Teaching

Strat�es
JorQuali(Y
Teaching• and
Leaming

Roy Killen

JUTA
 Understanding the
national curriculum
statement

1b function effecrlvely as a reacher Ill! soutn Africa you need ro be abl.e to

lnrerpret and follow rile gutdellnes given In the National Cl1Tricu!u,r1 StaterJ1t11t
Grades R-!2. These documents are the ,nosr recenr treratton of a currtculunn
refom1 process that .started In &1u1h Afrtca In 199 7. Ttals cl1apter ,1,111 hel[P you
uo 111ncterstand rile fo11ndat1ons of those reforms and rouse U1ar understanding to
1111ple1ne1it tlle teaching srrar .egies ctescrlt,ed 111 the follow•111g chapters.
lb understand tl1e pt1.nclples upon which! South Africa's cuJTenr education systtenn
Is oasect, It ls n«essal)' to oonslder the prlndples d1at drove the dra1natlc changes to
the national cuntculun1 In 1997 (Introduced progre.ss!Vely from 1998.). 111ose refornns
changed the educa�on system fron1 one tharwas essentially contenr-lllasect to one that
was essentla!Uy oucoo,nes-basect. 1111s chapter ourllnes tile s:lgnllk:ance of that change
and \'till! help you to• understand how the prtndples of 011tcomes-based education
continue ro lnflue11cerurlfculut11, reachtng. leamt:ng arnd assessrnent In south Af11ca.
INl1en you have 1nastered the Ideas In this chapter you will be able to:
.1. explain the prtncl!Jlles on whJch the Nat1'o11a/ Curricu/11!11 State!l1er1c Grades
R-12 Is !Jased; and
.1. use the guidelines I.Ill the National curriculu!l1 sro.tell1e,u Grades R 12 - when
pla:nn.lng lnstn,ctlon. when teaching and when aSliesslng student lean1in.g.

ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES TO CURIRICULUM DESl:GN

\>\>1ien a CUJT!culum rs being developed for a centralLsect education systen1 (such
as In so:u th Africa). lmpon.ant declstons have to be made about the pr.tndples on
wl1lch the currtcu111111 ,vlll be b.ared. 'f.hese decisions eventually Influence wllat
Is rau:ghr 111 scl1ools, how It Is caug:ht, ho,v the school system Is organLsect. how
leanners are asseliSe.d, how lnfonuiatlon about le�mers' ach1evements Is reported,
and many other aspects of scl1001ing. Th.e most lmpona.ll!t decision that l1a.s to lbe
made l5 what to use as the central foctL5 of !he currlculurm. ln South Africa the
1Vatio11al Cltniculu111 State111e11t Grades R-12 places a very clear foCius on us.Ing
education asa meansofsha�l11gth:enat1on. 11'hls idea lsexpresse.d 1n the fo[lo\vJng
way In ra1e foreword of the cu1ri'c11tu111 andAssess111e.nt Pc/icy State.111ents (CAPS)
for e.ach subject In tlle school currlculu,n:
 Our nartonal curr1cuUum ls the culmlnacto11 of our effons over a pen.or! of
1 7 years ro transforin the currlcunum bequeathed tto us by aparrh:eld. F'rmn rhe
srarr of democracy ,1'e have :built our curriculum ori the values th:ar lnsplred
ourconst:1rut1on (Act 108 of L996). Tile Preamble ro the const:11!1.ltlori stares
t l1at rhe alms of tl1e Consctmtto:n are to:
.._ heal t'.he ctlvtsJons of the pasr and establish ai society based on den1ocrat1c
values. social jusdce and f1.111da1nental human right;;
.._ Improve the quality of llfe of all cltilzens and free rhe p-0tentlal of each
person;
.._ lay U1e foundat:lons for a dennocratlc.and open society In ,vlllch g;oven1rnenr
I� l.Ja(i<!tj 011 t.he wl11 tiftlre pwµle aml eveiy cltlif..t:11 J:; 6.JUttlly !l)JUteUed l.Jy
ta,11; and
.._ build .a unlred .and democratic sourll! Africa .alble ro take [rs rtgluful place
as a sovereign state lti tile family of nactons.
Educatlon and 'the ourr!culum have an Important role to play ln realls!ng
tll:e.1.>e alnlS ( Department of Basic: Education, 201 I a:4).

Thils chapter will help you to see how rthe Na.tio.11al Curricu!tan State11u:11t
Grades R-!2 Incorporates rllese principles and helps teachers use rhem ro gulde
reaching and lean1nng.

f Activity: Alms of the constllullon

Wtw is school education in Sooth Africa being used as a tool to help achieve
the aims of Ille Constitution?

Once the decision 11as been made abo\ilt the prl!mary purpose of education and
schooling, tl1e:re areessent1a:lly three possible approaches r-0 srruc.nirlng a curr!culum
framework, na1ne:ty,
t. a content-based approa• ch:
2. an experience-based approach; and
3. an outcomes-based approach.
In ai rontent-bnsed approach, curr!cu[um design. srans with lde.ntlf}'lng the oonrent
that sruderurs have to learn about For example. a conrent-based approach to a
History curt1cult1 m at scllool level wourd. start wilth broad c!eds:lons, Sltch as whetther
the couise 1vould f001s on world hlsrory or Sout:h African hlstoiy. If the decision
was 1nade that the Clirrlculum would focus oru tthe h[story ofSo\ilth Africa, then 1nore
specl.fic decisions 1vould have to be niade about content, for ex.ample what period
of time would be co1•ered. 11•hat events would be emphasised, and so on. TI1es,e
d.ed.s!ons woltld e&rabllsll rhe foun.dat1ons for the rontentt-based currlcuilum and guide
read1ers In tthelr decisions aboutt what conrenr to .address In their day-to-day teaching.
 A tl1ird approach Ito curriculum desJgm ls-called outcomes-based education. and
t11ls Js tile approach thar was taken when south Africa reforrn1ed its. curriculum nn
1997. Iln an outcon1es-bas-ed approach. currlc.ulum design starts ,vlrh the question,
'Vi/hat do we want learners : to be.able ro do by rile e11d of the.Ir lean1ln,g?' Ifwe thlnk:
oft11e 'end' as being rhe point at which learners leave &ehool, t11en am ourcomes­
based approach ro currlculurn1 design forces us to ml.n k a!Jout tthe thtngs we want
lean1ers to be able ro do and rhe cy · pe of citizens we want them to Ive by rhe time
they have B.nlshed school. Helping s1udenxs ro ach,leve these things becon1es tthe
long-cem1 goal of t11e currlculurn1.
'1!111s appro.ad1 r..1 currtciu:ium design pl ares .strong em.phasls on th.e eorai result
of the educational process. rather than Just on what learners m1ght achieve In
each subject, 1i1e long-term goals guide all the decisions that u1rrlcnlun1 designers
,nake about the outcomes rhar learners are eJC!)eeted ro acl1leve In each part of
tlle curriculum (for example, in each subject a1td In each grade). This approacl1
ro cumculum design leads to teachers n1aklng decisions such as, • By tt:11e end of
d1Js lesson I wanr. !earners to be able to d@\I' a bar graph from given data' (a
lesson outcome) because t11ls ls partt of being able to ·draw a vartery of graphs tto
display anci lmrerprerdara· (a requlren1enr scared ln theGrade.5 cumculum) and tills

Thls approach ro curriculum design leads to re.u:hers making declslons such as: 'ln
rills leswn I am going to reUI leamers abol!lt the battle at Rorke's Drtfft. •
In other words, a content-based approacl1 leads leacher:S t-0 n1ake decisions about.
very specllic pieces of content. \\•lthour necessanly consldeJtng how th!s content
wHII help learners to achteve the lon,g-temi goals of rhe ourriculum (such as d1ore
stated In the quote aoove). A i'.:O□ternt-based approach ro currtculu111 design tends
to en1phasJse the hnportance o :f Individual su!bjects, rather than the lm,portance
of die type of lean1nng that 1ntegrares knowledge and sl<flls across all subJeors.
This approach ro curl1culunn design Inevitably leads co debates aoout what content
should be Included and w·[]at conrent sl1ould be ex.eluded from the currlculum.
It also leads to debates aibo,1t the perspective from which the corntent s: hould be
interpreted and presented, for e,cample \Vhat culrural or rddail groups· perspectives
should be en1phaslsed In a Hlsto1y cnrliaulum focuslng on Sourh African history,
some e,u rnculunn designers take a different approach and develop an experi.ence­
based curriculu.m. In tills approach. cun1culuni design starts with ldenttlfylng the
leanulng e,cperlencesJn 1vl1lch srudenrs wm partlclpiare. For example, an experlence­
bas-ed Science curriculum mlght Ire designed around a seties o:f Investigations that
lean1ers are ro conduct This approach leads to teachers making decisions such as:
'In this lesson I am going ro have learners lnvestlgare the effect ofpress1Ure on the
borntng point of \l'ater.· This. approach does nor necessartUy require reacl1ers co [hlnk
about how tl1e chosen lean1lng ex:perlences "111 help learners achieve the long-rern1
goals of t:he currl:culum. Cur.rtcula that are designed ln r.hls way can gtve learners
very valuable !ean1lng ex;perlences, bur rhere wlll always :be debates aoout ·which
.
learning experiences are mosr useful and wl1y.
' ' .' . " "
\\1111 help lean1ers ro ·conecr, anaUyse, organise and crltlcally eva:1uare lnfonnatton·
(\1'hlch Is one of tthe overall anms of the natJonal cur.rtcultllill). Im other ,vords, rhe
reacher Is tJtlnklng about shorr-r.em1 lear11Ing go.a:ls, medlum-r.ern1 lea1111ng goals
and long-rem1 learning: goals when planning lei;sons.
As you progres:s th.rough this chapt:er, you wUI see that d1e d lfferences bet,vee11
ourcomes-lJoased educal:l{,n and contenr-b-ased education can De quite slgnllicanr.
outcomes-l>ased educattoru cerrJ.Unly does not. deny rhe lmporrance of content -
you cam nor achieve out.::1111.es tn a vacuum; leamnng has ro engage lea mers \l'lth
sonte fon.n of cont:e.nt Hml'ever, In a ,veil-designed outcomes-based cumcunum, tthe
content Is cltosen after the ourcon1es have oeen d eremtlned. Most lntporranrly, all
content ls cllosen for a ()art!Utlar learning purpose, nor Jus1 because som.eone liked
the conrenr or rltoug.lu Ir had oome Inherent value.
lnke\\•lse, outcomes-based education. does nor deruy the lmporr.anoe of lea:n1[ng
experiences: - learners have ro do a[l)proprlate rJtlngs In order to learn. Ho,vever.
pan:lcular learning expertences (such as a parficular science 1nvest1gat10:n) ar.e
considered valuable only lf they conrrtbute dire<tly ro, I.earners· .achle-ve1nenr of tthe­
outcomes. Therefore, rJ1e selection of learning expenences should come afrer tthe
selection of ourco,nes.
TJ1e basic a!Jlanuach ro ouicorn1es-based educatto:n ls really quire sl.mple. We first
decide what "'e \Vant learners to achieve (the ourcontes) ,and. rJten we ma'.ke am tthe
ot11er decisions albout reacJ1 Ing and learr11rrg. Outcomes provide ,a guide ro ans\verl)ng
mosr questions about reaching. If you can make a dear sracement abour what you
\Vant le.an1ers t:o achieve, then you are we!! p,osltiloned tCJ start mak1ng ,decisions
abotut ,vhat conrenrr lea niers need to understand, h.o,v best to help, I.earners engage
\\11th that content, how 111uch t11ne Is requlre,ct for learning , \Vilar resources are
needed, how learning. should be as sessed. and so om.
larer 1 11 this -chapter you ,vrnJ s:ee 110w some of the ()rinclpCes of our-con1es-based.
educadon are -e1nbedded ln d1e tVaiio,ral Currfculuflr Stateme11t Grades R-12 even
ll1ough south Afrtcan scltool educarton Is no longer officially referred to as art OBE
sysue:n1.
SOUTH AFRICA'S NATIONAL CURRl:CULUM STATIEMENT GRADES
R-12
All scJ1ool educatlorn s:ysten1s have documents that describe 111hat sJ1oulct be
h.app,enJng when each subject In the school currletulum Is being tauglltt. These
.ctoaunenrs .secoucthe key prindpies and values that und erpin die :school currlcmlum .
.as \Vell as givin g .lntormarl:011 a'JJOut w11ar students should. learn anct how t11ey
should l>e assessed. In south Africa, these documents are called the Natio11al
C/l_rr[cu/u111 Stat.cnre.,rt Grades R-J2. 'fills section brteOy 011tlHnes the lbackground
to rile developm.ent of di.at curriculum and d .escrtbes 11O\V teachers can use these
aurtculum guJdellnes.
Background
The democratic approach to education l.ru South Africa that was Initiated In 1994
came as cl1e result of social and polnctcal srntggles on many fronts, and Ir presented
d1e government with enonnous cJta'llenges. These sm1ggles and challenges are
descrll>ed ln considerable derail In Rakonterskl (2008). 1.t1 an attempr ro provide
an educallon system rhat reflecred the values and pdnclples embedded In rhe :ne,1•
Soutlb African Consttnuioru, rhe governmen'. decided to replace the ectucatilon sysrem
of aparrherd \l'lth one l>ased on rhe p:r1ncl�les of ourcorn1es-l>ased educatlon. Some
of tile reasons: for that decision are explaJned Jarer In t'llls ehaprer. In September
!997 the council of Education /\ttinlsrers approved the Srate111enc 91rhe Nado11al
cumcu/111n.for Grades R-9 l1b the rl1m1 of three separate pomcy ctorumenrs for the
Founctaoon Phase. t'.he rnrermedtare Phase and the senior Phase. 1fl1Is Inlt:lactve
became known as cuntcutunz 200.5, In reforence to the goal ¢f 1mplemenclt1g ltt 111
au grades rrom R ro 9 by the year 2005.
Cruricuflau2005was 'a fom1 of outcomes-based education ... [that] ,vas . .for Its
Inldators. the pedagogical route our o.f .apa:theld education· (Chisholm. 2003:3). It
was a bord attempr ro have the school curriculum e:xpreS& a vision of a ne\v South
African society. Such an .an1bltlous goal was never going to be easy ro pur Into
practice, partl'cularly ,vhen the previous educallon sysrem had been so inequitable.
The dlflicult:Ies of lmplemenrJng the cuniculum were corn1pounded by factors such
as the con1plex language In many of the ;:urrlcultun documents, the very limited
support given ro teachers tto help rhe111 cl1ange ·rlletr teac11111g practices, and the lack
ofsultable learning materials avanlafufe to help teachers lmple111enr the curriculum.
If was tnevtrable that .a curliculum refonn 011 the scale of Cuniculurn 200., would
have many crtrrcs. Untbmmarely. some crlttcs slmply ttoolc the easy way our and
blamed CUJTiculu111 2005 for aJI the sllorr,:otnlngs of the educal1on syste111, even
d1ose that exilsred prto r to t 994.

'y: Activity: Problems with curriculum reform

1. What are some of lhe reasons that Curriculum 2005 was seen by many lo
be a failure?
:2. 'Which of these problems have been eliminated with ttle Nafiono I
Curniculum Stotemenl Grodes R-12 and which -a:ppeor lo remain'?

An .ci:;senttal component of any currtculum fr.:imeworl< Is the ·nntenctect-currtcul111n·,

that is. a descrlptlon of,vlnat students are expected to lean1 and how d1ls learning
,vrn be assessed. TI1e Inre:nded currlctilurn ,1•lll al,1•ays refliecr the biases o:f tllose
,vho dev,eloirect lr and the constraints (political, social. econon1lc. v.!me. and so on)
·that ,vere placed upon tt1en1. \,v11en rhe curriculum developers are seen to get It
,vron.g and. for exan1ple. Include so1ne outcome sr.atemenrs rhar are not dear. o:r
,vhen they Include conrrove:rslal conrenr, Ir ts .easy ro use thls as an ex.cuse f¢r
 cr11tlclslng the undePlytng phllos.op:hy ofthe frame\vork. Clearly, this Is l.nappropr1ace.
Any shorrcorn:lngs ln the Intended curriculum should be f,xoo, but thus should be a
11om1a! parr of a conrlnuous process of 1n1proven1enr. A fatru re ro prod111ce a perfect
currlcu.lur.n should not be ral<en as a reason to oorruly discredit tile ]Jhttlosophy
behind d1e currlculum. Un!'oJtlUl!,uely, this happened wtr:h CUrr.iculll1n 2005.
The sou111 Afrlcan government recogrnlsed ilhat tltere were some pro:blerns 1vlth
die srrucrure of Cllfficulun1 2005 and many dlfficuldes ,vlth Its lmplementadon.
This !ea ro a major review In 2000 and a new currlcrdum frarnework, referred
to as the lJiq/t Revised National curricuflllll St.ate111er1t Grades R-9 (Sc.hoofs).
,vas released In July 20c 1. Fol101vung e:xtenslve puilllc consultadon, tlw d:raft
st.aremeni: was modified and approved In 2002 for lnrroductlon In the IFounctadon
Phase ln 2004. The gover.iment, quire rlght!y, emphasised that tl1e changes 111ere
designed w l1nprove the previous currlcu!um. nor to wtally replace Ir. The l?evtsed
1.Vational curriculi1111 State1ne11r Grades R-9 (Sdrools) \Vas ·a srrean1llnlng and
strengrh.ernlng ofcurr1culu m 2005. It keeps Intact rhe pl1nctples. purposes and rhntst
of curncunu m 2005 and affin11s tlte: con1111[nne:nr co -Otttcomes-b,ased education·
(Deparnnent of Education. 2002:6). As. ,Chishohn (2•0<:J:2) pur Ir. the l?evlsed
;Vational Cunicullun Sta1e,ne.11.t Grades R-9 (SC/wols) w•as: a ·nghts-or1eneect,
outcomes-based cun1cul111m·. ,11l1lch was always the ln�e11t1on of Curr.iculu,n 2005.
san101T (2008,x) re.n11r.cts 111s th.at • [e]ducatlon. Jn sourll Afl1ea ls. a sharply
conr.e;;red arena. ,,•lthi ,complex 01'erlapplng ISBues. sharply ,conrendlng agendas,
and divergent, somet1n1es comple1nenrary lb:ur often lncompatlble, J)erspectlives·. No
attten1pt ro balance these fa:r. orscan b,e expected to produce a perfecccurrtcl1lum for
South African schools. So lt was ,v11tn the revlslon of Cuniculu111 2005. Resources
\veresrtll llmJred. many teachers stl.11 felt under-supponed, the challenge of reach.Ing
stttden ts \llltth !JlOOr skills 111 tile la11g111age ,of lnsrruct:1011 remained, and so on. l11ese
and ocher dlfficuldes are dlscus:sed In Jansen and Tuylor (2003). In response ·to
contln1111ng cr1rlclsms, the g.:ivernment launched a second major revJew of the Souilh
African c111rrlculu1111 ln 200<;\ and rhl.s rest1l(ed In rhe ,Vado1:al Cum'cuJu111 Sra1e111e111
Grades R-12 ilelng d.eveloped. for 11nplen1enrat1on froD1 2012. This sraremenr
comprises:
1. a policy document called the ,Vational Pofiry Pertali1it1g co the Progranune
l
and Pro1notior1 Require111e1us Q tile Nadonal cunicu!t11r1 State111ent:
Grades R-12, ,vhlch de:scrtbes the su:bJecrs to :be offered In eaC:h grad.e and rile
promotion requirements;
2. Cwricu/1a11 and Assesst11e11t. Policy Stateflte11ts (CAPS) for eacl1 app:roved
subject 1.isted In the pol[cy document: and
3. a policy document called the National ProtiJColfor Assess,ne11t. Grades R-12,
which describes the record! ng and reporting process to be used In
Grades R-12.
 Th.e National cumcu/11111 sraiernenr Grades R-12 retained rhe basic snucnire of
·tile school. sysrem. Ir roncinued rl1e practice of dividing tlle years of scllooillng Into
,a General Education and na111111g (GET) band wtrh three phases - Foundacton
(grades R-3}, Inrermecrnare (grades 4-6} and senior (grades 7-9) - followed by a
F1.utl1er Educatton a11d Tral11I11g (FETJ band (grades IO-, 2) leading ro die Natrona[
:Senior Certtrncate. Tl1e FE1' band also Inc[udes no11-lllghe:r education tllar Is not
based In schools.
IA/lthln each phase rher.e Is a restrtcred number or approved subjects rhar may
be offered by schools. \Vlthln each _grade rhere are g:1.ll:lellnes for which subjects
must (or may) be offered and th.e n1lnlmum number of subJecrs !liar Iean1ers
must attempt and complete.. For ex.an1ple, In grades ·1-::: a lean1 er must snidy one
official language at Home Language level., one official language ar Plrst Addlrl'on.aJ
Language level, Mathern1a11cs and !Life 5kltls. In each (PLa5e, the subject selecllons
con1e from sul>Jecr groupings and there are II1111rs on ho\v many subjects can lbe
selecred from each group.
Th-e National t:'umrultJJ:11 Stt1t1?1111?nt Grade,· R-12 specifies ehe tinte to be
.atlocaced. ro e ach subject ea,:h week. It also srares that· rnme must be 111ade available
to sl1pport learners who experience lb:arners to learning wlrJ11n t:he [11s.rn1ctton,a1
tlme· (Department of Basic Education, 201 1 b:25). The document ourllnes a range
-0f clrcumsta11ces In ,vlllch learners w.Ith special 11ood.s should be provided with
.asstsrance.
TI1ese strucniral aspectS of the c1.1n1cul1.1111 provccte a fra111ework. w'lthln ,1•hlch
read1Ing a11d leaml.ng \l'Ill occur. The specllic guidelines for ,1•hat Is to be tean1t and
general Infom,atilon aibout ·1each.111g attd assess1nen.r are given 111 the CAPS for .each
subject. Guidelines for rhe ad:mlnIsrractve aspecrs of assess:nenr (records, rerxirt cards.
and so 011) al'e proVlded In the National Protl)(oUor Ass(Ss;me.11t orade.s R-12.
The revHsed curr.1cull!l111 Is no longer -0verrJy outeon1es-base<l. Ho,1rever, as you
w1ll .see lar.er In d11s chapter, some of the key ourco mes-based prtncJples that \l'ere
embedded In Curricu!a!lr 2{){J5 are sdU present. Understanding these prlnclples Is
stlll lmporranr for reach.ers who ,vanr ro maxJ1nlse tthe le,rmlng opportl!lnirJes of all
d1elr students.

Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statements (CAIPS)

For eacln of die appro,,ed su:bJecrs In the national curriculum there Is a CAPS. Nor
au the CAPS are stmruuect the same. ,11ay, but they typlca!Uy contain the foUow.lng
componenrs,
I. An lntrodl!lct.ory section thatt Includes,
a. an overvle\v -0f d1e 1Varior1a! CUrricullun Stacem.ent Grades R-.12;
l>. the general alms of the South African. curriculum; and
c. tthe t1 1ne allocattons for the su bjeccs Jn each phase.
 2. A section that glves an overview· or rhe sl!lbJecr, Including,
.a. an lnrroducrlon Kl r.he subject;
b. specific alms of the subject; and
c. a g_eneral overvie,v of the content areas to be srudled.
3. A section giving SJ)eCl:lic lnfom1at1on about content, Including,
.a. topics and ooncep�s: robe srudle(J:
b. suggested leamJng acfilvltles;
c. tlrne aUocattons:; and
<1. suggested resources.
41. A section on assessmenr, lrtdudlng:
.a. types of as:s.essment to l>e used;
b. lnfom1al and fonnal .assessment guldeUnes�
,c, re.c<ircllng_ and reportt11g requ1reme11rs:; and
<I. moderation requlrernenrs.

y Activity: Finding your way around CAPS

Obtain o copy of the CAPS for o subject you will leach. ComporB the information
it contains v�th the outliM' given obow. HOVv is it differenn Why is it different?

It Is lnnporranr to understtand that rhe CAPS for any subject you \\'Ill reach rs
designed as a guildeUn e rather rrhan as a rtgld ret of nde.5. Teacne.rs ,are ex!Pected to
follow these gul.deilnes (part:lcularty In relatjon to conrent) as cltisely as the.tr local
circumstances will penntt. However. ;reacl1ers are also ex[llecroo ro use initlail1ve in
develop! ng appropriate ceachJng strategies that meet.the needs: of t:heJr lean1ers. Tilts
Idea Is reinforced l>y sra1e1nenrs such as: 'The rime alfocatecl per ro pie Is a guideline
and should ]J,e applled Elexillly .a,c(:ordlng ro clrc.umsta:nces In !11e classroom and to
accomrnodare che Interests of learners· (Deparrn1enr of Basic Ec[ucail'lon, 2 o 1 1 c:9).
You ,vrni find ·rile process oflnterprertng a:rtd lmp!ementlng rhe CAPS slm[P!er If you
folio"' rhe steps outlined larer Jn this chapter.

Putting the CAPS into pracfrice

Cl1apter 2 descrlbes an .approach to [each!ng that Ls designed. to anow all lean1ers to
.achieve to the bese of their alllllty. TI1at qualll:Y teaching approaci1 can t,e a useful
guide for rl1e dedlslons you have ro make as yol!I 11uerprer tile CAPS for the subjects
you wJII teach. ilt ls also useful to understand and follo,11 the prlnclples of outcomes­
based education because !11ey, roo, can help you to n1ake sense of rl1e CAPS, even
d1ough outcomes-based ed.ucarlonls not n1entiloned dlrecrly Jn those docurnencs.
li1e follo,vlng steps are reconunended as a syst:en1artc �v.ay of mak.lng sense of
the lnfonnatlon In the CAPS. l11ese sreps wlll help clarify the 'big picture· of tl1e
sulJJecr you are teaching, so th.at you can approach your day-r0-day planning In a
sysre marJc and logJ.caB ,vay.
 For convenience, this. s;ecrI011 will use tl1e CAPS for 1nrem1ectlate Phas-e
Mathen1atlcs (Department of Basic Educalilon. 201 Id) as an example. as all teachers
should have a sufftclent background 111 n1atl1emat1cs ro understand the Langua_ge :
quoted here from tliat <loaune11t. You should obtain a copy or llne CAPS for a subject
you wlll teach a11d, as you read tile tbllo1l>'l□g sect1011, find 111 that docum.ent the
equiv anent secdons and a spects that r refer ro jn each step.

Step 1
Read the foreword In the CAPS. 'vVltlb a group of colleagl!les, discuss 110,v you see school
education contrlbut111g to the alms of the consrirutton as refen«t to ln the foreword.

Sfep2
Read Secl1011 I . .3 of the CAPS - the general alms of the South African cuurJculum.
With a group of colleagues, dlsCtJss tile following questions:
,.. 'The aim statement. says: 'the currlculul!ll ptol!llotes. knowledge 111 local
contexts \Vl1lle being sensitive to global Imperatives·. \¥hat d.oes t111s me. a11?
• Ho,v does rile subject you reach help ro achieve rh.e purposes of the
curriculum. described ln this se::tJon of me CAPS?
• H o,v do ead1 of the pr inciples listed In di.ls seruon of the CAPS relate to
rhe pI1nclples or qualltt}' reaching described In Chapter 27

Step3
Make a copy of rhe �ven statements ln seceto11 l.3(d) - these are the same 111
every CAPS. Give this Hist 1he headlng 'Long-renn outcomes of school ooucallon·.
(In C11nicul,11n 2,()().5 tthese exact statements were referred to as crldcal outromes.)
Ar every stage of your plannJng and reaching. you need co keep remlndlng:yourself
that these are the things that learners shoukl be able to do well by the time they :
finish school. For these long-term goals ro be achieved, you have ro deliberately help
Iean1ers to de\'elop these skllls and these types or un<lersta11ding (at an appropriate
. . . -
level) as they -progress through eacl1 sulb]ecr ln e.ach grade.

step4
111 SCctlon 1.4. find the llme allocatlrnn for rhe subJecr/grade yo1I wlll be reaichlrng.
These 11,ne restralnt.s wtill be one of the 111ajor ra{itors llmlt111g your cholcc of teaching
strategies. You ,1•111 I1ave to develop w.ays of making tile most efficient use of ttols
mmlted reso1irce.

Step 5
Read Section2 ro get a ge11erail overvletl>' ofthe subj ectr. Tile 11 make a list of111e specific
aims and specific skills d1ar are listed. For example, In the CAPS for Mathemadcs
ror the lntennedlare Phase, o.ne of the specific.alms Is ·ro develop a c11tical awareness
of ;tio,v 1nathe1nat1cal rela-tlonshJps: are used In soclaJ, envlron111e11ral, culrura! and
step 9
Dra,1• . a 1111110 map to sho,v how· rhe lean1lng descrtbed by rile subject ourcomes
(Ste!} 6) Is developed through each of tl'le content areas (Step 8), You should see
1har. 1nost of t l1e subJec, outcomes have ro be .achieved [11 anl conren r areas. For
e:xan1ple. learning to use -correct mathematical language ls something tl1at 11111st
occur In all areas ,of the MarhernarJcs currtcutum.

Step 10
:Srudy·1he lnforn1arlon l11 Seccton 2 tharsl101vs ho1v tile development of concepts and
skllts progresses from grade to grade. In some cases thl.s wUI show how concepts or
skl!Es build on one another. In -Other cases It \I'll! sho1v ]101v depth of understandl11g
of a particular co1tcept or comperence In a pa rdcular sklll should develop from grade
10 grade. For example, ln Grade 4 Mathematics, learners should be able to peTfom1
addllilon .and. subcracrton of whore 11un1bers of at least four dlgJts. In Grade. 5. the

econon1lc relations'. In that CAPS. o:ne of flhe specllk skJUs that lea:n1ers have to
develop ls 'tile correct use of ttlle !anguage of J1Aathen1atlcs·.

step 6
Referring to the Usrsofalms and s1<111s 111.atyou madeln Step 5, re1vr1te each aim and
skills statement l.n dnls furn1: 'As a resul t of studying this subjecit, learners will be
atiJEe ro ...• For ex.ample, ·t11e learner should develop, the correcr use of che l.anguage
of Mathematics' could becon1e 'learners 1\•lll be able 10 use correct matllemarJcal
language \Vhen desc:rtblng mathematical concepts and processes·. 111.e reason for
doing this is co help you focus on ivhar you wanr learners ro be.able r.o do as a result
of their learning l. n your subject In tl1e language of -0urcomes-based education,
you are \\'r1tln g su(}Ject ourcome. s. You wlll see ln Chapter Is how· !Im port.ant thns ls
\Vile11 you co me ro a . ssess!lng dean1er&.

Step 7
Construct a flo1vcharr (or, lf necessary, severdl flowcharts) to show how the subject
outcomes you developed In Step 6 are bulldlng block s that help lean1ers achieve the
long-rem1 outcomes that yo11 l!srect In Step 3. Tills should help you to understand
ho,v the subJecr you 1',lt reach hel]}.5 leanner s uo achieve the broader c.urrlculunn
outcomes.

Step 8
Srudy the lnfonnarJon In Section 2 tJ1at gives an overview of: !11e content of t11e
curriculum. t,,l.ake
: a summary of the broad ronrent areas and the "'elghting (for
reachjng rtme and assessment) t11at 11.as been given oo each ntajor corueru area. For
exan1ple, nn Inrern1edJate Phase Matl1ernat1cs the conrent area ·Measurement' ls
given a welgl1ting of 1591, ln each grade.
conr�lexlty of this sklll Is lncreared to numbers of a t least five digits. and in Grdde
6 Ir Is 111.creas:ed to numbers or at leas[ six dlglrs. If you understand how the content
Is stn1 ctured In your CAPS. It w·ll.l help you to h!a!ve reallstlc expectations of,vhat
lea n1ers sl1ould be alble r.o do In each gr ade.
: T.hils: ,1,llJ help you ro reach and .assess
lea n1ers at an approprlar.e Ieve!.
Step 11
Refer to r:he secrlon of your CAPS t11at gives; decalleo lnfonnat:lon about the content
that ls ro be st11doed In eacll grade. This sec110111 n11g:1w have a heading such as
·cfarllk:atton o:f content'. In most of th.e CAPS, this section gJves specJtic lnfom1a-cton
about the concepts that lea!n1ers are required to understand and the skills they
should be able to demonstrate. It al so provrdes guidelines: on 11.ow much r11ne slloul ct
be spent on each to;pac and suggests learning actlvltle.s and/or teaching approad1es.
In some CAPS there are also recornnnended. rewurces. It Is tills: part of the CAPS �J,ar.
provides the most speclH.c guidance for your da[ly reachHng actlv:ldes. Ho,vever,
there Is one very 1111portanr polnt. ro understand here- you cannot reach by s imply
\vorklng your ,vay through the conirent llsred In the CAPS In a 11:near fashion: you
have to develop a teach.Ing progranune for the grade tllar wlll allow you ro deal \l'lt'.11
a[I tl1e reco111n1ended conrenr In a srrucrured w·ay thar helps lean1er:s co develop
d1e required knowledge and sklll.s. Detalled lnfonnalion 0111 ho,v to approach th[s
plan.nlng Is given 1n Chapter 4.
The National Protocol for Assessment Grades R 12
-
The Nacto11al Protoco.{farAMess1ne11c Grades R 12 - provides rhe pollcy fra111ework
ror al.I a!<pects of the manageme11t of ass:essn1ent wlrhln tile narlonal currleulum.
or addresses Issues such as the procedures thar 1nusr be followed for school-based
assess111e11t and end-o f -year exrunlnatlons, the requlre,nenrs f<Yr re.cord kee:plng
and the ntles :for lean1er promofilon and progressloru. Ir Os lmporrant for reacl1e:rs ro
read this document nn conJ1111.ctlo11 with tl1e CAl'S for t11e S1tbJects they reach.
·n1e language In th.ls; document Is .an Jnteres.tnng mtx.nire of r.h.e termtnology
typlcal.ly fou11d !n an ourcon1 . es-basoo currilcul1m1 and. ehe te1n11nology t:yplcally
round In a oontent-baseo a.trrlculum. Statemen.rs such as ·crJhe lnrent:1011 of di.ls
docum1ent Is ito regulate ho\v evJdence or learner perfom1ance Is recorded and
reporreo· (JJepamnenr of Basic Education. 201 Je:3) :focus: attenrron on whar
lean1ers can do as a :result. of their learning (an outcomes-based approach.).
iHowever, sraren1enrs SllCh as "[tJ he assessn1ernr tasks should be carefully designed
ro cover tthe conrent of the subjecr' (Depam!llent ofBasic. Educadon, 20 l 1 e: 4) place
a clear focus on content rather til1an outcome&. Depending on how r:he contenr ls
descrJbed tin a parttcul.ar CAPS. ·cov•erln!;'. ronirenr In assessm.en.r tasks ,nay or may
not e1npllcaslse \l' l1ar learners can do ,vi111 the things tl1ey !ean1.
 n1e Nar;o!lal Protocoffor Assessl/re1n Grades R-12 pl.aces grear emphasis on
:school-based assessment (SBA) and. 111 some s ubjects. on practltal assess,nen.t
·tasks-. Thls contilnues rile rrend a,vay from almosr total reliance on end-of-year
ex.amlnatlons, a trend tthat was set Jn motfon ,11Jth Curricutu,n 2005. SBA places a
he.avy res:ponslblllty on teachers, bur considerable guidance ls gJven In the CAPS
ror the respective subjecrs.
TI1e fon11al requlrernients for recordJng and reportingleamerac111eveme11ts are set
our In derail In rile Nariollal ProtocoUbr Assess,nenr Grades R-!2. and they ,1'111
not l>e repeated here. Te.ad1ers need to 1111derstand and .follow t11ese regulremenrs.
as failure ro nneer t hem can have serious con.sequen c es. For example: 'lfallure by
d1e ·teacher to maintain a Hle of a . ssess111enr tasl<s «1nsl11tt.1te .s an act of misconduct'
(Department of Basic Educat1on. 2,0 1 1 e: 1 O).
further lnfom1atlon .a'bout asses-sment
: and 110,11 to a[l)ply the guldelJne s given In
die National Protocoljbr Assess!l1.e11t Grades R-l2 .Is: provided In Chapter ! 5_

',,:• Activity: Assessmenti

Oblain a copy of ltle Nalional Protocol for Assessment Grocle-s R-12. Haw have
assessment policies changed since you were al school?

REVISITING OUTCOMES-BASED EDUCATION

The attem[l)t at lntroduclHg an outcomes-baseo educarlon sysrem In south Afrlcan
schools comn1enc:e,ct In I 998 \Vhen the cunlculum kninvn as Curricullt1n 2005
1vas: announced. sourh Africa was not cl1e firsr country to rake this approach to
si:hool educallon. The !<leas 1:iehlnct our,;:ontes-based educarJon originated In the
USA, and outron1es-baseo edl!lcatlon systems \Vere operating In other col!lntrtes:.
such as. A.usrralla, long l:iefore these Cdeas were Hnrroctuced to soud1 Afrilca. This
gave soutl1 African pollcy makers and educarors an opponrun tty ro ctevelo;p an
educat:lon .system that used welll-establlshed principles and that adapted ,those [de.as
ro sutr rhe spec.la] needs or sourh Africa. The so-c.anlect rrans.fonnatlonal a pproach to
outcomes-oased education that was meant to be emi.Jedded In Curricul111u 2(){)5 was
seen as a vehlc:le to support t11e \Vlder moves to transform .South Afrlcan society.
For many polldcal., ;s{)(lal and hlstorlcal reasons, this an1bldous attempt co refomn
the eoucal'.lon system inet. with a I.or of confusion and opposition. ve,y soon afu1r Its
lntroducdon, most .aspects of Curr/cu/urn 2005 and Its lmplementadon ,vere being
referre,ct to s11nply as OBE. Using OBE as a general label for everyrhlng llapf)en.lng
In schools masked the fact that much or the tnforinatilon avanlable to teachers abour
hO\V t11ey should ll>e ln1plen1entln.g C11rricu!u1n 2005 was lnconslstent ,vltth tile
b.aslc prJnctples of o utcomes-based ooucatlon_ Q;ulre quickly, the challenges teachers
faced In irrytng to adapt to the ne\V curr1culun1 led f(I l'rusrradon and conffnslo n.
 \.Ylthout a tl1orough understanding of ithe p:rl.ncHples on which C11rricuht111 2005
vras based, many reachecrs resorted to roken arre,nprs ro change. For ,exan1ple. one
Grade 2 reacher told me; 'vVe do OBE ln this school, out "'e only do It on Fridays.·
In 11 er mind, ·oolng OBE' meant hav1ng the lean1ers In her class 111orl< l n groups.
She had no concept of ,.,,hether or not d1.ts was allo,ving her r.o apply any or the
basic principles of ourcomes-bas-ed educarrJon. To avoid such confusion ln this rexr.
I use tl1e abbreviation OBE. to refer to the attempts t:o Introduce Curricullilll 200S,
and I us:e the fu!Il win ourcomes-based educafilon ro r:efer co rile broad.er prt1tclples
of this approach to educacton.
\AJhen Curr.icuflllll 2005 ,vas not an ln1mectlate success, OffE became tile
convenient S>Citpegoar. As d.lscussed earller In thts chapter, the polldra response
tto these ctlfficultles resulted In revle\vs In 2000 anct 2009. A rn1aJor result of these
reviews has '.been a change in rl1e la11guage used to d.eocrtbe rhe elements or the
natlonal cuniculu1n. The overall curr!Ciulum Is: no !onger referred ro as OBE, or
acknowledged as belng based on any of tthe 1Prlm::lp"les of ouocoo1es-baserl educat1011.
Consequently, m uch of the r.ermlnology used ro describe rts elen1e:11ts has been
changed. HoM•ever, some of rhe key principles upon ,vh!lch C1urlcu/u1n 2005 was
based have JJ.oon rera111ed (for example, the statements previously knol',n as . crttlra
outcomes have been retained as part of r.he general alms of che south Aflican
cumculu1n). 1111s section explains wily Ir ls. lmponanr ro !ook !beyond some o.f the
superficial chaJ1_g,es and to !Understand wlruy and ho11• outcomes-based education ls
st:!IJ relevant 1n S<111th Africa.
.Many of tine dJfficuBrtes that led to the perceived fallure of curriculum 2005
remain. Most teachers .are still faced ,11rn11 -rhe iehallenge of trying ro J1nplen1ent tile
cuurilculu1n In overcriAvded and under-rewurced. schools. These are not prob !ems
char can be solved by sJmp·ty changlng the l anguage In d1e curriculum docun1enrs_ All
teachers are still faced ,11th the challenge of lnterpretlng the c urrl.:uiu.nn documents
and nylng oo rranslatte them lnto effective ma.:hlng praotlces. To face that chal!enge,
teachers need a clear understanding of whatt lea:n1ers are required to learn, ,vhy this
le.an1lng Is Importanr anct how tills lean1lng can be facllltat,ed.
,Gaining, ch&t understanding ls the Individual responslblllry of every reacher. at ls
n<it .an eas.y process, but, Jf appr<iached sysremattcally, if can be athleve.d. A useful
s[artlng point Is -ro understand the plinctples of ourcomes-l>ased education anct to
think abour. h()\V they can be urect 10 gu!oe curriculum 11nplemei11at1011. This ,1•lll
Involve conslclerlng three quest1011s:
I. What ls the theory beh1J1d outco111e:.5,-based education?
2. How· has rhos theory been used to develop a structure for th:e south Aflican
e.ducatlon systen1?
3. Ho\1' :11.as tllls ·theoiy influenced rhe National curricuflun suue!l1e11t Grades
R-12. and what tin1pllcaclons does tthls h.a�'e for what and ho"' you reach?
\Ve can thJnk of outcomes-based education as a d1eory (or pl1llosophy) of education
In tile s:ense that Ir Incorporates a cerraln set of beliefs and assumptions about
leam!ng, teaching, assessmenli: and the fra1neworks \l'lthln which these actilvltles
r.-tKe place. The 1nosr cterailecl arttculallo:n of the theol}' undernJlnnlng ourromes­
based educarJon Is given In Spady ( 1994. I 998), \.Vlllla1n Spady ts not rile on·ly
person to have made a slgnlfilcanr contribution to• the theoretical foundations of
out.comes-based edaKatlon. but many regard him a,s tl1e ,vorld authority on d1ls
approach ro education. It Is clear rhat ltls Ideas had conslderable lnffiuence on tile
approach [O outcomes-based education rhat was taken In South Africa whein the
J<J97 curriculum refom1s were de\le!oped and some of t ills Influence remains. If
you uncter1>tand Spady's approach to outcomes-based edillrarlon, Ir wtrn help you ro
Interpret and use th.e CAPS.
Spady ( 1994: 18} defined outcomes as 'hlgh-qual.iry, culmlnat1.ng: demonsrrallons
of slgnlficant learning In context'. nits deli!nltlon contains sevef"dl veey 1n1pon:a11t
lc!eas. The maJn Idea Is that outcomes are d!en1011strations of l.eamlng-they are
111I11gs t:har lea111ers can d-0 as a resultt of tlle:Ir learnlrng. Olllrcomes are ·nor tile
score. label, grade or percentage (har someone arrac hes ro rhe demonsrratton, b:ut
the s\1t>stanoe and act1ons ◊f file demonstrarton lt�ir (Spady, 199'S:25), Tllar
Is ,vhy Spady Insls.ts t11ar outcomes need fo conraI11 an 'attlon verJJ· ro Indlcate
wI1ar Ir I& tthar leante:rs sh<!ttld ibe able to demonstrar�. By referring r�1 outcomes as
'atlmlnarlng· demonsrrarlons. Spady was emphaslsl11g rhat the demonscratlons of
lean1[ng would take !Place a�ter a :substant!al amount of lea mlrug.
The second lnl(X)ltant Jdea In Spady-s delinltJ()n ls tllar outcomes: desclibe
slgnJficanr lean1ting. nar trivial !ean1iI1g. for Spady, leamlng us nor slgnnlicant
unless tl1e outcomes reflect rlle complexities of rea□ llfe and g:tve pro,nlnence to
dle llfe roles ithat lean1er:s wtrn face alter tl1ey have fi1llshed their fom1al education,
Slgnlfficanc outcomes· marrer ln the furure· (Spady, I '998:25).
The third ln1portant ldea In Spady's definition Is d1at learners should I.le required
to deInonsrrare their achievements In aoorourtare contexts. As far as Is orac tlcable.
rhes,e slrnatlllns should be (or at least should simul ate) the real-world settings In
which lean1ers ,11J11 be expected ro .apply their knowledge and s:lcllls after they have
finlsl1ed school. As we ,v.111 see In Chapter 15, rhls view has slgnJl:icanr lmplicadons
for r.he ways In which learners are assessed.
finally. Spady Insisted d1ac atl leamers should be expecr.erl to demonstrate hlg.ll­
quality Ileamlng, that Is. deep und.ersrandlng and hlgh levels or co111pete□ce. This
Is perl1aps the least understood (or most f�equenttly Ignored) component of Spady·s
de6nlt1on of outcome,;, 'f\i'hen this point .Is understood. It Is dear d1at crltlcJsms of
ourcomes-b.ased education as 'dillmblng down· ectucatton s!rnply :lla\le no ibasls.
You should be able to see thar. tthe seven :srare111ents you ,vere as"ed t,o review
111 Step 3 an page 9 (Putting ,01PS infi' practice) are .exatrly the types of fong­
renn outcomes tl1at Spady ,vas sugges'ling should be t11e focus of schooling. so.
atthough the currfculum docun1ents no longer refer ro these as cridcal outcomes.
that Is exactly ,1•ttar they are - things char are crlttcal for learners robe able to do
IJy f11e rtnie rJ1ey finish schoo:r.
for Spady, the ulili.mare rest of school lean1lng success was ho,v well the
students· learl]lng precparej them for their lives beyond school. Therefore, h.e
defined outcornes-bas:ed ed1Jcatlon rhls way:

Outcome-Based Education means dearly focusing and organizing everyrhIng

Ln .an educational system around w11at ls essentlal for all seudenxs eo be
able ro do successfully at rne end of their learning e:xperlences. This means
starting 111IrI1 :a clear picture of wl1at
: Is I111porrant for srudenrs to l>e able to do,
rlten organl,lng the aurrtculum. lnscruct!on. and assess menc to make sure
this learning �llr1mately :iappens. (Spady, 1994, t}

As Spady and Scltlebusch (1999,39) put Ir, ·cumculun devenopers who have a
dear focus on the furure [1elleve rha[ wllac studenrs le,m1 roctay s:hould directly
eq\1lp them to deal w.lrlt the 111a11y ,hallenges and opp..�m.ml ties they are likely t•l'
face !n ron1orrow·s co111plex world". 1fl1e National C1rrricufu111 Staterue11t Grades
R-f2 ,en1bodles th[s Important prlnolple of out,eoines--breed e<luc.atlon. It pla<::es a
clear focus on tlle future n�ds ofleanier:s wl1en ltsraresd1ar the curriculum serves
the purposes of (Department-Of Basl. e Education, 201 1(:4):
a equipping learners. Jrrespectlve of their socio-economic background. race.
gender, physical ab0Jt:y or lntellecrual ablllty, with the knowlooge, skl]fs an-0
values necessary for self-fulfilmenr. and n1eanlngful parirlctpacton ln society
as cltt7.ens of a f:ree counl.1')1;
.a providing access to higher education:
• facWtatilng the trallsitlon of lean1er:s from oou;;atlon Institution& to the
wor1<.pIace: ancl
• provldl11g employer, ,vlth a s1111iclenr proBle of a lean1er's co111petences:.

