburden Stress and Effective Stress
Total Stress = Pore Pressure + Effective Stress
Carried by the Grains

Force Pores

Grains

Force
 Effective Stress
σ = S – αP

where
σ = Effective Stress
S = Total Stress
α = Poroelastic Parameter
P = Pore Pressure
In Situ Stresses Increase with Depth
Geothermal Gradient
Triaxial Testing Machine and Pressure Vessel
Load Frame and Confining Pressure Vessel
Schematic Diagram of Triaxial Testing
System and Test Specimen Assembly
Displacement Gages to Measure Axial
Deformation
Lateral Gages to Measure Lateral Deformation
in Two Directions
Routine Laboratory Compression Tests
Hydrostatic Compression Test
Hydrostatic Stress Test
Uniaxial Strain Test

S1

S3

S3 = KoS1
Ko is Uniaxial Strain
Compaction Coefficient
Uniaxial Strain Test
Compaction Curves for Ekofisk Chalk
 Triaxial Compression Tests
EFFECT OF CONFINING PRESSURE ON STRENGTH AND DUCTILITY
Young’s Modulus
Stress/Strain Curves in Triaxial Compression
Poisson’s Ratio

lateral
 
axial
Relative Magnitudes of Three Elastic Moduli
 Effect of Environmental Parameters
on Strength and Ductility

• Confining Pressure

• Pore Pressure

• Temperature

• Time (Strain Rate and Creep)

Stress/Strain Curves Showing Possible Rock
Deformation Behavior
 Triaxial Compression Tests
EFFECT OF CONFINING PRESSURE ON STRENGTH AND DUCTILITY
Brittle to Ductile Behavior of Rock Samples
with Increasing Effective Confining Pressure

Increasing Effective Confining Pressure

Axial Spliting Shear Fracture Compaction

after Griggs and Handin, 1960

Effect of Pores Pressure
on Strength and Ductility
 Effect of Temperature
on Strength and Ductility
 Effect of Strain Rate
on Strength and Ductility
Time-Dependent Creep Deformation Curves

Brittle Failure
Summary of Strengths and Ductilities of
Common Sedimentary Rocks
Contrast in Brittle and Ductile Deformation
for Dolomite and Limestone

LMS

DOL

LMS
The Problem of Scale
Mechanical Behavior of Rock Depends on the
Interaction Between:

Environmental Parameters Intrinsic Properties

Confining Pressure Composition

Pore Pressure Grain Size

Temperature Porosity

Time (Strain Rate) Permeability

Differential Stress Size of Body

Pore Fluid Composition Bedding Thickness

Pre-existing Mechanical
Discontinuities
 Fracture Strength and Elastic Modulus
Increase with Increasing Quartz Content
 Sandstone Fracture Strength
and Young's Modulus Increase with

Decreasing Porosity

Decreasing Grain Size

STRESS

Increasing Quartz - Feldspar Content

Decreasing Shale - Clay Content

Increasing Cementation (Type)

STRAIN
 Carbonate Rock Fracture Strength
and Young's Modulus Increase with

Decreasing Porosity

Decreasing Grain Size

STRESS

Increasing Dolomite Content

Decreasing Limestone Content

Decreasing Shale - Clay Content

Increasing Cementation (Type)

STRAIN
Fracture Toughness
Mechanical Stratigraphy is a geomechanics
approach for predicting fracture development in
the subsurface from mechanical properties and
deformational behavior of rock.

Rock with a lower fracture toughness will fail first

with increasing strain.
Mechanical Stratigraphy
Fracture Intensity is Controlled by Mechanical Stratigraphy
in Carbonate Lithology on Teton Anticline, Montana
Low Fracture
Toughness

High Fracture
Toughness
Vertical Regional Extension
Fracture in Brittle Sandstone
Terminates at Bounding
Ductile Shale Layer
Mechanical Stratigraphy Affects Deformation
Behavior and Fracture Development

Sandstone
Brittle Deformation

Shale
Ductile Deformation
Mechanical Stratigraphy Controls Fracture
Development in Monterey Formation
Fracture Porosity and Permeability
is Greatest in Thin Chert Beds
 Mechanical Stratigraphy Controls
Fracture Density in Carbonate Reservoirs

Dolomite
E = 92 GPa

Limestone
E = 18 GPa
 Generalized Carbonate Reservoir Model
Porosity (%) Km (md) Em (GPa) K (md)

22 - 27 2-6 18 10

4 Dolomite (m = 3) 0.005 92 1200 +

22 - 27 2-6 18 10

4 Dolomite (m = 3) 0.005 92 1200 +

22 - 27 2-6 18 10
Limestone
Mechanical Stratigraphy Controls Fracture Intensity and Reservoir Flow

Fractured Dolomite Фm = 3% Km = 0.005 mD Kfr = 1200 mD

Limestone
Фm = 22 - 27%
Km = 2 - 6 mD
Kfr = 10 mD

Fault Fracture Zone Wellbore

Not to Scale or Dimensions

 Lisburne Reservoir Model

Bed -Confined
Fractures in High
Modulus Layers
Conceptual Model for Fracture Distribution and
Scaling in the Monterey Formation

Bed Confined Multi-Layer Fracture

Single Layer Fractures Swarms
Fractures

(after Gross, 1995)

Mechanical Stratigraphy
Can Be Developed Using
Mechanical Properties Log
from Sonic Tool
 Compressional & Shear Wave Velocities
Are Related to Dynamic Elastic Rock Properties
Dynamic Moduli are greater than Static Moduli
 Fracture
Dynamic E
intensity

Visual Comparison of Dynamic

E to BHI Fracture Intensity
A possible trend is observed linking
higher fracture intensities to higher
values of Dynamic E

Tight-Gas
Sanstones
Shale Elastic Modulus – Good Indicator of Performance?
Increasing Elastic Modulus May Indicate More Brittle Rock
 Fracture
GR intensity

Visual Comparison of GR to
BHI Fracture Intensity
Possible link between low values of
GR and high fracture intensities.

Lower values of GR correspond to lower

shale/clay content in sandstone which have
higher E and lower fracture toughness

Tight-Gas
Sandstones
 Mechanical Stratigraphy Controls
Brittle - Ductile Behavior and Failure Mode

Axial Spliting Shear Fracture Compaction

Extension Fracture
Mechanical Stratigraphy Controls Failure Mode
in Monterey Formation

A is Mudstone
B is Shale
C is Porcelanite
(from Gross, 1995)
 Mechanical Stratigraphy Controls
Failure Mode in Monterey Formation
Small Faults in Laminated Mudstone and Joints in Porcelanite

(from Gross, 2011