In addition ro the Idea that outcomes should describe long:-rern1 significant learning.
Spady developoo. his app::oad1 to outcon1es-based ooucat:!ot1 front eh'ree bas:lc
premises (Spady, 1 994}:
1 . All smdenrs can lean1 and succeed, bur not all in tl:e same a:mounr: of rln1e or
In d1e same w.ay.
2. Successful (earning promotes eve:n n1ore successful !earning.
3. schools (and teachers) c-011.rrol many c,f tlle conditions that deren11:Ine ,v11erher
or nor scuden� are s11ccessfutl ar school lean1I11g.

Spady dalmed rllar clllldre.1 ,vould have a greater cllan:e of succeeding ar school
(that rs. learning useful thl:igs: and !earning diem \vell] If:
A schools were organtsoo around lean1Ing, rather rllan being organised for
admlnlsrraltlve convenience:
.a reachers rook more responstbillt)' for srudent !earning:
.a reachers retected the Idea thar Ir was natural for some studenrs not ro succeed
ar sdlool;
• ability was Judged In -rem1s of how quickly srudents could learn, nor In renus of
rhelr roral capadty to learn:
• 11rne at school was used as a flex.Ible resource; and
.a school !eamlng was lln.ked ctnrect1y ro the knowledge, skllls and dlsposlllons
rhatt learners would need In rllelr life after school.

It !shard to argue loglcalny against these .Ideas. Por ex.ample., every teacher knows
d1ar nor aJI learners can learn ithe same rhlng In the s:ame way and 111 the same
.amount of t1me (.a pr11iclple l1tc-0rporated Into ehe promotion and progress.ton
requirements In rhe 1Vational Protocol.for Assessment Grades R-12). However.
n.or all eeachers: agree that the learners who need lo11ger ro lea1n, or the ""es who
need ro Iea111 In ,different ways, should continue to be given learning opporrunlrles
.and assistance unrJI they have succeeded. Nt1r are all feachers prepared oo accept
Illar they (and the school and education sysrems wtr.llln whJch they work) are
ultimately responsible for detennlnlng wiletEler or not. learners learn. It Is much
,eas[er to blame t11e learners for nor being erurhuslasl1c enough, or to blame tile
system for -nor proV!dlng enough ttme .and rewurces, or simply to say that narure
did not Intend everyo11e to have the same ablrnty to learn.
from Spady's perspective, these 'ex.cuses' should IJ.e reiIJlaoed with 11! commitment
ro help .all lean1ers achieve ro the llmlrs of their ablJlty. This sentiment Us echoed by
Samoff (2008-.xv) when he comments on. South. African educal.1on In the follow:lng
way: ·.explanarJons for failure musr focus .as much or more on systemic cteflclendes
as on Individuals' lnteUlgence. or attentiveness, or hard work'.
Spady did Jll)f deny the lmportant 1nffiuence of factors such as learners' Inherent
albmttes or tthelr mot!va!lon ro learn - but he was very crU'lcaa of the approach to
schooling that assumed rJiat what a learner knew on rome particular day should
unquestionably be ra"en as an !ndlcal1on of whar that learn.er was capal>le of
lean1Ung Un the fumre.

y Activity: What Influences !earning?

1. Make a list of all ihe things thotyou think inffuence what and how well
in,d'illiduol learners rn ighl learn on a particular day al school.
2. Agoinsl e-ach item on your list, wrife o brief note lo indicale how you could
fake ad110n�age of the things lhal help learners or how you could minimise
Uhe things 1hat hinder learning.

IF:rom tile rhree premise& omllned above, Spady developed hls four essential
p-rindples of omcomes-l>ased educadon, namely:
1. clar1ty of focus 011 our.comes of significance;
2. designing down from 1ong-rerm omwmes:
3. hlgh expectations for all !ean1ers; anct
4. expanded leamlng o;ppo,nm!tles.
It Is importarut to understand these principles In order to under.stand how rrhe
,vacional Curricu/J.11n Starenu:,u Grades R 12 - cam be Implemented In ways tl1at
,vm ach !eve me goal of equlpplng leamecs wtrh 'the kn.owledge, skills and values
neces:sazy for sel f ffullil111ent.
- and meanlngful parrldl(latlon In society' (!Department
of !Baste Education, 2011d:4).
111e firstt principle, cfaraty of focus. requires education systtems ·robe org,anlsect
so that teacher.s and learners can focus dearly, conslsterntly. systematically and
crearlve.ly 011 the slgntftcant ouoco1.ne.s that learners are ullilniarely rro be able co
de1nonstrate su,;;cessfully. In other �vo:rds, th:e way In \\'hlch the e<lucadoi1 systen1
and s:chools are o:rganlsed sh.ould make It easy for ieacliers to help learners learn
things that are really Important.
In S4:l1ool systen1s ch<tt use a centr:allsect wnicu1u111 devetopmeint process - sucl1
as the ourrent system In South Afrtca - the first step In achieving darlty of focus ls
for the currlallum developers to define line significant outcomes that lea111ers are
required to achieve. In Spady's tennlnology, the 6nal outc:omes that students achieve
are called cul1nlnat:1ng outcomes. Tu ad1leve consistent c.lartry of focus, teachers muse
use d1ese long-ten11 outcon1es as tl1e focus for all their te.achlng. They must also foa1s
al.I student assessment on rhese cl.early defined lmporrant ourcoines.
In south Afrtca, the.National Cunicu/utn State11u1,u Graa,:s R !2 - does n(.)t use
Spady's cern1J11orogy, but It does contain a set of staremenrs l'.liar provide a clear
focuslln long-tenn outcomes, Thes;e are the same statements: that,vere referred toas
·crttlcal 011rcomes· In rJ1e 1997, 2000 and 2009 versions ofr. h e National currta1lum
srare111ei1r. The st.aten1e11tts- .are part of rile general a11ns In ehe lntto<lucttton of tthe
CAPS for eadl subJecr:

The Atationar Curricu/11111 siate1ne11t Grades R-r2 alms ro produce lean1ers

that are alble tCb,
a Identify and solve proble,ns and make decisions usJing crttlcal and
creative thinking;
• ,vork effectively as Individuals and ,111d1 others as members of a ream;
• organise and manage rJ1e111selves aJ1d their activities responsllbly and.
elfeclilvely:
.A. collect. analyse. oJganLse artd crttlcally evaluate Information;
..._ communicate effecrJvely using visual, sy111bollc and/or language skills 1n
various modes;
.._ use science and technology effective!y andcrlttcallysllO\\'lngresponslMUry
ttowards rlle envlronn1ent and tile health of oth.ers; and
 .._ deinonsrrate an understanding of the world as a set of related sysrems by
recog.nlslng r.hat problem solving conrexrs do not exist In Isolation
(Depamnent of Basic Ed.ucarton, 201· I d:4).

Tile second principle or outcomes-based education Is often referred to as de.signing

dowru or designing back:. and 1t Is closeJy I.inked to the first principle. ½11en d1Js
prlnc.lpfe ls folto,ved, the 1ong-rem1 significant outcomes beco111e the sttaltlng pcilnt
for aOI as-pecirs of currtcu1un1 design. All I ns-m1ct1onal decl.stons are ma.de by tracing
bacl< fr<1n1 thti� desired end result and Identifying the bu1Jdl11g blocks (refe1Ted ro
by Spady as ·enabling out(ornes·J that 11rll] progressively rake learners closer to
tills end result [11 this 1vay, the our«i111es define rile curTiculum, nor the other way
around. 1111s does not mean that curriculum d.eslgn Is a s.tmple Htnear process. !bur
It does mean that there sl1ould IX1 a dJrect Ulnk behveen all plannlng. teaching and
assessment de:lslons and tile stgnllicanr o urcomes rhat srudenr:s are ultl1narely to
achieve.
In South Afdca, the principle of desl gn:mg dow·n has bee.ru incorpcrdted
: Into the
CAPS for eac:h ;ubjecr ln the follCI\Vlng \Vay:
• The general alms of the South African currlculun1 are stated In eacl1 CA.PS ro
_give an overall focus for school ooucatton. He.re you !ind sraternents such as,
'The curriculum alms ro ensure rhat children acgulre and apply k.1owredge and
skHtls In ways thar are nneanlngful ro tl1eir o,vn lives· (Depa.-nnent of Basic
Ed:ucallon.2011 d:4).
Ji. w · ithineach subJe ctt there are llroad alms, such as: 'The reaching o: J\.latthemattcs
aln1s ro develop a crtctcaJ awareness of h.ow ma:thema:ctca! rela11onshlps are
used In sod!al, environmental. culn1r;-dl and economic relations· (Departmen[ of
Basic Educadon. 201 Jd:8).
• Wltl1ln each .subj�t. learners are requl red to develop specific skllls. for exan1ple:
·ct1e learner should develop d1e correct use of the language of Ma:tl1en1adcs·
(0F.[lillTl11f'.nt of Raslc. F.rlrnr.arlon. ?.O I Hi: /l.) .
.ll Tl1e CAFS then provides S[lleclfic guidance on tile conrenr !'.hat Is ro be sn1dJect
by lean1e11:. In some cases. rhe CAPS also Includes examples cf ho\v learner
u11de1Standlng should !be .cte,nonsrrarect, for example, 'Recog.11ze and use
rhe commuradve. associative and dt,rrJbutlve properties of wl:.ole 1 1un1bers'
(Deparnuenr of Basic Educat:lon, 201i d,15)-

You should be able to see how these steps pr<1gress frorn very broad t� very spec1fic
descriptions of!eaJnlng. LookJng ar Hr In re'le�. each of n:he speclffic Itents of conrenr
,described In the CAPS· are building blocks that help lean1ers develop s11bJecr-spectfic
skUUs and knowledge, and tills helps rhem ro achJeve d1e sulJJocr ams, which nn
n.1n1 helps d1em to achieve the general alms of the Soud1 African curriculum. It
should be o bvlous that wlrhoun: .a designi ng down appro.acll, rile seleci11on of sutilfect
content would Ukely be haphazard and therefore u11llkely ro resutr nn learners
achieving the d.eslred overanl alms of th.e curriculum.
'fhe third principle of 011tcomes-1>ased educal1on Is thatt teachers should have
bigl1 expectations for all learners. 111at rn.eans teachers sh.ould ex.pectt aU learners
to achieve significant Olltoome:; to high. standards, Thls Is probably the most
overlooked principle of outcomes-based education, particularly by critics who claim
!11at It lowers srand:ards (a frequent crtl1clsm of SOurh Airtca's eairller ,curriculum
reforn1s). 'When t:hls pli.ncJple ts applied, deptll of 1111dersrandtlng and lntellecvu.al
rlgo11r are ,wt. rese:rved for a few learners: tl1ey are ex.peered of all learners.
consequently, reathers cannot rely on 110011-reJerenced assessment to gtve them
die false sense of securlry that oomes from knowing that some learners .are leamlng
well: rt1ey need r.o use crlterton- or sramlairds-referenced assessment ro prov1de
dear evidence of how well each learner Is leamln_g,
There Is ample evidence (see, for example, Department of Education a . nd ll'alnlng,
2003b) rhat teachers must est.ibllsh hlgh, challenging standards of perfom1ance In
order to encourage learners to engage deeply with the Issues albo:ur whtch. they
are '.leil!mlng. \Vlthout d1ls challenge, le arners are Ukely to rake a surface approach
ro teaming and IJ;e concemed wltJ1 llttile more: than memorising Infonnal'.lon thar
d1ey think d1ey might have to reproduce In an examlnarlon. Helping !earners ro
achieve htg:h standards ls. linked veiy dos:ely with die .Idea rJ1ar successful leamlng
faclllcates more successful learning. When s.lllldenrs experience suoces5, It reinforces
t11elr learning, buUds rllelr confidence and encourages t:he:m ro accept fumier
leamlrng diallenges.
nie National Curriculum Statement .cralies R-12 refle<:rs t11ese Ideas In Its
generdl alms through stating certain prlnctples. namely:
,,. Social transfonnatton, ensuring that d1e ectucattonal Imbalances of the
past are redressed. and thar equal educational opporrumlitles are provided
for all secrtons of tile: populat1on;
A Active and critical learning: encouraglng an actilve and critical approach
to learning, rather than rote and uncrlttca·1 lean11ng -0f g1ven tn1rlls;
• High knowledge and high skrnls: ithe mlnlnmm standards of knowledge
ar1d skil!s to be achieved at eacl1 grade are specifted. and set high,
achievable standards In all subjects;
A. Progression, conrenr and context -0f each grade shows progression from
simple ro complex:
.t. Human rlglltts., lncl�t:Slvl�. ai1d envtromnettral and :S!Xla] 111s!lce: Infusing
the prtnctples and practices of social and envlronmenral Just1ce and
hnman rights as defined In the const1m11011 of tile Republic of soutth
Afr1'ca. The NaJio11al Curriculum St:are1ne11t Grades l/-12 Is sensitive ro
Issues of dlver.slty such .as po1•enty, Inequality, race, gender. language,
age, dlsablllry and other factors;

..i. Valuing Indigenous knowledge systems, acknowledging the rtch history

and hertrage of rhts countiy as lmponanr c ono-Jbutors ro nunurlng rlle
values contained ln the Constlrutlon: and
"'- CredlbLilty, guallry and efficiency, providing an educarlon that Ls
com.parable tin quality, breadth and depth ro those of other counrrtes
(Deparrm ent of Basic E:ducadon, 20 t ld:4-.5).
There Is a very lmp<1rrant me.ssage lit these statements: all learners, lncludJng the
hlstortcally disadvantaged, can and slmuld be expected to acJ1leve high srandards
of learning at S<:hool. However, It ts nott sufficient ro simply have high expectations
- tteacher.; must rake dellbernte action to help aHI learners to achieve to t11e best of
tl1elr ability a1.1d to progress to the higher grndes. 1-llistorlcally_ llnls approach has not
been raken In :south Africa, sometll.lng rJ1at was commented on In the following
way by Sam.off (2008:xv):

There should be as many stllldents at basic ooucatlon·s top level as .at Its
borrom. Retaining the pyr<imld Image (of decreasing numbers offearnecs ln
e.ach grade] refflects the persisting deep assumption tthat schooll.n_g Is about
sifting amt sontng and thatt rhere should be fewer snictents at rJte mp than at
the bottom. A m.ass education s.ystem. however. where many sntdents start
bur many fewer reach rile roµ ls seruous:ly Hawed.
The fomth. prtn-clple of outcomes-based e<lt1<:at1on Is that r,e;achers muse strive tl)
provide expanded learning-opportunities for all.1.eamers In recognltlon of the face
char not all learners can leam the same d1l11:g:, In the s.ame way or ln rhe same dme
(Spady, 1 994). The Idea belllnd this principle Is rhar mosr lean1ers: can achieve hl,gJt
sr.andards lf they are given appropriate learnln_g opporrunlitles. Spady emphasises that
w l1ar reamy matters Is rhar learners: understand tile d1lngs diar are lmporra.nr., nor that
they learn them In a particular way or by some amlrraiy point In dme. Therefore, he
urges teachers to 'do eveiythHng possilt>fo to keep opportunitie.s for contJm1ed learning
and Improvement open ro :srudencs· (Spady, 200 1 :4). To achieve rllls. teachers:
must be flexlble 1111 rhe way rhey present lnformadon. re, !earners, give them diverse
opponunmes ro team, and. be fl extoie :In t:hel.r approaches ro as�sment
Ir Is otwlollls rhar rradldonal w,ays of organising school do nor make Ir easy for
teachers to provide expanded learning oppornmlttes and suppl1rt for all learners.
There are tilme constraJnrs. overcrowded classrooms and llmlred resources. Teachers:
must be aware ofuhese constraints and, as rar as Is practi'lcal, provide the necessary
lean11ng oppomm.ldes: for all learners. This Idea Ls Incorporated lnEo the National
ProtocolforAsse5s1ne11c Grades R-12.
There Is no single correct way ro rranslate the prtnclples. of outcomes-based.
educarJon Into a curr1cul um framework. In fact, It ls a very challenging cask ro do
so, particularly In a large educadon system such as rile school. system In sourJt
Africa. Ilf you stl!ldy rite way outcomes-based education ltas been used ln other
counotes, you wlll find that all tine currlcul.um frameworks ar.e different - there Is:
no single way ro 'ge, Ir 1ight'. Because of rhls. Ir was Inevitable rlurc South Afrlca·s
move to an outcomes-based educattorn system would oe a dlflicu:tr Jo11mey.
One of tl1e ch.aJlenges1n Introducing a new cur.rtCulum
i
framework In South Africa
was tharlt repUacect a very different and well-entrenched framework. No matter how
deficlentt the old sys:rern might have been. c hanging Ir was: l:nevlralbly going tocau�
concern for many teachers and admtnts1rarors. Some people were afraid of change,
some wanted to hold on ro wl1ar tltey saw as good feantres of rhe old s.ystem . .some
were n.oe prepared ro take the time to undersranct the new system, and many felt
that they were norgtven adequate oppom1nJttes Eo le.am how ro lmplemenr the new
system. The fact that the govemment was clearly using changes to the education
sy stem as a means of mal<lng fundamental chianges ro sout11 African society made
d1e ttas:k even more difficult than Ir mHghr have !been under dlfferenr circumstances.
 'Ir was lnevutable that the lnltlal. arrempr at establlshlng: a ne,v currlculum
framework ·would not be totally successfiul and that modi ficatlons and refinements
would nee.d ro be n1ade. Toe cunenr National Curricullllll StateIne11t c;rades R-12
should be seen as a step In the evolution of tlie South! African curr1culum, Future
changes are !nevi rable. However, each step In rhls evoluttlon should not be s.een
as a total ref,ectk111 of the previous curriculum Iteration, Most llnporuanily, when
rundamenral principles are retained (such as rhe purposes of education e111bedded
In die statements rhar ,vere previously called crtcical our.conies) they should be
openly ackno\vledged.
TJ1e brief revlew of ourconnes-based educaci.on In rhls s:eclrton cl early shows
d1ar ttlne 1Vatio11af Curricullun Statenzent Grades R-12 presents a view of school
education that ls comparJble wltl1 the oas!c principles of ouuco111es-based education.
In mar. tr:
• suppon:s the Idea that teachers should focus on whar sn,ctenrs are ro
learn !n both the silo rt and long term;
• emphasises char ,co,nplex leamlng outcomes are r.he resulr of .i gra<lual
and l1lerarchlcal buUdlng of Knowledge and sl<Hlls;
• reinforces the Idea that all learners should be expected ro achBeve high
sra11dards; and
• acknov,redges thar learners d.o nor all rean1 at rhe sarne rate and thar
some learners rherefor,e require muOr.lple learning oppo111.1nlrtes.

ilt ts logical, t11en, for teachers ro use the p11nclples: of ourcomes-based ectucarlon ro
gulde rh.eJr plan nlng and r,eachlng_ aclilvltles .as they pur -rhe currtculum lnro pr.dctlce.
G-nldance 011 how eo dCI that ts provided 111 the rem al 1tlng ch.a[Pters.
CONCLUSION
All decisions about p]annlng, teaching and assessment should be guided by four
simple questions,
I , \A/hat do \l'e want leam.e rs to learn?
2. \Vl1y do \\'e wantt learners to le.a:n1 these thlngs?
3. How can we be.5r hetp learners ro learn d1ese things?
4. Ho,1• ,viii we know ,vhen learners have learnt what ,ve want then1 to learn?

'flte firsr t\l'Oquest1ons are funda111enral to CllltTlculum ,design a11d central ro mostt
,debates about education. onoe the :broad a11s,11ers to rhese quesl1ons have been
lncorporat,ed Into the cun1.::u[u111 frarne,vork, reachers have rile task <ilf an.s,1•ertng
them 111ore specifically l.ly lnterprerlng t11e guidelines (:such as the CAPS) and by
using their ov11n detailed knowledge of the subjects they teach.. The -teaching and
lean1.lng sttr.aregtes des cribed In chaprers 6 ro 14 ofr.hts book wrn help you ro answer
the 1hhd question, The fourth q11estlon ls at the Ile.art or the assessn1ent of student
lear111ng and Is addressed tiJr1eHy 111 Chapter 1 :5.
REVIEW AND REFLECT ON YOUR LEARNliNG
Develop answers ro each of ll1es:e quesetons. Dlscl!lss y¢ur ans,vers wlrh another
reacher educalrton student or .. withan ex:perlenced reacher:
I, \.Yhen you read tl1e CAPS document ror a subject. you will teach, whtl1 parts
do you find :mosr dlfficult �o umderstand? Why?
2, \¥l1y Is Ii' Important to u:;e tl1e general al.ms of the South African C\l rrtculu1n as
a broad fra1nework for your reach.Ing?
3. Develop a lb:rlef e:xpianatlon (no more than r.1•0 pages) that you could use to
Inform parents abour, the basic prtnclples of outco1nes-based education. Ilefer
to th.e ways ln which these principles are embedded In d1e CAPS.
4. HO\I' ctoes rhe Natio11a./ Cunicu/1111r Sta.te1ne11t' Grades R-12 prvvlde cla11ty of
foaus for school educatlon In soud1 Afrtca?
5. V/har evidence can you find thatt die principle of designing down was used In
the developm.ent of rhe CAPS for a ;sulbjectyou wlll teach?
6. Hi1\v wm you know wherher you have set appropriately htgh ex.pe(tarlons for
lean1ers' acI1Ievemen1S?
7. Make a lisr of Ave ltnpormnr tlbtngs ehar you think lean1ers should achieve
by the ctme they ffintsh ,heir con1pulsory schooll11g. V/rlre eac.h srarement In
the foll owing fonn; '\.Vhen learner s finlsh school they should be able to ,,, •
com!(lare your 11st wl th the llsrs developed by r.vo omer people srudylrug mis
course. \¥har things dld you agree on? Why do you r l1lnk the lists are dllfere:rur?
8. \A/llar are the benefit-s of having a school cuurJculum rhar Is designed speetficatly
ro prepare lean1ers ror tl1elr Ure after school? Wha( are some of rhe reasons
why sucl1 an approach ,o rnrrlculu1n deslgrn . mlgl1t cause concen1 for so me
1>3rents?
9. \IVh : en you are learnlng w1nerhlng ne,11, do you ah1•ays grasp It .a.f\:er Jusr one
lean1Jng opportun ity, or are t11ere times when you need a second chance? AS a
teacher, hoiv wit! you provide these addlt1onal opporrunlctes. for your lean1ers?
I.Vl1ar .advice would you gtve a teacher \l'ho said rhat 11e/she diet not have rune
to provide smdenrs 1vIrh expanded leamlrng oppommltles.?
! 0. Think back t.o your 0\1'11. experiences as a learner (at school or university).
a. Dld you always learn .as quickly as otther learners?
v. Vid you always like to learn ln tJ1e same ,vay .as other learners?
c. \"1lnern you were successful 111 your leamHng, 1vhar difference dHd this make
to your lnterestln the.subject and to your wUUngness. to t.ry to lean1 m.ore?
d. \Vhlch teachers encouraged you to learn r:he n1osr, and how did they do Iii.?
IA/liar. <lo these things tell you about ho"' you should teach?

l!JSEFUL WEBSITES
SUpport1rng docun1enrs for the Natio11al culliculum Staretnenr Grades R-12 are
avaliable from hrrp,1tw,1n.'ll.,educarJon.gov_za/
Foundations for effective
teachin,g and lea1rning

The Natii:,na/ Cunicutum Stateme11t Grades R !- 2 and the currtculum and

Assessme,u Pofic;y Stare1ne11rs (CAPS) dnscussed In chapter 1 pro,11de tlte general
frameworlc for reachlng .In South Afrtcan schools. Th:ese documents will l1elp
teachers co decide whar to reach and how to asses:s stllldent learnl.ng. However, they
provide -0I1.ly l>road Indications of hllW teachers should mal<e decrsI011s about their
reaching practices. This chapter brle�y -our[lnes ,he major factors rhar need co be
considered In tl1ese dec.lslon-makJng processes so that you can select: tthe reach.Ing
srrategles that wJll be most appropriate. n,e cl1aptter begins wnth a dJsciU.sslon of
wliat It m�ns to be an elfective reacher.
\.Vhen you have mastered the ideas In this chapter you wlll be alble to:
.., explain how conttemporary views of effective tea(l:llng have d.eveloped;
• explain rhe chardcrertstlcs of quallry lean1I11g tn your specialist reachln_g area;
.._ use the prtIKlples of constmctlvtsm as a framework for reB.ectlng on what and
how you reach: and
.., use ehe concept-of re.aching-for-understanding to guide your reaching cteclslons.

THE !EVOLVING CONCEPT OF 'GOOD'TEACHING

ADI t,f us have at some point at school or university experienced teachers wl10 have
made Ir easy for us ro learn and teachers who have not helped us very much at
au. \.Yhy does this happ,e11? \.Yhar mak.es rite dtifference 1>e1weet1 a gOO<I teacl1er
who makes 1.earntng easy and a poor reacher who does nor? How and why do
. . - . -
parrloular approacltes r.o reachJng help or hinder learning? The an!:wers to these
questions depend very much on • how we oelleve the mind works· (ZulL, 2 o 02., 7).
�\1e can eiqilore some answers to these quesdons by srndying rerearch re·porred In
the Ulterantre om effective teaching and learning and llnl<lng tills to more recent
research 011 cogn.lt1ve neuroscience.

A brief lh istorical background

You can explore how ideas about good re aching have changed over the years by
rea.dJng major reviews such as those In Dunkin and Biddle ( I 974), Peterson and
\.'Jal!berg ( i 97<)). Wittrock <1986), Dunkin (1 987). Ma.17.ano (2003), Good and
Brophy (2007) and H!attle (2009). TI1ese reviews contain many suggestions about
how teaci1ers can help learners develop knowledge or sk:Jlls, but �hey all c onc:lude
rhar n<> single reaching strategy is eff�tive :till the time for au fea.rners.
The main reaoon Is rhatt reaching aItd leainlng: are very complex processes rhat are
Influenced by many different f.acrors, only some of which are under rhe teaclter·s
control and none of which are:fully und.erstood. Nevertheless, the researcll cJted in
t111s book Indicates that enough Is: known about reaching .and learning to develop a
well-founded ser of principles on which co base sysremactc approaches ro effective
�ead1tng.
 Research on reaclllng Is .a relatively new li.eld of:lnqulry. Im the early t 900s:, the
1100011 of 'good teaching· was Inseparable from rlle notlon of the ·goodness· of the
reacher. It was simply assumed that a person who was llonesr, f111endUy, dedJcatect
and single (In t11e case of women) could be a good teacher, provided she/h.e could
run an autllorlltarlan. disciplined. and well-organised dass : room.
Guided by the work of a small rnumber of lnslghtful writers (such as Dewey)
conceptions of effective teaching gradutally changed. The experiment.a:[ work of
psychologists suich as. Sknnner and Pavlov encouraged edm:attonal research.ers ro
start vlsltJng dassrooms and developing obrervatfo n Unstn1ments to record teacl1e r
bel1avlours (parrlcutarly rhe Imeractlons between teachers and learners). This
research was driven by a bellef that If the reacher behaviours that led to student
leamnng co:uld t>e 1denttfied, r lien t11ey could be taughr ro ocher teachers (and
teacher educaclon students).
By t11e 1960s, conceptions of e lfectlve reaching were !>a.sect very strongly
on what teachers did In rhe classroom. From t'.hls 11.me onwards. theories about
effecrJve reaching were llnked closely to ,contemporary umderstandings of how
people learn. For ex.ample. at rhe time when leamlng was seen pr!lnclpaUy as a
stimulus-response [Process, Hr made sernse ro define good reach£ng In terms of rhe
specific Isolated beha�rlours rh!at appeared to provide die s-tlmull that resulted In the
desired responses from lean1ers.
By the t 980s. researchers were s[artlng ro realise that rl1e behaviourist approad1
to studying reaching was n◊t provlcUng all tJte answers. It was be{Qmlng clear tltar
reacher bell!av1ours that helped learners In some contexts did nor seem to have
mucl1 efreit !n other conreirs. It was also clear rhar the re.arhlng context Clltllct
medlare tlle elfeccsofteach.er bellavlours, a polnremph.asJsed strongly by Harrison
and Praln (2009),
In a oomprehenslve review of researc.lt llnl<Jng teacher l>ehavlour ro student
achievement, Brophy and Good (1986) em.phaslse the following points:
..it. iln general, academic learning Ls Influenced by the amounr of dme thar. smdents
spend engaged In appropriate academic activll1es.
..a. !Learning. ls: easier for srudenrs wl1en t heir reacl1ers carefully srnucrure new
Info rma!lorn .
..a. Teachers should heap srudenrs relare new Information co what t11ey already
know.
A Teachers should monitor Jeamer perfo:n nance a11d prol'lde co:rrectlve feedback.
These clalms were reinforced In tine major revlew by Hal!tle (200()). Klrschn er.
Sweller and Oark (2006:76) make the addlrlonal point r:hat the most elfectlve
guidance d1at n:eacl1ers can provide ts 'gillldance specHficaJly designed to supporr d1e
cognitive processing nec essary for learning', WIIJls (2006) pr,,vldes a neurological
explana tlon of w:l1y thJ& cognldve pmcesslng Is enhanced by Instructional strar.egJes
tlnat allow Information to be pre.semed through multiple leaming [Pathways such as
oral explanat1ons smpporred by visual examples.
from the mid- I 980s. researchers were anso sllowang rllat. t>y refl'ect1ng on what
was happening In their classrooms. teachers could rnodll'y �heir tteaclllng pmctlces
and become more ef.fecruve (see Cl1apter & for detanect Jnformat!on on reacher
reffecnon). By d1e J 990s. [he rdea diat reaching effe ctiveness should be Judged :by
bot11 rhe extent and qt1allry llf student lea ming was gaining acceiJ)tance.
 Broadly speaking. con temporary v tews of effective reaching are millch more
lea.mer-centred rh!a!ll they were lru rhe ·past. \Vil.en lean1lng requires complex
mlnk!ng, teachers {',cltlnor rake a o:ne-stze-ftrs-arn approach - Instead, rtwy must
consider now besr ro help, .Individual learners process an:d make sense of wl1at
mey .are ex.pertenctng. Tills polnr ts emphasised strongly l>y Harne (2009), who
concluded that the mosr effective ,vay of Improving lea □1tng ns for teachers ro
encou1'llge tl1elr Iea1ners to self-report on their lean1Ing and to ask questions about
lhlngs they do not understand. Judy 'iNlllts (20 I 0) supports rhl.s view and .suggests
practical ,1•ays of lmplementilng this strategy.
One of the reasons that ldeas about effecl1ve reaching have changed ls di.at our
unde.rstandln.g: of how people learn h · as change<! dramat1cally In rhe Uast 50 years:.
There Is now a growing field of education al neuroscience, based on findings from
va11ous bran1t scanning roch11fq�1es, that has produced. new lnfon11al1on at,oiu how
rhe brain aca1mulates. connects. stores and remeves lnfom1a ·t1on. Sousa (201 O).
\Ylllls. (2006) an-0 Zu[I (2002) provide oompell.l11g accounts of how B.ndJ1.1gs from
mis new area of smdy can help us understand why some teachJng srraregles are
more effective than oth.ers.
It Is now generarny ac,cepted that mosc people learn oesr through personaUy
meanlngful ex:perlences d1at enable them to mnnect new knowledge to what they
aUready believe or understand. It Is now more widely acce;pted that a reacller·s
main role Is ro factnimt,e learner undersiranding rather than simply tto pass on
lnfom1at1on. Th!ls means ttlnar teachers have ro dellberareUy help reamers consm1ct
their o,vn umcterstandl ng, :rath.er than s!m:ply rem them th[ngs th.at ·they are expecred
ro memorise. C',ood ·teaching Is no longer about helpJng lean1ers ro accumulate
knowledge that Is passed on ro them by die reacher; It !s aboutt helplng learners
r�1 make sense of new lnfom1atton (no matter what te.s sour-re}, to Integrate new
111forma111011 w:trh their e:xlstlng Ideas, r-o l>e aware of rheir thlnl<!ng an<I le�n11ng
processes and to apply their new unders.tandlngs In meaningful a:nd relevant ways.
As the rese,arch !nto effec!lve teaching marured, It t,e,c�me lncreaslngly obvious
t11at the l nte.r:actlon ben.veen rile teacher"s subject matter knowledge and reach!ng
skills was vital. Knowledgeable te.achers wl10 lacked trhe nece5.5ary pedagogic.al
skills were not effecdve, and neither were skllfill .eacl1ers who lack.ed t11e necessary
content knowledge, This Issue ls further e:-ipl.ored later In this chapter.
Another reason ,v11y r:hoorles abour effective reaching continue r.o develop Is
di.at the roles of reachers condnue ro change In response · ro societal changes (see
\Nagner, 2008, for a dJscus:slon -of ·rills Issue). Even a quick glance ar the National
Cunicu/u,11 Star.e1nenr Grades R-I2 reveaJs rhar teaching Is: no longer a process of
simply helping J.ea111ers to aoqutre basic skills In reading, wnllng and calcilllatilng, as
, vas the GJSe a cenrury ago. AU teachers are now explJctdy required to reach learners
how to think crlr.lcally, to solve complex. problems and ro become technologlcally
IHrerate. In add!tlon. rJ1ey have to develop Learners· generdl capablllries and develop
t11elr �md.erstan<llng of broad cross-cun1culum prt.orltles. Thes.e goals of llfe.lo1tg
learning and aclive citizenship cannot be achieved th rough reaching that. Is l.lrrle
more than content llransfor.
Teaching is more than just presenting content
The CAPS (discussed In Chaprer I ) specify rhe eontent t11ar l earners are to srudy
and, l.n! some subjects, give bli.efgJU.ide!Unes forle111mer acctvlt1es. The mo stlmpolitilnt
polllt to reallse Is that helping !eamers to· und erstand tthe currtculum content requires
much. more rhan Jusr rpresen ting rheco ntent In tile fu:rr.n or sequenceln wh!Ich I t Us
ser out ln rile CAPS.
A crtrlcal starting po.Int for effective teacillln g Is to ack nowle dge that srgnlficant
leamnng Is based on understandJng. 'lfo rake learners from a sttate ofnonmd ersrnndlng
to a stare of deep understanding requi res teachers ro do at least rJ1e following:
,. Transfonn rJ1e currtrulum con.teur nmo so111erJ11ng rhatt Is easy to leam .
.A. Cre ate 11! pllyslcal and em otional environment t11ar '.Is. conducive to learning.
... Structureleamlngitasks thatw.lll systematlca!lyleact students to an1mderstandlng
of ril e content oy allowing the ir brains.to process n
I formation elfecavely.
... Motivate lea1ners to eng.a_ge wltll the !earning tasks,
.._ Monlror smdents· leamlng and respond approp:rtately to rhe l r cllan gl ng neects:.

All of these a ctlvlaesare aUmed at changilng the lbral n s oflearners. As Zull puts It:

The knowledge In o ur minds consists of neurolog!cal networks In our brains,

so nf t,hat knowledge Is to grow, the neurologi cal networks must physically
change .... ·we may want stronger connections, more cornnecdons, dltl'erenr
conn ecdons. or eve n fewer connecdons. bur u nless tl1ere ls some chang e !n
conn ections, no learning occurs.
Elfecdve teachers spen d a considerable amount of dme transforming raw
content n I to forms that are comprehe nsible to learners -· thar s
I , ronns that make
It ea si er for l earners m use the new lnformacton to ronn new ne ur.a:1 n erworl<s.
This rransfonnarl on !Process I s ar tl1e heart of teacher pl anning (see Chapter 4). It
In valves such things a s;

y Activity: Beliefs. about teaching and learning

One o1 1he slrongest influences on th,e way 1eochers (and student 1eochers)
plan lessons is their set of beliels abou11eoching (l?ichards, 1996).
1 . Make a lis1 01 things that you believe about teaching. far example: ·1 believe
that learners learn more effectively if they hal/8 same con1rot over what
they are learning:
2:. Share yoor list with a colleague and discuss the ways in which your beliefs
are likely to influence ihe way you pion and present lessons.
3. Review your list alter you have reod this chapter.

Loo ming con o lso oo influenced by what the leomers believe about school
arid about learning. F-or example, if they believe th.at school is a waste ,of 1ime,
they <l re unlikely to try to leom.
4.. Mali:e a lis1 ,of ll1e things lhat you 1hint: South African learners might believe
about s.chool o nd looming.
&. Ive these beliefs likely lo be influenced by their gender. ethnicity or
geographical locofion?
o. How could you fine! out What learners in different phases realty believe
about s.chool o nd looming?
• Identifying the Important conceprs and prilnclpl.es that learners need to
understand:
• organising rllose concepts and p11nclples 1nm a coherent srrucrure;
.& devising elfecdve waiys of explaining the key Ideas and their reladonsh[ps:
• Identifying themes and Issues that w.lll help I.earners ro Unk tile new lnfonnatlon
to their existing knowledge:
.& recognls:lng tile dJfli.culltles that lean1ers might have In understanding. the
cornrene: and
• devlsltig ways of 1111111mt:slng those dlfficulrtes.
If you doullr the need for reacllen; ro rransfom1 conr.en.t s:o tliat Ir ls easier ro
understand, consider the fomowlng example. Phoroshop rs a comp:uter program
designed ro produce and mannpulate gra[Phlcs and dlglra:r nrnages such as
photographs. If someone wanl!S r.o learn h:ow to use Photoshop. she/he has at least
four options, namely:
1. ream by irrlal and error us.Ing the 'help" functlon;
2. read. a manual that descl1bes each Individual feature and liow rouse Jr.;
3. read a book that des:crllles how to use speclliic feanires of the progn1m wltJ1111
rrhe context of some !J)artlcular range or problems (such as restoring old
photographs): or
4. attend a training course.

Unle.58 you. are an exceptional leaimer, you ,vlll find the first two approaches very
lnefli.dent. The etfectlveness of the oilier 1,1•0 a[l);proach:es obvlously depends on
the sk.lU of the reacher {the perso11 who ,Yrote the book or rhe course Instructor).
The best teachers are rJ1os,e who can rake tile ·r,c1w· content (eg the fealillres of the
program d1at are described In rhe manual) and transform t'hat lnfonnatlon lnro
meanl1tgful knowledge for rhe lea1ner. l'hls: wllJ oerta.111ly me.an rJ1-at,
.a. nor all the 1nfon1ial1Jon In the manual wlll be ·taught' (rhe reacher has to make
careful selections};
.a. the r:h tngs that are taught ·w1II be presented In a different sequence from die
way they appe:ar In the manual;
.a. each feature ofrlle program \I'll! be taugl1t through carefully selected exan1ples
rhar the teacher has trte,ct co make as relevant and rea!Jsttc as !Jl•)SSl!b!e; and
.& most feanires of rhe program wlll be explained dllferenrly from tthe way ,hey
are ex.plained In !tie manual
The end results (the books and courses) \\'Ill all be dH!ferenr (even ·tholllgh they airc
bared on rite same basic knowledge. - ttlle features of the program) and rhey ,1•111
nott al.I IJoe equally effective.
So It Is with all teaching - there ls no 1.mlfon11 way of transfonnlng raw conrrent
IJuo lesson ,content that can. glllarantee that your reach[ng wll.l be successful. But
If a!U you ever present ro learners Is ra1v content (equivalent ro giving them the
Photosh.op manual) then most of them. w'Jll 11ot. leam very much at all. Portunately.
there are some way.s of organising content l11at have been sl1own !11rough research
co be more effeotlve t11an others ln helplngsmdents learn, and these are hlghllgllted
111 tthe remaEn.der of this. book.
 ,: Activity: What works best for you?

Think about one of your hobbies or o sport that you play (eg photogrophy or
cricket)_
1 . Identify ooe imporlan1 thing tha1 you had la lea,n as. palli of your inferes.t
in this hobby or sport {eg learning how lo chonge o colour image into o
monochrome image in, Photoshop).
2. Fiml three Clifferen1 explonalions of how ta perform this task_
3. Compare 1he ways in which lhe authors of these ex:plana1ions oo.ve
manipulated tne conteol to try fo rno ke it easy For leamers to understand.
Which ex:plonation waited besl for you?Why?
4. How did this exercise help you to think aboul the ways in which you migh1
tran,storm the content of your specialist teaching area to make it easy for
learners to understand?

A knowledge base tor teaching

To teach elfec!l'lvely, you win need deep understand! ng of four types of knowledge,
1. You need knowledge of your subject. You musr understand d1e fun.d.amem.a.1
concepts, principles and reladonshlps thar de.fine your subject an d you must
understand I10w expens In rhe fteld think about and us.e rhese Ideas. How wen
you tmdersrand die thfings you want leamers ro u n:derstand detem1lnes how
readily you can express: Ideas In temis rhat are appropriate to t:11e: leamers· level
ofdevelopmemt. It also places an upper l lrn11t. on the conceptual level ar. wh.lch
you can engage learners wJtll that topic.
2. You also n:eed ({nowledge about how people tearJl so that you can teach
111 ways that are conslsr,enr with principles of developmental and educational
psychology and: educational neuro.sclence.
3. You need g'enernl p,ed.agogi<:al knowledge s:o that you understand how ro
guld.e learning 111 approprtare ways.
4. Ft1ially, you wlU need what Shulman (1987) refers to as pedagogi,cat
content !knowledge - knowledge about how ro teach effectively In parrJcular
di sdpll nes.

Th.e lnternctlon between yo1Ir knowledge of the dlsdp!Jne (es-peclally t hose things
thar are hard ro leam) and your pedagogical knowledge wm enalJCe you ro reach In
ways rhar reflect the strucrure and fomns of Inquiry or your disdpline and make your
subject readily 1md.ersranda1Jle to orhers. These 1deas are represented In Figure 2.1.
as rl1re.e overlapping fonns of knowledge d1ar produce the founh fonn (pe dagogical
content Knowledge).
K.now1'11<.19• •l:IO•n
lo,on,, ini,g, pol"ti,,culor
tv1X1• m c:"'n1.oi.nt

--..._;_��=-- lltro(Jo'YVl(ltjau a!bOUt

1Jl.:ld'l.1"'9 tc) .JlctilflV@
.
p�t1icul;,r typos of
10111mins
P@.degogleal
<:ONt�,it
knO'WlodQO

:Figure 2.1, A model q/ teac/:Jer tmowkc<ge

In thbs represenitat!on, tile overlapping of circles A and B e1nphaslses th.at teachers
need a deep undersramtlng of conr.ent and learnlng !11eortes ro understand how
students (an learn particular itypes: of content. They need, for example. to be aole
tto Identify d1e Important oonceprs rhey \\iant students ro lean1 and rhey need! to
umderstand what Is .lnvolveo In leamlrng a concepr. The overlapping of circles A
and c emJ)haslses thar teachers need ro understand how ro reach pardcula:r foffils
of content, for example how r,o teach concelJ)ts. The overl.applng of circles B and
c emphasises rhar teachers need ro unders-rand thl! pedagogical lmpllc:u.lDns or
fean1Hng rheoriles, for example how to reach In ways that w![I enhance leanilng I f
Cearnnng ls viewed f1om a consm1cr1v1sr perspecnve. Ftnarny, at t'he centre of Flg;ure
2. L, we have t11e l ntersecrlorn and .lnueraalon of all lhese factors - rhe understanding
tthat ueacllers musr :have In 01\ter ro teach pantcular forms of oonrenr. I.lb ways rllat
are conslsrent 1111th general p11.nc!ples of reaching are designed ro en h!ance pardcular
forms of leamtng. It Is this lntera<.'.tlon that is pedagog[cal content knowledge
and Figure 2. 1 Illustrates that It cannot exist w1t11out deep urutersrandl ng: of
conr.enr, learning fheortes and general pe,ctagogy, no mat'.fer what sullJecr you are
tteachlng. (Note: Wl lat [ have described here as pedagogical content :knowledge l& a
develoiJ)ment of t.he description first p roposed by Shuln1an [ l 987], Others, such as
Grossman [ 1'990•], have proposed alrernatilve modllicactom; tto Shulma11"s model.)
Teaching Mathematics. Art, Sclenoe or Geography ls different from teaching
any orller subject - nor Jusr 11.Jecause tl. le detaU of the content .Is different, but
atoo fuecause each d.lsclpllne ls organised dlJferenrly and uses dllferenr fonns of
nngulry that req ulre different approach.es ro lean11n,g. Th.ls does nor mean that t11e
pedagoglical content knowledge needed ro teach Hlsmry, for example, has nod1lng
nn common wlr.h the ped.agog:lcaJ content knowledge neede.d ro reach Science -
quite the opposite. There are Hmporr.ant things common ro all. reaching. No mattter
what subject you are reaching, there w.lll be occasions when your prime purpose
Is to heUp learners ro u11dersr.and facrual ln.fon11at1011. At otlte:r times you ,vlll be
helplng learners to understand concepts or master rouclne procedures. The types of
knowledge you will oe deallng with and the cog:nlt:lve processes that learners will
have to use are conu11on ro all sub)ecr areas. From thls pers:pecttve, tile unlqueness
of teaC:hing Science. History or any other suoject lies primarily ln the <ietall of the
content, In the c-0ntexr 111 which tile content Is presented, and in the ways that
people rradltlonally rhlnk aoout and use char conrenr. Llkewbse, die key prl:ncnples
of any general clevenopmenral or lean1lng theory \Vlll llave 1111pltcarlons for teaching
In any dlsclpl.lne.
It can be .argued that !11e differences in approaches needed to llelp lean1ers
achieve different learnlmg outcomes wJthlll each dlsclpllne are Just as great as tile
differences In approaches needed across dls<:lp!Cnes. Por eiample, th.e difference
between reaching recall of facts and reaching understtandlng of concepts In Science
ls probably greater th!am.the di lference ber..\'een teaching understanding of concepts
In SC!e:nce and In Hllsrory. Theref-0re It Is logical ro argue rhar tltere ls a r.Inge of
generic teaching strategies char can be applied effecrlvely when reaching almost. any
subject, and tthls ls musrrared very well In the researcJ1 rha r supporJtS co-0perat:1ve
lea1111ng (s:ee Chapter 9).
 The vIe,1• taken In the re:malnder of th.ls book ls rhat teachers musr d.e,,elop a
cteep un:dersrandlng o:f c-0nrenr. learners and tean1nng, and general pe dagoll)' (the
rlnre.e circles ln. lPfgure 2 .1) . as fou11<!at:1O11s ft1r developing deep p,ect:agoglca'I content
knowledge, and rhar die u t][que 001nponenr of ttlnls ls conrent kno\\•ledge. Across
aEI sut,Jecr areas, there are many slmllartttes in rhe eypes of things rhat ,1•e ,vanr
lean1ers co lean1 and many s11nIl.ar1aes !n rhe way people lean1. Therefore, i1·e
should expect ro be able ro use s.11111I:ar _general teachlng s11:aregtes, adapting rhen1
wl1ere necessary ro &ult d1e particular de1nands of the ronrenr and the special need s
of ·the learners. TI1ls vJe,11 Is supported srro,�gly . by findings from neuroscience as
reporced by writers such as fudy \'ldlls. (2010).
If you rec:ognlse, and accept, t11e s.lmll:arltles between reaching your speclallsar!on
and reaching [[] orher discipli nes. yol l. can rake advanta�e of n1uch rhar Is known
about reacltlng In those otl1er fields. One re.asot1 !liar rills ls lm.portanr Is thatt !11er-e
has been far less research on effe;en:lve reaching I n some s.pedallst .areas tthan dlere
has been 111 disciplines s11ch as t11athemat1cs, science and la:ng�Iages. By providing
you wtrl1 a ,vtndo,v onto the llte@mre on effective reaching, thfs book ai1te111pts co
spar1< your lmaglnatlon so that you can rake ld.e.as from a range of subject areas :and
use them ro d evelop your speclalrsr pedag ogical contenr knowledge.
TI1e vI e,11s expressed above do not deny the lmportan<:e of tlte differences. t:11ar
exrsr l n tteaching stl.ldents of di fferent ages:, abil!Cles or ba1Ckgrounds. Quire the
contraiy, ro reach a diverse srudenr populattlon effectively, you wtll need a deep
knowiledge of yoiir le.amers and a llroad unctersranctl.ng of the general pIt11cHples �1f
read1lng.

Characteristics of effective teachers

Ther.e Is ample evidence In the researd1 llterarure rhat effective reaching Is a matter
of ·ex1
: >e:rrtse rather than experteI1,e· (Ayres, sawyer & Dlnharn, 2004: 144). This
Is not ro deny rile value of experience, because l.r Is dear rllac experience provides. a
basis for refl:e<:tlng on an<l re6nlng teaching practJces:. However, lt ls a1w clear tJ1at
some very expelilenc:e(! teachers cto nor routlinely reach In ways rhar would score
highly on objective measures or ,e:lfecttlve teaching. This point ,vas demol]strated
very strongly by Lulce er al (J 998) and by Faull (2009).
r
To Identify ,vhat n1lght. m ake th.e difference bet\veen teaches who routtinely
teach I n ways rha( make learning easy a11d effective for learners, we can look ·to
IHterarnre o 11 expert teachers and exceplilonal teachers. Brlefl!y, thatt Dlterarure leads
ro the conclusion that reacl1en; ,vho routinely use the mosr effective pectagog.lcal
pracrlces display the d1aractedsrtcs: dlscussed Im the following
. se ctions,

Knowledgeable
These teachers l1ave a deep undersrandln_g of ,he subjects they reach and. of rhe
.
ways In whlc.11 l.ean1ln_g can lie facllllated
Enfhusiastic
These teacl1ers are ;passionare about their su!JJect, abour teaching their subject and
about helping srudenrs to leani (Urban, 2008). Many ,vrtrers (for ex:a111ple Borich,
20 1 o) cons:lder enthus.Jasm to be part of a larger group of behaviours referred ro
as teacher alTecr (behaviours that derive from afit1nides, valutes :and emort�ns), but
enthusiasm Is the partlcular affective behaviour tha·t appears to l1ave the grearesr
research support (see Stronge, .2007). 1'J1e reason Is slmple -wlien lean1ers c.an see
that their teacher Is enthus;Jastlc, this 1.ntluenc.es rile! r lnn1nslc mot1vat1on ("Parrtck,
HJsley & Kempler. 2000) and Increases their Interest In ilhe process or lea n1lng.
This can result In l1lgher academic achlevemen.r as well as lo"1e.r Levels of off-task
behaviour.
COnfictent
These teachers feel secure about their knowledge. understanding and skllls. a11d
about their ability ro help students lean1. {th.elr personal reaching effi.cacy). There
are clear Unks between re.acher wn.fidence and srudernt achl.evemenr (Akbari &
Alivar. 20 i 0; KUlen, I 991; Price & Ralker, 1999) and between reacher confidence
and the en1phas1s the reacher plac.es on hlgller-order �hlnklng (Davies, 2004).
Optimistic
These {eachers :betleve rhat sntdenl'S can and \VJIJ leillrn. They believe that eve11 tJ1e
1ncist con1 pllcated concepr:s can be explained In tenns that learners wlll under,srand.
They believe that. reach.ers ca11 make a difference to learners' ll'ves. Tluey have
,vhat Valai.za (2011) refers ro as a poslrtve attitude row.ards rea:chlng and r.owarcts
themselves as teachers. As a result of their oprl.m[s m, [hey ser expectations high
and be:11.eve rhat .all learners are capable of t1slng ro L11eet the ehallenge.

Effective communicators
These teathers relate welJ to learners, explaln thlrugs clearly, make the.fr expectadons
explicit and en.gage learners. Effective commun!cation uttlls,es borh verbal .and
no11-verbal sl\llls and :Involves both or:-dl and wrtrr.en exchanges with learners. 'Ir Is
fundamental r.o the ped.agogJcaJ pracctces tl1ar promote lean1.lng (Coulson, 2006).
committed
These teachers are dedicated to teaching .and to helping students learn well.
con1m1tred {eacl1ers have a pa.ssron. for their ,vorl<, invest time outside o,f contact
hours "'ith students, focus on <the lndlvldual needs of students, t.al\e rcesponsiliillty
for .Im parring knowledge and values to students, n1alntaln (heir profes:s.lonal
1\110,�·ledge and e ngage with crhe school ,community (Crosswell &. fJUot,. 2004).
Several researdlers h!aive found srrong link& between teacher con1mlnnent and
le.an1ers· achlevernent ln 111nd. att1n1de.s roward school (Graham, 1996i L.ouls.
1998). TI1ere ts also considerable evidence rhar com1nlttect teachers are more likely
to be responsive ro lnnovatlons and poftcychanges cha11 are unconunltred teachers
(EUlot & cross,11ell, 2002).
Compassionate
These teachers respect all lea mers . .are concerne<l abom their welfare. have emparhy
wl�h them and make th.em feel accepted and lrnl!POrtant - all factors rJiar help ro
build the seBf-esreem of the learners.

cunous
These reachers have questtonJng mnncts: and are never satlsllied with wh.ar they
know: rhey always want ro learn more. Makl (2002: 3) calls this lnrellecmal curfoslty
- 'the cllaracrel1st:lc ab!rnty ro question, challenge, look at :an Issue from mulfilple
perspectives, seek more In format1011 before nishlng ro Judgment, raise questions.
delJberare, an<! craft well-reasoned :arguments'. rI1tel(ec.tlml C11rio,sity Is an
lnherenr drive ro k.eeiP asklng quest1ons such as: '\.Vll y does tllls ha!J);pen? Why does
this work? How can I mH!erstand rll.ls subJeot better? What makes. tills roptc/task
difficult for my srudenrs ro understand?" Zull (200•2) proV!ctes an Inspiring example
of how such lnt,ellectual cuuiosl t. y can be transformed nnto a !better understand!ng of
reachJng and !earning.
Patient and persistent
These reacl1<!rs are steadfast 111 tlielr endeavours. Exceprlonal reacllers ,cto not give
up easily (or look for lame excuses} when things do nott g:o we:11 or when rhelr
learners are not achieving the l10gh standards rhat are required. They do1l'tt expecr
every learner ro be e(Jua!ly successful the first time rhe learners cry somediin!l
new, bur they do ttake responslblllty for tJ,e learners' u.It1m.are success. Thoughtful
per:slsrence {derem1Jnat:1on ooup1ed with reflection) Is partlcularty Imporranr when
te:achlng young children, chlldre11 who le.im more slcwly, chWdren who exhllllt
challenging behaviours and children who have specific !earning odlllicultles
(Wl1eat1ey, 2002)-

Wi/Jing to share and coliaborate

These teachers work with others ,to achJeve gools. Spady {2001 :36) refers t,o
r
such teaches as ·constmcdve· people who freely and selflessly share to enhance
the well-bel:ng of others. Such teachers are w111lng to share their Ideas and learn
ftom one another because t:11ey hav,e a ·sn,ctem learning orientation· ro rl1elr
teaching .and appreclare that 'ro enhance another !s. to enhance yourself" (Spady,
2001 :37). In thelr l:nvesfilgadon of teachers whose sructenrs weFe hlghly sm:cessful
In matrlculatl-0n examlnatlons, Ayre.s, Sawyer and Dinham (2004:151) concluded
d1ar success was, In parr. tthanks to how C:losely die teachers col1allorared wlll1iln
d1elr faailry. Tills v:lew ls :supported by Medure (2008).
Resourcetul and inven1ive
These teachers are not comen.c ro slmply do w:har others ltave clone - !lley are
resourceful teac herswho cont111uallyiooli: fo mew waysof solvlngthe ctallycllallenges
of teaching. They make ,creatlve use of whatever resources are a,•a!Lable (such as
newspapers), Involve parems and the communory, make oprlmal use of convenrJonal
resources (slllch as rexdwoks) and explo :re the use of new technologies. rn so doing,
t11ey ere.ire the most advantageous conctldons for !earning and rondnuany ay ro
make learn.Ing as easy as posslbfe for srudenr.s. There mlg:h( be llmEtatlons [s1Uch as
large class s!7..es and lllmlted equipment) but resourceful reacliers make rile most of
t11e cond.lt1ons .and opporrunlctes rhar rile}' have. lru particular, they do nor rely upon
someone else providing them with teaching materlars or creating opportunltJes for
t11em - they do tr all themselves, often wl(Jlout rile benefits of formal In-servlce
tralnJng progrnmmes (Ayres. Sawyer & Dinham. 2004).
that help them to have well-managed cl a sses, Orga[]lsal11011 does not Just happen -
you have to work on tt and consciously maintain It.

Efflical
These ceachers wor:k to high standards of honesry and [n.tegrtty. They understand
all the laws. mies, polffcles and guide! Ines char have to !be followed both Inside and
outs!de school, and ailw.ays mat.main the highest possible standard, of behaviour In
d1elr lnc,erdctlons. wld1 smdenrs, parems and colleagues. They respect and protect
d1e rights of I.earners, Jndudlng the right ro prlivacy In matters such as r.estt resulrs.

F&Jflective
These reacl1ers rouct11ely ehlnk about what, how and why rhey are te.achlng, 1111s
char:acrerlsrtc Is ex.plored In depr h In Chapter 5.

tnsummary
It am be argueo :hat reacl1ers who demonsrrate the ch.araccertsrtcs Jusr ctes,cr1bect
.
possess dispositions iJ1at make r l1em lnherenliy more : Inclined. t,, teach In w.ays
char racllltare quallty le.amlng. Faull:s research (2009) adds srro11g weight ro tllat
argument.

.
So, how do you match up to the teacher charactertstlcs descr lbed In tJlls brtef
summary? If you fall shon on .any of rhem. Ir does not necessarily mean rhat you
cannot. be an effective teacher, buc perhaps It means that you need to work on some
aspects of your readtness ror teach!ng. In the meantime. Cer:s cons!der the other hal.f
of rile equation: rite learners,
Characteristics of effective learners
Some of the students you reacl1 wm be elfectlve leamer:s and some wlll nor. It
Is lmporrantt ro real!lse that a sMdent's aiblllcy ro 1eam at some partlatlar point In
time I s nor. a s.lmfUe functlon o:f their cognltlve ablllty or m.otEvat:lon, nor Is Jr some
fixed arrnlbure thiit cannot be i:hanged. Your job is ro l1elp all srndents 'to become
more effecmve learners by enc:ouraglng them ro develop and use learnlng strategies,
such as:
.A. setltlng speclfie learning goals;
.._ focus!ng clearly on rhe learning rask and delnberarely engaging with It; jOk
.A.. uslng mul.rlple leamtng srraregtes such as Usce11lng, reading, summai ,
making mind maps and explaining what they have learned ro someone els:e:
.A. ctetlberarely linking new learning ro previous learnnng;
• viewing leam:ng as rhe p:rocesslng oflnfonnatlon rather than as rlle gacl1erlng
oflnfom1at1or,;
.t.. 11slnr,. memmenlrive sn-.arP.elr.s m 11n<lersra11d artcf r.mnrml how rl1e.y are lp;;mlng:
.., recognising when they need hlelp and asking for It;
14@// organised

These tteachers aP- dear abour what they have ro do and. they put systems and
processes In place ro l>rtng order co all aspects of tlle!r reachHng. 111el:r choices and
action.s ar:e always lnrenrlonal. and purposeful. This Is lmp,orrant, �ecause smd.ents
learn better from well-organised teachers than from poorly or1;a11i1sed teachers
(KIiien, 1991 ), Wl'll--0rga11Ised feachers plan ahead and have well-preiJ)arect lessons
• following rh.e learning patl1s created by their own lncellecrual curiosity;
"' approach.Ing all leanllng wl th an open mlnd and a wllllngness ro try new tilings
and explore new ideas:
"' raklng a:caden1Ic rusks and lear11IJ1Jg from n1Israkes;
"' pracl1.SJng .and rev1sIng: anct
,. evaluattng th.elr 0\1'11. leaml.ng and their learning strntegles.

y Activity: Effe<:tlve le-arnlng

Using 1he (lbC>Ve list as a guide, make ,a summary of the lhir,gs you ,,ould look
faros evidence that learners were employing effective learning strategies in
yQOJr specialist twching orea.

It Is worth remembering tthe advloe of Spady ( I 99 4:9), namely that ·alJ s-n,denrs
can leam and succeed., but nor on the same day In rhe same way·. In other words,
I t Is the reacl1e:r"s respo11sI1Ji1ry ro provide appropriate learn.Ing oppo1turnlfiles and ro
ensure that learners .a:re .a!ble and wllllng to tal<e advantage of rhose o;ppo1n1nltles.
,Vllll.s {2006) suggests hoiV teachers can use lnformal1on about how the brain
funcrtons ro help tllem provide these oppomm.lliles:. She also emphasises t11ar
teachers cannot re.ach effectilvely iv-Jtl1out ftrst considering a number of Important
factors tltat mlgllt prevent lean1ers engaging In d1e types of ac11vIt1es (eg higher­
order thHnkln_g) that are necess.a:ry for quality learning.
one cf Ille prtnc[pal reasons rliar sru<!ents have dlffic. ultles leantlng Is rJ1at
d1ey are nor ready ro lean1. This lack of readlnes.s r.a:kes many fon11s and Is most
commonly relatoo t◊:
• cognldv,e development;
""- la11guag_e and llrer.acy development;
• physical developmem;
""- em.orion.al sra!Jlll�•;
• self-efficacy and se!f-c�1fide110e:
.t.. mo11vat1orn;
• prior knowledge: and
.._ attitudes row.ams schocl and learning.

C-ognihVe. development
From tlie work of people st1ch as Piaget we know that the capacity to 111.lnk In
various ways (and, t11eref-Ore, ro lean1 certain types of d1lngs> Is a funailon of
cognitive development Frc•m the Wl1rk of later writers (eg Blggs & Collls. 1991;
Mcinerney& Mclnemey, 2002) we also know 1'.ha-tcognltlvedevelopmerutdoes nor
progress 1.11! the neat steps or s[ages thar Puaget orlglnally suggested. Nevertheless. It.
Is obvious tlnar rl1e capacity no rearn .Is, ro a large extent, rnmlted by cog:nltJve 1narur1ry,
panloularly for young children. Pua.simply, children cannot le.an1 s0111ethlng new tr
d1elr brain does not have tile capacity ro allow t11em to thlnk In the ways thar arl!
necessary foruncterstandlng rJtar ttew Idea. \.Ye need ro � aware that every cl11Id's
cognletve development !Pl"Ogresres In unHque ways:, aI1d we should l>e careful not ti:>
uncter-est1111ate rl1e ablllttes ,:1f �ndlv!dual Iean1ers.
 considerations. or -chHldren's cognlrlve re.adlness for !l)arctcutar types of lean1.tng
led ro the co11cept of devetopme11tally appropriate learning progran1mes and
teaching prac:tllces - a ,;;oncept th.at Is prominent 111 the llte.ratu:re oi1 early chlldhooct
education (see, for exa1nple, Gest1\•lcl<J, 2013: Penn, 2008). Tile basis of this
l
Idea Ls th.at ch! ldren younger th!an about eight years acquire kno-wledge In ways
thar are slg:nltlilcarurly different from tile ways In whlch old.er ch!ICctren learn, and
so the appro;ao::hes used for reaching these younger children should be adapted
to the ex:perlences. nnreresrs and albllltles or Individual lean1ers. Only ,1111en the
teacher understands each lean1er's Interests. abUltles and st<1ge of devekbpment can
Insrrucrlon be lbased on goals that are challlenglng but achievable for each Iean1er.
Because It Is: believed that young children lean1 best through direct se1tsory
encounrers ,111th rhe world and not through forman academlc processes, common
suggesrtons for eeachlng young chnldret� Include,
• creating a learnlrug envlronn1ernr thar ,vm encourage learners ro actively engage
Ir] hands-011 experiences that allow the.m t o explore, observe, experiment,

refl1ecr, ln(er<1cr and communlcare with or.her lean1ers anct wlrh adults:
..., creating lean1tng ei,:pertences rha¢ are intellectually engaging and <.flallenglng,
and rhat activate as 1nainy as passrMe of the senses:
..., creating l.earnlng: experiences rhar Integrate all aspects of d1lld de\'elopntent
(cog:nlrlve, physical, social, emotion al and llnguls[lc);
• using a wide variety of appropriate read1l11g srraregles to carer for the various
lear11111g styles: and prtor ex:periences o.f Iean1e:rs:
..., using a mtx:rure or teacl1er-dtreoted and learner-directed ac,t1v!ctes ro help lilutUd
the learners· self-esreem, self-concept and social con1petence:
• engaging learners .In .approprjate real-life problem solving and other open-ended
learning actlvttles t:har give 1hen1 some autonomy anct respo11slblllty for ·their
own I.ean1lng; and
• lruregrarlng the cun1culum across content areas .and ,e1nphaslslng un.lfylng
concepts that Cllt across subject l>ounctal1es,
nf ,ve :broaden rhls concept (so rhac v,e are nor referrtng Just to rhe differences
betv,een teaching young chlrctren and older children) It seen1s. loglcal to suggest
l11ar all reaching slloul.d be developn1enrally ap·proprtare. Th atls, all reaching should
rake Unto aocouint rhe cognldve ablilltles, lnreresr.s and learntng sryles ofd1e learners
an<! engage r11em In the types or l ear111ng acrtvltles listed above.
1•Vllen considering n10\11 lear.ners approad1 le,.an1nng, Ir Is Interesting lo exa111111e
die propostdoru that Prensky (200da, 2001 b, 2008) purs fbrv,ard. He d.alms
l11ar roctay·s S:rudenrs are 'Dlglial Natlves· wllo Iiave gro1vn up In a wortd rhat
exposes them to a w1de range of digital rechnolog:les: (such as computer gan1es
and smart pliones) that shape the way they learn. 111 c,,mrast, many teachers are
• Digital lmmlgranr.s • whose approaches ro ceachJng are shaped by approaches ro
learning tthat pre-dare tt1e reci1110Jogles to wlllch today's children are exposed. If,
as Prensky (2008) suggests. cllglral 11active learners reamy do rrhlnk dllferentJyfrom
d1elr dlglttal Immigrant teachers. there Is an additional charnernge in Implementing
the teach!lng approaches dlscussed Im this IJook. Thar challenge Is co focus on
significant learning and produce deep understandings In ways chat are consistent
W1th tthe narur .al ways ofleamlng of the d igital nalilves. Prensky (2008:4) Is cle.ar
d1at this req:ulres reaching approaches that are conslsrenr with ·parallel 1Processlng.
grap I1Ics awareness., and random ac-cess· - srrategles that may be foreign t o many
teachers. 5onrag (2009) rakes .a slmllar view and suggests how teachers might tty
to accommodate s-mctents' new ways of learning and accessing lnfonnatton, one
of rhe most slg:nlllcant lmpllcarlon.s for tea chers Is mar dlg:lta:I ll!adves frequently
Interact with one another 111 ways t11ar. are slgnlficanr!y different tr-om the fonns of
lnreracrlon that tradlt1onally occurred In classrooms.
language and literacy deveJ:opment
one of die best predictors ofW:hether a learner w!ll f1111.ct1011 competently In school
Is rhe learner's level of llter.acy (listening, speaking, reactJng and wrtt1ng) In t11e
lan.guag-e of lnstmctlon. To learn, students must. be able t.o understand the teach.er's
communtcat1on and be able ro express themselves. The language proficlency
needed for reason[ng, proble.m solving and ,general acactemlc achievement In
subject matter ts referred to t>y cummlns (2000: J 29) as COgnlrlve Academic
Language Proficiency (CALP). To achieve CALP. learners require an appropriately
extensive vocabulaay, understanding of relevam concepts and kJ10wlectge of how
ro process dec<>nteimi.al!se<I academic language - all at a J.evd .appropnar,e for the
new r11Ings they are nytng to learn. This ts a particular problem for learners wllen
lnstrnrtlon Is In rhelrs�nd or third language. However, It should not be assumed
d1ar native speakers Jiave rile necessary leveJs of academic language proficiency ro
be successful reamers.

Physical development
Teach.ers need robe aware of the physical artrlbutes that srudencs need Im order ro
engage In each Leaming rasl<. If learners lack the srre.ngr:h, dexttertty or co-ordlnarlon
to perform a rask. successfhlly, this can Inhibit their learning and demodvate tl1em.
For example, learners need to have developed a certaJn level of line moror sktlls
before rhey can leam to write.
Emotional stability
Learners enrer d1e classroom wlrh feelnngs and emorJons rhar are rhe �esulr of how
they see tthemselves and how tthey think or:hers see them. Th.ese emotlonal factors
play a big !l)art In detennnnln,g whtch learners feel a sense o:f belonging in t11e
learning environment. and which learners feel alienated. These feelings might be
a result of a learner's cultural baickground, family Issues or tile way 1n whldl d1e
learner has been prevlousHy treated by peers and/or teachers. or It may slmply
be clue to tile lncomplere sr<1te of thelr bra[n ctev,eaoµment Um1l learners become
skrnled at recognising and understanding their own and otJ1ers' emotions. they m.ay
have dlfliaIll:y handl!ng frusrractons and persevering wltll dlf!liculr leamtng casks.
Teachers need to deHberately reduce stress In the classroom and bulld a posltlive
emorlonal climate tr effective learning Its to occur (\.Vllnls, 2006).
Self�fficacy and se/'f-confidence
To be successful, leaniers must believe that they are able to learn, Mos[ often, this
belief wtrn come from the kno,vledge tl1at they have previously been successful
wl1en attempting to learn. Lo\1' self-0.1nfidence often results fronn learners being
told (by teachers, peers, parenrs or sclgnlficanr others) �har they are slow learne.rs or
In some way lncompetenr.,

Motivation
To :be successful. lean1ers must want ro ream, so It really helps If t'.hey are lnteresterl
In tthe subject and culi.ous aoout It. Tl1ere are many different aspe(ts to 1nl)t1vat1011,
bur perhaps the most tlmpon:arnr from the point of vle\1• of r,eachlng ls lea111ers·
achJeventen.r motlvark111. Learners ,1,1 th ltlgh motivation ro succeed \1'11l typ[cally
derno1 1strale greacer persistence a11d efforc d1an lean1ers wlrh lo\v achleven1enr
mot1.vat1011 (pantcularly 1vhen th:ey perceive the lean1111g ttask to be difficult bur
achJevable).

Prior knowledge
l
\.V rhout the necesscary background k:no,wledge, srudenrs simply cannot Dean1 new
things, because leamlng l s essend ally a process of n1ak:lng s,ense or ne,v lnfom1adon
by applylng extsrlng undersrancting to new· ex:perlences and Ideas. Academic
conrenr,1111! nor be meanlngful unless I r ls embedded In learnlngacrl\1ldes tharbu!ld
on students' p1 1or IM:nllng. There are neurologlc:al :reasons for this, as ex.plaJned
by zull (2002). If you have a dear ptcrure of your srud.enrs· prior knowledge
(includ.lng any rnlsconcecptton.s th.at rhey might have) you can pl.an to deliberately
accivare relevant neillronal nerwor'ks. \\/hen learners reoognlse that ne,v lnfom1atlon
Is related to prior knowledge, ·1ean1lng ex.tends beyond tile domain In which It
occurred. Ir Is available through transfer ro create new p:redJcttlons and solutions ro
problems· (l'udy \A/lllls, 2010,61 ).
A ttifude towards schooJ and teaming
lb be suocessful, learners need co have a pos:lrlve atttlrude towards t11elr school and
toward& tt1:e subjects they are studying (Ayres, Sin1•yer & Dinham, 2004). Ho,velfs
(2012) takes rllls Idea further and claims t11at, In order for leaniers ro be a1\•ake and
totaUy engaged, 1J1ey need to first feel grat1n1de for·t11e learning opportunities being
made available ro rhen1.
In any learning s ituation. readiness for lean1lng Is an Individual characteristic of
each learner, and some of the .factors rlnat Influence Jr (such as rile social manutry
of the nearner and tthe culrural nonns to 111hlcll the learner has been exposed) are
beyond the control of the teacher. However, there are severdl thHngs that teachers
can -do ro rry to encourage lean1ers iro !be ready ro lean1. Tiley Include:
Ji.. ensuring r:har lean1Ing acflvltles and tl1e ourcomes eh!ar lean1ers are to achJeve
are appropriate ro rheHr level of academic and social development:
Ji.. helping learners ro understand exactly what It Is that you want rhem to learn
and why rills leamlng Is nmponanr;
Ai. relatlng t:ehool leam.lng to the leameJs' everyday life ex:pertences (so that rhey
leam to make s:ense of !lie world):
"' sm1c1t1r!111g !eamlng w ehat Jeamers can ex:pertence lnlt!al su-::cess and develop
a !)OsJtlve attlrucle r.owarcts leannlng;
"' deUbemtely trying to make leamlng h1terestlng. enjoyable and challengJ:n_g;
"' uslng l. e amlng activities !liar provoke cunoslry so that leanners aire encouraged
ro ask '\.Yhy?', 'How?' and 'What 11'1':
Ji.. raklng Into account rile knowledge, slcllls and atltlrudes rhat learners brlng with
rhem r.o dne classroom (regardless of·whether these things have been leamed
fonnarny or Informally):.
"' rdklng Into account the d!Verse cultural and llngu.lsclc backgrounds of learners:
and
Ji.. emphas:lslng i;hat the developmenr of rnnder.srandnng of co111ceprs and pr1nclpJes
Is more Important. than the recall or fo1ctual lnfonnatlon or the odevdopment of
routlne skllls.
Jnsummary
!By taking lthe&e factors Into account. you make It easier for all learners to be
engaged am! robe Involved In meaningful leamJng (as opposed to rote learning).
Yo11 may also need to• employ some specific stmregles to purposefunly dllferenciate
yo11r Instruction In response to learners' lnduv1dual cogllitlve and emodonal pro HJes.
Thomas: ,2010) describes how ro select and employ dllferenrla�ed u11.Strucrlon rhar
targets breakd.owns In six componenrs of the learning process, nameny,
1. attention:
2. memory;
3. language�
4, processing and organising;
5. w11tt1 ng: and
6, higher-order thiinklng.
QUALITY LEARNING
There are various definitions of learning, lndudlng t'.he useful one of Camlx>mne
( 1988). who ctescnbes lr as ·a process char Invo Ives maklng connections, Identifying
patterns, and organlrJng previously unrela�ed ll.lts of knowledge, behavior and
actlon lnro new patterned whores·. A1!11ough this definition was fonnililared well
before neurological research revealed wllar l1appe11.S tn dne brain as we learn, lt
Is remarl(ably similar ro d1e explanacto11s: of learning given by \Vlllls (2006!14),
namely rhar 'D)eamlng conslsts of reinforcing the connections benveen neurons',
and by Zull (2002,xlv), namely d1at leamJng Is ·change In tl1e brain'. Throu.ghour
rhls book I empliaslse the following three palms aoour leamlng:
1. Leaming results In changes ln understanding.
2. Changes In understanding are a direct resilllt ofleamers· exper1ences. and their
ehlnklng abi,ur those e:x:pertences.
3. T11ese changes In undersrarnllng enable learners co change their l>eJ1av1our.
Toe challenge ror teachers ls to sm1cture leaml.ng experten.ces tJ1ar will. sys:ren1at1caUy
lead learners to new levels ofundersttandlng. AS a guide to how this might be achieved.
Brandt (1 ()98,) suggests th.at the following can be said aboutl'luman l.ean1ln.g,
.._ rndlvlduaJs learn dlffere:ndy bur, In general. people wnstn!lct new understanding
by bull.dJng on tl1edr current knowledge.
.._ People learn \l'har ls personally 1ne11nlngful co rhen1 (b.ased on their prior
kno\vledge, cultural backgrounds and special lnteresrs).
.._ LearnJng 1s developmen@l -novlces lyplcal:lya pproach learning tasks dlfferendy
fron1 rllose who know 1.no re about the Issue.
.._ People learn 111.ore when they ac cept d1allenglng bur ac:hilevable goaJs.
.._ /'1Iuch. feanilng occurs el1rough socl.a! 1rnreract1on.
.._ People need feedback to learn. bur rile feedback needs ro be accurate, usefu I
and t!mely.
.._ People learn more effectively lf they u1derscand how to use succ.essful lean1lng
strateg:les .
.._ A poslrlve emotional cllmate strength.ens !earning .
.._ The total e.nv:lronment Influences le.arnlng, .and therefore teachers need ·ro
attend ro the phys!cal, social and psycllolog!!cal aspects of tl1e lean11ng conrexr.

rn addl.rlon. co tthese princlp!es, ll1e followlllg are generally accepred:

.4. Lean1lng ls a cycl[Gal process that lnvolv,es sensory Input frmn a concrete
experience. rellecl1on 011 that experience. aosrracr hypotheslslng. active testing
of understanding, then further sensory nnpur.
.._ Lean1ers . a re more llkely to become engaged and lean1 If the roplc piques thelJ
I ruterest or lrnagjlnatilon and If tthey ran a[ll;proach! lt. through their [Preferred ways
of lea:mlng (\.Vlske. Breit & Franz. 2004) .
..,. Aot1ve-lea111Jn.g pract:Jces have 11! more slgnrfi:cant Impact om perfom1ance
rllan any other varlabl e, .Including lean1er l>acl<ground a 11d pl1or .achievement
(Darllng-Hanunond er al. 2008: \lvillls. 2006).
""' 1b lean1 effectively, students have to .cto somerhlng with the [ntbm1.atlon tl1e:y
are [llrocessnng - prefer.ably they should c reate new Ideas or take new actions
(Zu!I, 2002) .
..._ Creartng a n.on.rllreatenlng classroon1 envlronrnoor where mistakes are
,velcomed as !earning opportunities ireduces tensron and Increases the
o,
oppommlry for learl\lng {Tl1omas, 201 ,v1111s, 2006).
The Ideas listed .a!b()Ve are «lnslstent w.lrl1 the basic prlndples of Cl1gnlt1ve and
&OC!al consnucl1vlst vrews on le.a111tn:g, wlllch are explored In more de.tali later In
d1Js d1aprer. Recenr research In d1e neuwsclences supports a coll!strucd vlsr vle,v
of learning l>y e1npllas1s1ng rile tnreracoons betwe.en rhe environment and ll1e
le.anier·s brain. Aa:ordlng to Abborr and Ryan. • [rJather tllan thlnldng of r:he brain
as a computer. the b rciln Is: 110,v seen as a far more Uexnble, sel f-adjus:tl!ng. ever­
changing organism r:har gro,vs and reshape s Itself In response ro ch.aJlenge, ,vtth
elements that ,1,1rher through lack. of use· (200L: JO).
 This view supports the lde.a rhat I n teaming, as In any other endeavour, ach.levln_g
a l1Jgh-qual1ry re.suit requires conslnerable skJll .and efforr - It Is not somerhlng that
we should ex:pecr learners r o achieve wlrhour. guidance and assistance. This view Us
conslsrent wld1 ti1e idea that ·cognll1ve changes do not result from mere .accretlon
of lnfonnatlon, bur. .are due to process:es nnvol\1ed In conceptual reorgan1t.,at101r
(Brnnsfortl. Brown & COckJng, 2000:222). Teachers need to be catalysts for and
rnedHar,1rs ,of this: concepntal reorganisation. 'l!'hey also ne«t r.o keep Hn mind thar
'the alm ,of all .insrruccton ls to alter long-term memory. If nothing_ has ch.anged
In long-rem1 memory, norhln_g has been learned' {Kirschner, sweller & Clark,
2006:77). zull (2002: xiv) purs It tills way: ·t he arr of reaching must be the arr of
changing tile brain', and he pi·ovl<tes a ,cleralled. exp!a11aeto11 of 1101w the physical
chara<:rerlS-t[cs of rhe human brain Influence [earning.
However we define learn[ng, It Is: 1::lear that In any given slruacton some people
seem to do It better th.an others. Either their learntng processes are beirrer (eg faster or
more efficient) or the·producrs of thelrleamHngareberrer (eg a deeper nnder sr.anctlng,
hCgh.er levels of skills, more enduring cognll1ve chan,g:es). This leads to ithe concept
of quality le1u.ni11g - the Idea tl1ar <:ertatin appR1acl1es to learnlng produoe better
:
lea n1lng outcomes. some wrtrers. such as Biggs (1987), use t11e terms 'deep·
lean1111g a11ct ·surface· le;an1[11.g ro <lescrtbe .quallmrnve dlfferen<:es In how &ntctents
approach leamtng_. Students wh.o rake a deep aniproach are deliberately lntendln_g
to gain pers-onal understanding; those who take a surface approach a. re wncenied
pr1mar11y wlth accumulalilng e noug:I] knowledge to avoid ra11ure. These dttferenr .
approaches to lean11n g can be ln lluence<I by th.e reacher and tlle lean1111g: conrexr..
and they generally result 111 dlllere11t leaming ouroomes. Hlg]1-quatlty ourc.ames: are
almost always associated wJt:11 deep approaches ro lean1lng. Zull (2002) explains
d1e neurologtc.al reasons for this.
\.Yr11tfingabout lean1lngin higher education. Nightingale and O'Nell (1994) suggested.
that hJgh-<JUalfty lt'amnng has seven characrel1.srtcs. \'Ve ran generarnse from lfletr l>aslc
framework ro say tl1ar lllgh-quallty leanllng Hn a,iy context has occurred when,
A lean1ers are al>le to perceive relationsltips berween the.Ir exl.sdng knowled ge
and die new rhlngs rhey are lean1lng. They can use tthelr [Previous knowledge
ro make se,nse of new knowle<tge -:a11 es:s<!ntlal <:ompo11enr of co11s11Uct1vls111;
A lean1ers are able ro apply l\11owledge ro solve problern1 s. :For this to occur.
lean1ers musr nor only know a1td understand, they must alSll be able ro <to
tilings with thelr li.rtowredge;
.;. le.an1ers are a!ble to co111m1111icate their knowledge· co od1ers. They .are able to
fom1 and suosranct ate l.nde:penden r rhought and effectively communicate rhelr
Ideas In ways that demonstrate d1elr u rtde:rsrandlng;
A learners retain 11e,vly :acquired knowledge for a long time. If knowle<tge
Is quickly .for:g_otren, rhJs probably means that It was not l:nregrnted lntto any
comprehensive set or understandings;
A learners are able t:o• discover or create ne,v knowledge for themselves
(k.nowCed.ge that !s new ro them, nor. necessarily new ro rJ1e woPld). TI1ns
req11lres leamer:s ro be a!ble ro .analyse. synrheslse an d quesdon lnfom1adon -
Important skills when the teacher Is using strategies &11cl1 as thos;e descrlbed In
chapren: 1 o, 11 and 12;
These ld.easaresummarlsed quite concisely by IY\art!n, C',erslk, Nudell and McMHllan­
curp (2002 :8}: 'HlgJ1-quallty learning refers ro learning that lncludes: n1as.tel)'
of content, 1.1ncterstandtng of concepts, and d.evelopment of expllclt srrar.egles
for asklng good questions and exploring new Ideas·. This de,scrtprlon of quality
le.an1111gfit$ ,v-ell wHth Clarl<'s (2003) n<1tlo11 that high-achieving !eame.rs devell.)p
·coherent and lnregrared understandings·. whereas tow-acJllevlng learners tend to
accumulate ':kninvledge In pieces·. In the remaJ nder of rhls chapter we consider
some genera! teaching prlnclples that can lead to hlgl 1-qua11,y leamlng.

/ Activity: The essence of qualttv learnIng

1. Whal are the common 1hreocls in the above descripliions of quolily
leoming?
2. How does the !eorning described obove differ ·from the learning 1hof you
experienced of school ond o t univers-ily?
3. How rnight quality learning be differen1 for learners tn different phases of
schooling o r in di'lferent subjects?

..t.. learners '"ant to learn n1ore and are qillestlonlng and cr1rlcaL Hlg:11-quallty
learning stimulates learners· academic 011rloslty and leads them ro become
autonomous and self-motlvatect, and
• learners adopt a criil:i.cal stance. Rat'.11er than being satisfied co aoceptt
everything at fare value, they k'\CI< below· rile surface and ey ro Bnd meaning
and s ignificance In the things rhey are srudylng.
Toking a sllght:ly different approach. Ahlberg (2003) suggests tthat hlgl1-quallty
lean1nng Is:
• meaningful In tthe sense that It ls connecrerl ro earlier kno\vledge and
corresponds ro the re.;J needs of Lndlvtduals, soc:lery and humanklnd:
.a. deep l.n ·t he sense tJ1ar JustlEicallons for t<no,vledge are actl.ve:ry sou,gh.t after,
and consequences ofkno,vledge are resrect both theorerlcally and emplr[cally;
.a. transform:ative tn the sense d1ar le surpasses earlier knowledge and experrrse,
and can Ile used to solve real problems by refran1ing them. and seeing che.111
from different perspecttves, .and
.a. metacogni.tive In tile sense rllat ways of monitoring and promofilng one's 0,1111
learning are achEeved,
CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACHES TO TEACHING AND LEARNING
J\1any <�nremporary v1e,vs of elfecl1ve te.a<:hlng are !based on Nnstruc11v!st theories
or learning, so we need ro revtew t11ese Ideas as a fr:amework for considering
lhe reaching stnttegies reconunend.ed In !acer chapters. The basic pre mls-e of
consrrucrJvlsn1 Is th at knowledge ts obtained and undersr<1ndlng Is expanded
through act1ve ,consrrtt<:tlon and reconsmic!lon ,1f mental frameworks. Leaming ls
not .a passive process of slmply receiving Information - rather. [t Involves de!Jberare.
progressive constn1ctlon and deepening of 1neanlng. Under.standing Involves the
developmenr. of valid connections berween new and existing knowledge and
experiences. These Ideas are supported by neurological research and reported In a
very readable way by aurhor.s such as Zull (2002) and Willis (2006).
•Glasersfeld. (2◊0Sa) suggestS that the Idea of oonstrucdvlsm stacted \\1th Piaget when
he used theterm 'the cons:a.11a1on of reality· (Piaget. 1937) lrut11e litle of one ofllls oook:s.
IBuUdfing 011 iPtlaget's ldeass. as ,1•ell as t'hooe of Foerster ( 1972). Glarers:feld <leveloiJ)Cd the
notton of radical constructivism (Sn1ock & Gtasersrerct. 1974: Glasersrerd, 2005b).
(By the,vay, he meantradlc.iiil In the senseof'golngtotheroots' or 'unro111pronllslng'
[Glasersfelct, 2005a: 10).) The esseJJce or Glasersfeld's d1eory Is t11ar ·as our thlnklng,
our conreptuallzlng, and our language are developed fron1 and In the domi:tln of our
expertence, we have no ,vay of I ncorpor.ai!lng anytlllng d1at Iles be)•ond tthls domain·
(Glasersfeld, ZOOSa: 11 ). Or, as Dyk:srra (2005:55) pucs Ir . ',explanatory kni.nvledge
exls.ts on:ly Jn the mind of each lndlvtctual as a constructed menrd! entrcy . .. for tile
meaning to arise In the Individual. the lndlvJdual must const1uct It'..
TI1ere are several <:ontemporcit)' lnterpretallons of the concept of constn1ctlivlsm
as Ir relates to educamon, burrsno,vrnan, ,'vlcCro,vn and Blel:ller (2011) suggest tt11ar
they share four co11101011 prlndples:
I. \.Yllat a. person 'l<no\v-s· Is not Just received passively bur Is actively consr.ructed
oy the learner - meaningful :learnlng I s che acrlve creal1on of knowledge
s.truct1Ures frllnl personal experience.
2. Because knowled.ge Is the result of personal lnterprecatton of expertences. one
perron's knowledge can never be totally transferred to another person.
3. The 1:uiln1res. and societies to which people belong Influence their views of tlle
world around tl1e111 and, therefore, Hn�uence what they 'kno\v'. In generdl the
undersrandlngs that people read1 .are larg.ely conslste11 t wtthln a given ,cunrure.
4. Consrruct1011 of ideas Is aided by s.yscematlc, open-n11nded dlscusslons and
deoate.
TI1e term ',c()nstructlvtsnl' has con1e tto 111ean 111any dlffere.iir things. A veiy us:eful
overvle\v of the diverse scllools of cons1111c11v1sm Is g.Jven oy Riegler (2005). Here
I ,1•1l1 rne.ntton Just a few lnterprera:tl.o:ns oft11e conce;pt.
 \.I/hen the renn Is usoo ft> ctescrit>e cognitive modeCs of lea:ml1tg, c-011sm1crtv.1sm
can be <1eilined as an. approach to leanilng IJlJ whlch ·1eamers are pro,vlded tile
oppommlry t,) oonstn1<:t their own se1tse ofwhat Is llenng learned by bu!ktlng 1nren1al
connectlons or relat1o11sl1lps among the Ideas and :facrs being caught' (Bor1ch &
Tombarl, I 997;) 77), TI1ls notion of ,cognitive ,constiructivism foe.uses on the
cognlttve processe!: char people use to m.ak.e sense of the world. This appro.a,h
emphasis.es tl1at 'learners ac:tlvely ,constr1uct knowledge for themselves lly forming
�heir o,vn represenrad.011s of the marertal. to be learned, selecting Information they
perceive to be relevant, and Interpreting this on the basis ofthelrpreserut knowledge
and needs' (Dart, 1994:1). Abbott .and Ryan (1999:2) express Ir th.ls way, ·A
perw:n leamlng wmethlng new ilnng:, to that expe11e.nce all of t lie!r previous
knowledge and present. mental patterns. Each new fact or e;,cperience Is assimilated
nnro a living web of undersrandtng'.
Although rills vlew draws heavily on rhe worl< of Plag-et (essentially focusing
on rhe Ide.a rjiar a chlld consrnucrs his or her understanding of the world du01ugh
nnreracrl-0ns with rile envlronmentthar rrlgger ass:lm llatlon and/or acconunodaruon),
nr firs we!Il wlith ocher models of cognition. such as rhe lnfonnatlon-processlng
moo.el {BerK, <!O I<!; Gagne, YeKOVICh 6l YelCOVICl1, 1 YY/) -Of tl:le p.araUel-cUsmbut«t
processing. model (Davis. t 992). 1fhese models suggest that we construct and
rec:onsmtct knowledge ln order to make It meain.lugful, butdlrfer In their explanations
of how lnfom1arlon Is processed by the bratn.
A variation on this explanat1t1n ofle-.amlng Ls know11 as social C()t1stmctivisn1.
Essentially. this construcrtvlsr approoch trea rs learning as ·a social prooess whereby
smdents ,acquire k11()111lectge through lneeraclion With the[r environment instead of
merely re.lying on th� reacher's lectures· fPowers-Colllns, I 994 :5). Thls view lits
well wlrh Vygots:ky's rheortes of cognltlve develo;pmenr. Accardl:n_g to Snowman.
M.ccrown and mehler (2011:295), rile wetal consm1ct1vlst e:x;planarton of leamnng
holds t11at ·meanJngful leamlng occurs when people are exv1Jcltly taught how ro
use the psychological 4'0ols of rhelir culture (llke language, mathematics, diagrams.
and approaches ro �oblem solving) and are rJ1en given the opponunlty ro use
these rools to cre.atte a common, or shared, understanding of s-0me [Phe110111ei101t'.
For a neurol>lol oglcal explaruatlo ru ofwhy constr ucrJvls.m Is a logical way roe){p(aln
leanilng, you can refor to Quart1, and Sejnowskil ( 199 7). They claim tliat lea.ming
acmanly guides brain development In veiy specific ways, and tt1at the consrructron
of understanding has both psycho logical and neurological ,components, This Idea Is
explanned In cteraJI by Zuni (2002). sousa (20·1O) provrdes co:nEtderable Insight lnro
d1.e growing field of educalionai neuroscience.
Because of these dlfJer:enr perspectives on constn1crtvlsm, It Is nor surprlsnng
th.at rhere are many views about how consm1ct1vlst ap;proaches ro, leamlng can.
or shoul<t, be transla'.ed Into consm1c1tvlst approaches to r.eac:11.ng. Thus, there :Is
11u 0111:: p1=111Jetl way ro µfou1 i1 cu11:;uuctlvl�n. cru11lculum. H:uwevi::r. mu:;r :;uch
efforts will at least share the phJlosophy that consmrctlvls.t teaching 'Is based on
tile generalized belle:.' that learners d.evelop understanding when rhey are active
and &eek solutions for themselves' (Thy!or, 1 99&:258), Or, as Kamll and Ewing
(1996:260) pur Ir, consrnuct!vlsm Is 'the vlew that much learning ornglnares from
Iii.side the child'.
 The aoove doe.s. 11-0t mean tllat lean�lng should t,e left rorally t.o each learner's
Interests and lncllnat:lons - teachers srlll have an Important rote to p!ay ln guiding
and 1notJYatlng learners. A oommon misunderstanding regarding constn1ctlvlsm Is
thar teachers should never rell learners anything dlrecttly. This Is ce11talniy nor t11e
case - a direct e:x[Planallon by a reacher n1ay lle exacdy what !s needed for lean1ers
ro construct a deeper 11111dersrandlng. Elfecrlve constructilvlst reaching, alw.ays
Includes su�tandal te.acher lnput, but It .a\s() p:roYldes opl)Cbmmlttes for learners
ro explore. reHectt upon and .share thelr d.e vel oplng urnderstartdlng. The purpose of
construcltvtsr, tteachlng Is not t.o allow learners to 'rediscover from Rrst principles
die a:uCn1ral ctlscover1es made by µasr geniuses over centuries . . . but rather to
allow them to engage lru meaningful learning that builds U!P new tmderstanctlngs
and sup;pons progress.Ion rowards canonical knowlooge set our In the cu1TlaLlu1n·
(Tuber. 20 I 0).
From .a constntctlv:lst pe:rspectlv,e, It Is esse 11!1al co srrm::n1re leanllng envlromnenrs
and act1vltfes eo J1elp leaniersronstruct knowledge rather d1a11 Just absorb Ht. Ofte11,
di.ls Idea Is expressed as le.amers using 'r.h.e:lr experiences ro acrlvely consrrucr
understanding In a way that makes .sense to them' (Borich & Ton1bari, 1997:'1 78).
or. as Domlnlc.k and Clark (1996) explained. constructivist reaching, lnvolv,es
gelll'lng learners to use ,vhar tthey '.know to figure out what they need. ro know. It
should be dear that this approach to teaching emphasises that It is th.e learners·
lnrerncrlon ,111rh the conrenr rJ1at ls mo&r Important In [he learning process. If
learners are to make sense of new lnfom111tlon, they must be given opportunities to
lnregrnte anct synthesise lnfomnal!lon f.rom different sources. create new caregortes
and develop new menral framewoJks and models. In this prores.5. tthe reacher
·oecom.es ai facilitator of learning rather rl1an a giver of infonnatlon· {Dart, 1994: 1 >·
The ,consrfi1.lcrlvlsr claim char learning mu.st :be an active process Us hard to argil.le
against. It seen,s qurre logical be.::ause 'lean11ng, requires a ch.a.ng,e ln rhe learner,
,vhlch can onlybe brought aibour iby whatt the learner does - what he or she .attends
ro, what actlv1tles he or sl 1e engages ln' (Ande:rson, Reder &:S!mon, 1997). What !lie
reacher does wlll help .sn1denrs learn only ro the extent that they are encouraged to
engage In actlvlti<'.S (mental or physical) In which they wouild. notothe.f\'/'l se engage.
ln die firnai analysis. ·what sn1dencs "know" consi sts of lnrernally consrrucroo
understandings of how their worl d liun<:tlons. New lnfonnatlon eltlier transfonns
d1elro!d l>ellefs or doesn·r (Brooks & Brooks, 1999: L). If no trarn&fom1at:Jon occurs,
d1en no lean1lng has occurred.,
\ol/hether we are empllasls:lng a cognltJve or a social approach ro constn1ct1vlsm,
d1ere are severd.l specl5c things rhar teachers ,can do ro help learners bulld their
..
understanding, such as,
',., ' .. ' ' ' '
.a. scaffolding: - providing a student ,vlth enough help ro complete a task:
. "

and d1en grdduall.y decreasing rhe help as the 'learn.er llecomes able ro work
!1tdependenrly;
.a. uslng realistii: learning oo.ntexts: and
.i. using techn iques that dellberately encourage learners to view sltual'lons from
multiple perspectives.
Using these ld.e.as, s110,1�11an, Mccrown and BlehJer (2011:297) sugges.r that 'tile
es&ence of a consoucavtsr lesson Is ro provlcte srudenrs wJch reallstlc problems that
r.annot be S1)1ved \11th thelr current level or ;1.mderstandUng and, by al!owdng them
ro !nreracc mainly among rhemselves, to work our new mndersranctlngs·. Agaln, it
must [)e ennphas!sed tl1at the te.aclter stlll hcl.s an lmporicl.nt rdle here - mal\lng sure
tlnar tile J n reraotlons between I.earners are proctucltlve. and that 11ne understandings
leamers develop are legldmate. lt wou!d, for example. be rldicul1)US to suggest rhat
a construotlv1st lesso ru had IJ.een suocessful simply because learners developed rl1elr
ow11 understanding wh.en rhar understanding was dearly wrong.
VJhen used appmprlately, s:tudenr--eemied. reach!ng srraregtes such as dlseusslon, c0-
qpe@tlve leamlmg, prclblem solviing andstudent b1qulry embody many of the pllnclples
that Bo11ch and Tomlbart ( 1997) suggest are cl1aracrertst1c of consrructlvlst reaching
practices. As you will see In later chapters, these scracegtes enable reach.ers ro:
"' organise learning and lnsrrucdon around Important Ideas (such a:: fh.e primary
concepts, generaltsadons and underlying rh.emes of die content) rather than
focusing on Isolate<! facts;
...._ emphas.ise the imporrance of prior knowledge by providing learners with a
cognrr:1.ve snucrure that they can use ro make sense of new learning;
"' challenge tl1e adequacy of d1e learners· prtor knowledge, oftte11 by creading
some c,1nceprua1 conlllct:
"' allow for ambiguity and uncertainty by presenl'lng leamers with problems thar
have complex'il)'. uncertain!}' and muldp. le solutions:
"' reach feamers how to learn, how r.o regulate their Jeamlng skJlls and how to
direct their own learning elTorrs:
_.. treat learning as a Joint cognitive venture between learner, peers and teach.er:
and
...._ assess learners' knowledge acquisition during a lesson so thar rhey receive
Immediate feedback ancl s-1 tltat tl1ey are able to see the c•onnectlon bet:ween
tl1elr learlllng and tile r.esclng of that learning.
A constructlvlsr approacl1 ro teach!lng ancl Jea[nlng does not deny the tmporrance
of facvu.al knowledge. bur. Ir does emphasise d1at the bestt way for learners ro
retain anct appUy this knowledge Is ro ·pur Jr Into a larger, more llfellke co1uext
d1ar srlrm1Jares learners ro reltecr. orgarulze, ana!y7ie ., and problem ooh'e' (Borich
&. 1bmbal1., I 997: 180). Chaprers 6 r.o B 4 of this boolc explain numerous ways In
wlllch you. can -do th.is.
By acknowledging rhar lean11ng ls an lntemal process ratther than someiCl1lng tllau
a reacher can tmpose on learners. ·constructivist ieamlng r:heory places Importance
on tile: leamers pol.nr of v1ew· (Garmsron & Wellman, ! 994:85). However, ltt
emphasises that tl1ese views need ,o have a radonal basis. Clearly, rhJs approach
ro reachJng and learning reUes: on rlte . lean1ers being able to, tllln'k for themselves
and to solve problems- both academic problems and lnte, rper.sonal problems. You
cannot assume r:hat students Will have these skills. De Bo:no { L 996) erniphaslses
the .importance of ;teacl1lng learners appro p: rlate th!lnklng skllls so that they can
move frcm one airrangem,e.nr of k.nowiedg_e to a better one. He arg_ues that Jeam,e.rs
need ro be trained to think consm1ct1veny rather than analyrlc.aliy and suggests
that constnicrlve
. t:hlnklng focuses on depth ofper,ceptlon, orga.1itsat:1on of thlnklt1g,
Interaction, creatilvlty. lnfornnatlon and feeltns. and act1on.
 If learners are ro construct rhelr own understanding of some new conienr, It [s
viral for reachers m be aware of. and u r!Dlse, rhe leamers.' prior knowledge. One
challenge ror tteachers Is ro figure our how an-d what ro ask learners In order ro
find our whar they already understand. Dominick and Clark ( 1996) provide useful
examples of how thHs can be done In Junior Mathemallcs classes, and their lde.as can
b e :readily applied In orher subJeors. One very useful suggesrlon they make Is that
reachers should ask 'ho11esr questions.', rhar Ls, quesl!lous re whlch rhey ltonesrly
do nor know rhe answers. Ex:amples of such questlons would be "How did yo11
know tltar?' or· Did anyone approaclt this problem In a different way?' AnS\vers r,o
questions suclt as these can. provide lnslgh.ts lnro learner:s· undersrandnng, whereas
answers to questions such as '\Vhat ls 7 multlpUed by 5?' reU you nor:ltlng more tl1an
that .a particular dllld either can or can nor give the c orrect answer on tltat occasion.
A co1tstrncl1vlsr approach ro reaching encourages teachers co iook for patterns in
learners' thlnk1ng. Belttg, aware-Of the thinking patterns thar leamers typl.::aUy us,e
hel(lls teachers ro anticipate and. appreclare their students· understanding (Dominick
& Clark, 1996}. In order to de this, you wm neect to plan rorsll!uattons In wltlch you
can reveal and analyse the s:ructencs• thlnk.lng and understanctnng.
None of the tl1eorles of constructivism dictates [he 1rne of (Particular teaching
strategies. They slmply provide a broad theoretic.al frameworl< within wltlcll to
develop approaches rto facUlralilng learning, However: B,rooks and Brooks ( 1999)
suggest there are five overarching prlnctples evident In constrnctlvlst classrooms::
1. Tuachers seek and value their srudenrs' pofinrs of view.
2. Classroom actlvlties challenge learners· suppositions.
3. Teachers pose problems and strucrure classroom ex:perte:nces that fosre:r the
,creation of personal mean111g.
4. Teachers build lessons around prtmaryconceprs and big !deas and help learners
to discern for themselves the parts that require more lnves�gatlon.
5. Teachers assess learning In the conrexr of dally re.achang rat:11er than viewing
ass essment as separate and distinct from :normal clas;sroom activities.
As you work t hrough chapters o to 15, you wll1 see how these principles: can be
built into a range of different teaching and assessment strategies,
some of the r:easons that consm1cc1vtsm provld.es a strong rlleoreetcal base for
rile Integration of technology with reaching are ex!)lorecl by Genslmrg and Herman
(2009) and by Yoder (20 i O). \'lays ln which con-structl�1lst approaches to leami ng
can tie &upported by motiue recI111ofog1es are explore.<! by Craig and van Lorn (2009).
Activity: Your personal view of leamlng
',:
·Consider thisqu,oiation from Brooks and Br,o,ok$ (1999):
Eoch of u� makes sense of our wood by syn1hesizing new experiences into
what we ha� p�viously come to understand. Offen. weencounter on object,
an idea, o relationship, or o ph-eoomenon tho! doesn'1 quit,e mokesense to us.
When ,;;oofr,onied wilhsuch initiallydis,;;reponldata or perceptions. we ei1her
inlerpre1 what wesee lo conform o t our present set of rules for explaining and
Ofdering our wolid. or we genemte-a n.ew rel of rules th-al better accounts for
what we perceive lo be occurring. tither Wcrf, our perceptions and rules are
,constcmtty engage<! in a grand claocethal shap�ourunderstandings.
1. How wen does h t is statement.summarise how you learn?
2. How well does this statement summarise oow you tilin� learners in diffefent
phases learn?
3. How does your view ol leollling influence n t .e way you teach?
TEACHING FOR UNDERSTANDING
In Chap�er 4, It Is si1ggested that all your t eaching should start with the question;
'Whar .cto we wanr srudenrs t o learn?' A tradltlonal answer to rl1.ls question mlght
be: •·we want students ro gain knowledge, we want them co develop sk.llJs and we
wanr t11em ro deve!OJ) .attlru.des and values·. Or, we mlghr simply :say: '\Ille want
snide.ms to understand the subject we are teaching·. But whar, exacv.ly, do we
mean when we us,e the r.em1 'tmdersrand' and how does 111:ls b road aim fir with the
consnuctlvlsr ldeas rhat are exploral 111 this chapter?
One Interesting way to explore this issue Is through the llterature on 'teach.Ing
for undersrand lng·. A considerable amount of work on this t0J)lC has been done at
d1e Harvard Graduate School of Educatlo11, much of.ltassoclared with their Project.
zero•, The following noces draw heavnly on the Harvard work.
What is. understanding?
r
\-\"hen leamers ar aln und.ersrandlng, wl1at have rhey acltleved? 111 what way
Is a teamer who undersra:nos something different from a learner wl10 .ct-oes not
understand that same rJtlng? Knowledge can be c-011:Sldered as facts or lnfo1matlo11
to be rememberal and reprcxll!lced, but under:srandlng ls something more rhan rhar.
If a learner ca,� r.ell you things s11ch as the name <1f the first Pr-esictent ◊f &iutll Africa,
or the l.ocadon of Nam.lbI.a, o:r rile ,colour or copper s:ulphate. or who wrote Macbe.th.
you can confidently say th.at the teamer has s ome knowledg_e of these things, But
wltat does a rearner llave to do to convince you d1at she/he understands why
soutl� Africa has a president, why Nam lb. la Is mi longer pa11t of south Africa. what
happens when yo:u add copper sulphate ro hydroc.hlortc acld. or why Shakespeare
Included the witches In Macbeth? Learners who can answer these questions have
more than Just knowlalge - rl1ey have some level of understanding.
One simple way to define understand! ng Is to say: lean1ers understand some thIng
wlten lt. has meanlng for them or when It makes sense to them. But perhaps that Is
nott enough. Consider, for example, the game o f chess. I can say that I tmderst.and
d1e game of chess - It makes sense to me, i '.know what It i&, I can tell others: what It
Is, I <:an play the game and I can even teach someone else co play the game. But, 111
m1rll, l do nor undersranct the game of chess very we[! - Il am nor particularly g-ood
at playing the game and I cannot explal ru It to others In anytthlng more than simple
terms (fo:r ex.ample, I ,can explain moves bur nor strategies). My understanding of
d1e game Is far from that of a chess mast.er. Clearly. this suggests rhat undersrandlng
Is something that can come In different amounts (a l.lcrle or a lot). Altem.arlvely we
can say that it Is poss!ble t-o have different levels of undersrrandlng of the same
thlngs, llenc.e the notions of deep undersran.dlng and surface undersrandlng (Blggs,
i996; Leichwood. McAdle, Bascla & Rodrigue, 2006).
Davis ( I 986) suggests tthat tl1ere are d1rne levels of understanding,
l. Flrsa. learners need to know rhe basl-c meaning oi what d1ey are dolng: (sudt
as seeing: d1ar the concept ofactdlt1<1n ari!ses f:rom t:Jte Idea of wmblnlng similar
tlllng.s ro prod11.1ce a total).
2. 111en, learners shoul d c-011.c.eive the tasks in which rhey are engaged (sucl1
as problem s,oJvlng) as being more man Just a sequence of s.reps done for 110
apparent reason - what they .are dolmg should make sense ro them.
3. finally, lean1ers can apply tactics: and strategies for leaming and explorl ng
their subJecr.
Perklns ( 1995:77) puts It this way: '\.Vhe.n we undersran.d sometthlng, '\'e nor 011ly
possess .certain kno,11ledge about It bur .are enalbled. to do certain r.hlngs ,vlth that
knowledge', Zirbel (2005) argues that the mo.st Importan t thing for learners to be
able ro do ,1,1r11 ne,1• 1<no,11ledge .Is (O wnnecr tr In logJcan and meaningful ,vay& tto
d1elr exli;afng knowledge.
111e ·perfomnance view of unders tand ing · espou&ed by the Ha1vard 'PTo}ecr zero
vean1 Is thar undersrandl11g is the ability t.o think alld act flexibly \11th \vl1ar one
knows. Thus, the 1nore fl'ex.lble one can be In one's thinking about some particular
aspect of kno,vledge, and the n1ore flexible one can be In do[ng something ,vid1 that
knowledge, the ,cteeper one·s understanding Is said co be. FlexJblllty Is not the only
way to quantify understalldlng, but Ir Is a useful start.
E'leXlble thinking Includes the al:>lllt:y to take kno,vledge lean1ed In l1ne
situation and :apply It In a different situation.. lfl1us, a le,u11er \l'h.o could :apply
some parrtrutar knowledge ln many dlfferen r. con1plex and �1 nfan11Har s1n1at1ons
would be considered to have a greater undersr,undlng of dnat kno\vledge tthan a
leanner who could apply It In only a few. ,slmple, fan1rnlar sltual:lons, ln this vein.
Perldns a11d Blyrl1e ('J ()94 :5) suggest that ·understanding ls a matter o f be,Jng alble
to do a variety of tJ1oug,ht-dennandlng trulngs ,vld1 a t:oplc- like explaining, finding
evidence and examples, g,e:nerallzlng, applying, analog,lzlng, and rep:rese 1utng ttlne
roplc in a new way'.
Quire clearly, the understanding tthar a learner develops Is llruked ro rhe ,vays 111
w lllcl1 she/Ile thinks. Tills Is one reason winy, In reamr. years, tthere llas been s:o
rnuch attention given to ,:;r!ikal and creative thlnklng, Research In this area has
often focused on ·rJ1inl<lng skms·, bur recenr researcl1 :at Harv.ard unnvers l·ry has
raken a dl!ferent approach. Their Patten1s of Thanking Project (1999) sugg:ei;red
that thlnklng dlsposlt1ons -tendencies r.owar,cts part1cular partterns of tl:llnklng - are
ln1portant across a "'Ide range of sul:>)ecr areas. The project ldentilfied three dlsctnct
components of effective rhlnl<lng, ability, inclinatiion a11d sensitivity. This
suggests d1at ln order co think In a pamcular ,vay (eg crealilvely. crllllcalny, open­
mlndedly) a student' 111us:r have the ability to t11lnk that way, n1ust feel ttncllned
to make the effort ro think d1at \liay, and ml!lst recognise oocasions ,1•h.en it ls
appropriate to think that way.
The Implications of these findings for a co:nsnucdvlsr approach to reaching
and le.a:n1111g .are quire s.lgnl.ficant Ir ,1•111 not b.e sufficient ro consider Jusr the
stude.nrs· skllls when creating a leamang slniatlon In \l'hlch lean1e rs can discover
new· 1111.dersr.andlngs for themselves; ltt \\'LIi be necessary ro foCi\u; also on their
mot1vat1011 and their sensitivity ro the need to think In partl.ou:tar \vays. 1b do this,
you will need ·to select your reaching srraregies carefully so that they suit not only
your lea 111ers but rile subject matter you are reaching and rhe ourcotnes you want
fean1ers ro achJeve.
 As you consider !'he ways in wl1lcl1 rouse the reaching strategies rhar are presented
in this book. you should explore t�1.e different types of learner understanding
tthar may be facilitated through the use of each strategy . Before doing that, you
w[[I need to clarify for your&e8f just what it means tto undersrand Science, or
Mathematics, or Arr, o:r wharever rn .ts that yolll wlll be teaching . No matter what
rrype of understanding you want your learners to achieve. you cannot avoid the fact
tthar learning requires thinking on the pant of the I.earner . Further, ·snidenrs cannot
develop their d1lnklng unless th.ey are eng.aged In activities that promote such
outcomes· (Shei>ardson, 1997:37). Your task ts tto :stlil1crure learning exper.tences
tthat 1,vlll encourdge learners to think In particular ways aoout the things that you
wanr r:hem to learn. Often, this thinking ts not something rllar JeameJs can antve
atton their own. iFor example, Leach and Sco1t (J 995;48) claim that 'it Is dear that
stude:n rs cannot develop an understanding of rhe t11eortes of sctenc.e rhrough their
ow11 observations· because learning sci.enc.e requires a [l)aitla1lar way or thinking
rather than tndtvtduaUs making sense of itlle wo11.d In ,their own renms. TJ1erefore,
Science teachers have to help learners to trnnsfor1111 their ,everyday n.otiolls Into
sctenlllicany accept.able ways of understanding. \Vharever you reach, one of your
principal itasks ls ro help leamcrs acquire rhe cognitive strategies that they will need
to make sense of the learning ex:pertences r.hat you snucrure and the lnfom1arton
that l'hey encounter.
Activity: Evaluating your owm unde'lstanding
�
1. Whol clo you understoncll by the concept 'global warming'?
2. How would you rate your understaooing ot this concept on o s:cole of 1
(almost no understandin,g) to 1 O (very deep understanding)?
3. On what basis did you make lf1is assessment 01 you� understandiiig?
4. Do you think a climatologist woulcl make the some osressmeot •of your
understanding of global warming?
5. Whal does thfa tell you about how $luclenfs th-at yoOJ teo-ch might rote their
understanding of the things yau want them lo 1eorn?

How can you teach so thafi learners. understand?

If you want lean1ers to develop deep understandlng, you have to plan thoroughly.
Pl.an 11tng ts exprored In derail In Chapter 4. and t1iere yo11 wlll see that you need ro
be able ro do four lmporran r things, namely:
1. Describe the fu:ndamenral rht:ngs you wanr learners to understand.
2. 1tanslare these fundamenca.1 u1tde:rstandtngs Into specific fe.an1ing 01Utcomes .
3. create an env1ro1tmenr �har wlll support attd encourage le.an1tng.
4. Give learners op()Ortunlrtes ro pubUdy d emonsmtfe their developing
understanding.
The first s:rep In p·lanntng .ts to describe what It ts rhar you wanr learners to
underscand- nor the trtvial details. but d1e really lmportantt. things. In the language
of outromes-based &tucarton these wUI be the slgnlliicant outtcomes rhar you wane
lean1ers to achieve. Because of their trn portance to the sm1crure of a subject, here
d1.ey will be refelled ro as fi.mdamen ral undersrdndlng.s. Here are some exam pies of
ft11tdamenral und.ersrandlngs;
A For a Social Science (Hlsrory) course, Undersr.andJng pasr events helps us to
understand why rhe ,vorld Is t'.he \l'ay Ir ls. today. H!srory Is created by the
decisions rJ1 at people n1ake and don't make.
• For a Naniral Sciences course: \Ve srudy Science so that w,e can understand
tile physiral ,vorld around us. Science Is not the process of finding facts bur of
consrructlng and rest111g theories.
A For an Al_geJJra couuse, We can use what we know to figur<! out \Vi1at vie do:n ·c
knO\I',
A For a Toacher Educat:1011 course, Nor am students can lean1 the same thing tn the
same \Vay or In 1he same time. rrtor know'ledge ls fundamental ro deve loping
new u11derstandlngs.
\�IJ1en you. are clear about tJ1e fundamental undersra:ndlngs rllar you want learners
to acllleve. you can ta"e the second ste!). nam.ely translatlng these Into spectftc
lean1ing outco1nes that can be addressed in che. shorr· remn. For exainple:
A In :a !History unltt: Lean,ers will u11dersta11d the relationship between rights
and re�7Jonsi/Jilfties /11 a democratic society.
.ti. In. a J\,lat.l1ematlcs lllnlt� leanrers wilt u11dersta11d the re.laiio11sllip '/Jeovee11
f1 regrarion and d!!J'erentfatio11.
1

• In. a ureraru re unit: Lear11ers will 11.!ldersrand /10�r authors create, develop and
sustain Sl!$pense t11 a pfl)t,
A In. a Healtl1 unit! Learners 1-vifl 1u1tierscond /row diet call co,un'!Jute ro
card{ovascu.lar disease.
• In. a Teacher Ectucat1on unit: Lean1ers wil! understand tl1e.role q/!l1etacognit1011
f11 lear!ling.

rr you plan your reaching In 111Is way, It ,vm help you to rake lean1ers beyond
super!ficlal undersrandlng and rote !earning. It \\1lll l1elp you to select reaching roplcs
that are ,vorrlly of rime and efforr 111 �he classroom. To help ,vIrh 1111s aspect of
plannJng. tile PToJea zero rearn developed rhe concepr of generative topics and
defined thenn as. 'Issues, them.es 11111d Ideas that provide enough depth, slgnl6amce.
connectlons an.d variety of perspectives: r o s111pport sttudernrs· ct.eve!opmenr. of
pow·erful understandlng' (Blythe & 1\ssociates, 1998). Topics such as th[s reward
sustained Inquiry :and wm typically have tile foilow•Jng features,
._ They are central ro the 6eld of slUdy l>ecause they connect ilnporra nc i. deas
,vlthln and across subject areas.
._ They are concepn1ally complex and worth undersrandln.g.
• They are I1werest1ng and re levanr. co niost student$.
._ They are fasclnallng and con1pe:lllng for the teacheJ.
• They can rea<llly be explored through ,op-en-ended questions.
._ They can be Investigated tluougll a varlery of strategies and actlvld.es and by
lea:n1ers at many dUTerenr. stages of development .an<! levels of understanding .
._ They give smdenrs many oppom1nltles ro m .a:ke connecrrons wldt their prtor
lean1ing expertences.
Combining constructivism with teoclhing for understanding
we can comMne ¢he principles l1f constmcr11,Ism and teachlng for understanding
by engaging 1earners In a series of pr�es rJ1ar Dykstra (2005 :5 7) refers ro as
ellcltacion, comparison, resolution and applJcatlon.
'E-licitatio111 Is the act of 'drawlng ouc· [11fom1at:1on from another person - In t111s:
case, d1e teacher engages lean1er:s In som.e acdvlty rhar requires rhem r o reveal.
their I11.ltual knowledge, understanding ancVor t>ellefs about somed1.lt1g that che
reacher plans (O use as a vehicle for fadlltarHng rhelr runher lear ning. The leaimers
are required ro either talk about or wrlre abour these tdeas. possibly l.ru small! groups.
.
Of1e 11 It Is llel pful r,o ger learners ro make a prectlcrton about what t'hey thJnk wnll
happen In some special sltualilon. (This as demonstrated In the example thar follows
shortily.) It does not matter lf lean1ers cannot make accurate or correct predictions.
The lmporranr rJllng Is tl1ar clley make their currerut undersranctln_g explldt co
d1emselves and orhers.
some el![amples ofroplcs rhar have rhes:e features are tJ1e following,
.._ In Biology: life, reproduction. animal lnsrJncrs, ralnforesrs. dinosaurs.
endangered sp<Xles, global wanning;
.._ In Mathernadcs, the concept of zero, parrems, equaltty, size and scale.
probab lilt)';
._ In Hlsrory: narural dosasrers, survival, revoludon, conlllct, pmver, leadership:
.._ In Llteranu re: folktales, humour. meraphors;
._ In Art: colour, pers:pectlve, creatlvlly;
.._ In Health: 6mess, endurance, plnyslologJ,•, modvadon: and
_., In Teacher Edtt,-0tlo11: Cl1gnlt1ve<1evelopmenr, rotlStructtvlsm, teaming dlfficultt-es.
Some generative topfcs have features th:at make them what Wlske, Breit and Fran;,;
(2004) refer to as 'targets of difficulty', because they are peren nJally dlflicult things:
co teach and learn. Thls can make rh:eru ideal roplcs ro ex!ilfore rhrough rhe use of
new· ectucarcomaJ rechnol ogles-.
Ail:e:r you have decided whar you wantt smd.enrs ro leam (the leamlng outcomes)
and you have selected generative topics that wlll allow learne:rs ro explore and
develop thelr understa11dlng, you are ready for t11e rJ1lrct step, decldlng how ro create
an e11vlronmenr rhar w!ll supporr and encourage lea1nlng. W.lrhln this supportlive
envlronmerut. you have to enable learners t-0 review, challenge. reshape, expand
on, exrrapolat:e fron1 and apply whar rl1ey already know In. ways. ihar wlll build
d1elr understanding. Lr Is at this stage that you should help learners ro represent
Ide.as 1111gulst1cally (us111g techniques suicl1 as chose discussed ln Chapter n 41 and
non-llnguJsClcally (using, technJques such as gra[lhlc organls:ers:, physical models
and pictures - see. for ex:ampl.e, MarLano, Pickering & Pomock, 200 I).
Tile fourth srep In teacillng ror 1111cterstandlng IS ro gtv� learners op[l)o1nmltles ro
publicly demonstrate t'.helr developing understanding. This has rwo mal.n fu11ct10:ns,
1. rn enables learners ,to resr rllelr understanding by applying It ln some way.
2. It enables the teacI1er ro Judge the e:x.tent t,1 w11IcI1 sl!Udenrs liave achieved rhe
1ean1Jng outcomes.
 once the learners have eacl1 made rl1etr understanding e){pllclt, tile next :Step
Is ro see wherher rhese und erstandings match real[cy. This comparisoru requires
the teacher to use some fom1 of demonsrratlon ihat will comradlcr (or at least
severely •challenge} rile lean1ers· extstln,g underscand!ng. tr wJll be srrucrured so
that leanwJs ca,� Identify any ctlfferences be1weeI1 what they predlcr,00 and what
acnrally happens.
If the teacher has a clear p!crure of ttlle lean,er:s' preooncepttons and llas. srrucrurect
a demonsrratton t11at challenges these preconceptions In an approprnare way. she/
he will �heru be able to guide the learners to resolution of tl1e mismatch !between
their nnltlal explanatory knowledge and the[r new ex:pe:rtence. This lea1nlng process
requires learners to mocllfy their [Previous understanding to accommoo.ate new Ideas.
The li.naJ sirep ts. one of applacation where learners: use their new undersrandnng
to further explore the phenomenon under l nvesdgalilon.
These Ideas are applled In the following exam[Ple, which !s. often dennonstrated
In Physics classes and which ls described In detaU by Leonard and Gerace ( 1()96).
If )'OU loolc beyond !lie con rent, you will se e a rar:efuliy sm,crured leannlng process
diar can be applied 111 orher areas.. In this case. the reacher's aim ls r.o challemge
lean1ers· !11.lnkl.ng, .about energy, velocity and aocelerat!on - and to :he.Ip them
develop new ways of solving pro:blems Involving these concepts.
Figure 2.2 represents an apparanrs th.at has nvo cracks on wl1lch steel balls can
roll with negllglble loss of energy due to friction. One tr.ack Is horizontal between
points A amt !B. and the other rrack has a cup Im It. The nvo balls stare ar the same
height and time and roll down a steep slope :before crossing line A. They fin.lsh at
the same he!glu at llne B. The guestlon ts.: WhJch ball \VIII reach point B first?

A B
I I
Ball 1
I I
I I
�
Ball 2
I Track t
I
I
I
I
I

Track 2

Figure 2.2: ApparatU5j'or r.esdng tcan1ers· predictions about rol/i17g balls

Par the ell<:ltatl\ln phase, e.ach leamer has to com mlt to .a predlccton. 'I11e poss1bmt1es
are: Bani 1 (on the straight track)> wlU arrive li.rsr, Ball 2 wlll arrive first, or [he !:>ans
wlll bodn arrive ar die same lime. Srudenrs have to wrJre down their pred!cllon.
and share rheir predlcdon and explanation wlrh at least one or.her person. (Before
re.adlng on, predict what you t:111111< will happen when r.he balls roll.)
For the comparison phase, the b•alls a�e rolled and learners o!Jls.erve the result.
Ball 2 1V!ll always .arrive lirsr, no matter how steep the dip (and, rh.erefore, how
.
much further It h.as ro travel). (\Vas d1ar whar you pFedlcted7)
" ' . ' �
 Since ntost learners ,viii not l1ave
: made rhe c,1rre{r pred1c11011, there Is need ror
resolution of the counter-lnruttlve result. The leanters who 11ad con1mntted to an
Incorrect predJctlon are 110�1• 1notlvatecl to• change their under:.-tandlng, beca11s.e
they have observed somertolng rhat does not matci1 ,vhar they rhlnk shouht
have happened. Th.ey ,11111 be makll1g deliberate arremp� to consm1.ct a nel\',
n1ore appropriate unders-tandlng of the lnformarlon th.at was presenr.ed to them
In the origlna:i problem. Thar Is, they 1111ll be deJl[l.erar.ely nyln_g to leant, rather
than simply rrylng to n1emortse something rh.e teacher l1as cold then1. This new
learning rakes place e11rouglt dl&cusslon, and slttce many others In the class will
also have made rh.e wrong prediction, there Is no embarrassment
: or th.rear: rhe
dlsc11ss1011 ain oe open and ho11esr. ('l'he ba�lc exp:ianatlon of why Ball 2 arrives
first Is rhat the velocity of Ball 2 In the horizontal dlrecl1on Is always greater
than or equal to the velocity of Ball I, so Ball 2 covers the horl11ontal distance
In a shorter t1111e. A ctecalled mathematical proof Is glv,en 111 Cady and Middleton
(2009).J
for die .appllcatlon [Phase, lean1ers are presented with other problems t11.at can oe
soUved using sl n1llar approaches: (sln1ple reasoning abour oaslc concepts) and then
chey can be challenged ro devclop mathematical descrlprtons of the phenomenon
rhar rl1ey obse1 ved.
This example illusrrares lmpon:ant dJfferences :between construcdvlsr approaches
ro teachnng for uncters1andtng and content-based approacl1es to reacl1lng for
n1emorlsadon:
..t.. T.he r,eachlng d[d not lbegnn ,v1rh the presentation of abstract rheor1es, but \VltJ1
the creation of an oppo:m1nll)' ro engage the lear11ers and activate t11elr exlsctng
undersrandlng
..t. !Lean1ers \\'ere required to n1ake their current t1llnkl11g public before ,hat
rhlnklng was challenged because ·students become rnore cons:clous o:f d1elr
o,vn •houghr processes as d1ey get to see how other people tl1lnk' �Leonard &.
Gerace, 1 996:8).
..t. !Lean1ers wno made Incorrect predlcl1ons \Vere required to dellberarely consm1ct
ne,v undersrandnngs by refllecttng on thelr earlller thinking, and ,vere mot1var.ect
ro do so by the personal reallsarl'on rhar their lnlt'Jal thinking was A.a\\•ed (r.a,her
rl1an be.Ing told by the teacl1e.r t11ar their thinking was lla\ved.).
Lean1ers were ('.ncouraged and helped to develop a deep understandlng ofme topic
rather tl1an accept ai superficial ex;p:ianatlon One explanadon of why this approach
to teaching can 1,e effective Is that 'our brains are encoded to make and respond
ro predlctlons, t11ey are panlcularty sl1mularect when tliey predict one effect and
experlence a different one· (\Vllils, 2006: 1 1 }. These Ideas wl[( oe explored furrher
In chapters 6 to 14,
EFFECTIVE LEARINING ENVIRONMENTS
TI1ere are :seveJal [mp:inanr layers ro elm learning context, and ead1 layer Impacts on a
reacher's elforrs co reach elfecrJvely: To begin with, the lmmedlare c.onrextoftthe classroom
must c::rea:re a suppcrtlve leamlng envlrt)nment - one ·whld1 encourages learners ro
engage wtd1 relevam Jeamtng_ experiences, suppores melr elton:s ro un
them ro rc e rie[r aclllevemenrs. such an envtronmenr
will rnalmraloa feats Ou academic achJevennenr wJule making leamJngchallenging and
enjoyAble. Ii' require.; the teacher to create !earning ex:penences that are bas:e,;l on proven
peda,gogtcan pdndples. lde1111fy ba n1ers ro teamlng and actJusr dne learning ernvtro 11menr
In response to a diversity of learner needs. Creating 111:ls environment .should be a co­
OJ)eratlve e1fonr i.Jetween the reacher and tl1e leamers:, and itnever (20 I 1) suggests
th.at even yoimg_ ch.lldren are highly aware of howrhe lmmedJare ernvlronmenr sl1apes
their leamlng experience In both pos1rt1•e and 11eg.atlve ways.
It wlll lbe dlffiailr for teachers ro establish and malnraln suipportlve classroom
environments unless there Cs an approprtar,e sct10ol-wlde env1ronmenr. This broader
envlronme:nt wlrn be detennlned by factors such as the physical envir onment,
the social sysrem, relationships between the IP11nclpal. reachers and learners. a
sense of community, reacher and learner morale, nom1s among peers, and safety
(Organ lsatlon for Economic CO-operarJon .and Develo;pmenr. 2009: I 08). A
conslsr,enr school-wide appr\la.Cll to qualliy reaching rJiar emphasis.es explfclt qD;1allty
crnterla, l1Igh expectations. smclernts' self-regulallon and knowledge Jnregraelon wtnl
hel!J) to- �tabllsh a suppcrt1ve leamlng environment. 1111s Is only possible wllen
ueachers routinely collaborate.
One of the greatest challenges facing South African teachers Is th:at. In many
slrnarlcnns. the physic.al environment of the scl100'1 makes teaching and leamlng
difficult. Over-crowded classrooms, run-down buildings and a lack of !basic
equlpmernt a1Jl make Ir difficult to support and encourage learning. However, rhere Is
!Hrrle chance ch.at these problems will disappear In rhe short renn, so teachers. need
ro develop strategies for mlnlmtslng their negarlve efJecrs. You wl!J find. useful Ideas
for facing rJ1ese challenges In F'rancts, Mal1lomaholo and Nkoane (20 LO).
11,e broader comexr, wt1lch Jrncluctes t11e learners· famny situation and the
communlry, can also eld1er enliance or dJmlnlsh reac11e:rs' elforcs ro provide a
supportive classroom e1wlrt)11menr. Leamers from famlUes and com munlttes
d1ar value education are more likely m engage In producl!lve learning . .seek deep
undersrandlng and be :self-�eguta!lng rha11 Jeamers from non-supportive ramllies
and communltles. 'Ieachers sh011ld nor Ignore the Importance of en couraging
parent.support for the -core leamnng principles: espous-ed by the school and of parent
lnvolvemenr .In the leamlng p rocess.
llJSING TECHNOlOGY TO ENHANCE TEACHING AND LEARNING
For att least the past 50 years, the evolving concept of effective te.achnng has been
llnl<ed ro teachers· al.Jlllry ro use rechnologles d1ar help srudenlS to Beam. Ill! days
wl1en avallafule technologies were little more tlian an overhead projector, usln,g
d1e111 effecr[ve:iy was nor dlffficult. Tills g,radualJy changed with the Introduction
of information aud communication technologies (ICI) t:har could be us.ed
for ectuc.atlonal [Purposes, In recent years the rapid development oi electronic
reclmoJogles has greatly expanded the possJb[llttes and challenges for teachers.
There are currently ar le.asr seven types ofrechnology tharcan l)e used In reaching
and teaming, namely,
1..presentation tools (such as Powe:rpolnt and Interactive whiteboards);
2. asynchronous commumtcadon systems (such as ennalls, bulletJn boards or
podcasl1lng):
3. synchronous co111111m11cat1on systems (such as lnstantt messaging and
webcams):
4. web content (e[ther static or streamed);
5. collaborative w11ttng, tools {such as wikls and biogs);

6. web-based learning and assessmenr re.sources (such as South Afr1.ca's Sly,avu'la

Project); and
7. web-base<! course management tools (such as Blacl<lboard anct Mood:le).
Just a few years ago, the tdea of south African teachers using .sophtstlcared
technologies as reaching tools was little more tlian a drean1, and It will be many
years before the maionty of schools have tthe lnl'rasm1cture and res-0urces ro give
lean1ers access to the technologies that are av.a:llable In schools ln counotes such
as Australia. However, bask: technologies such as cell phones and MP3 players are
rapidly becomilng .av.allable to many learners, and teachers need to be conslde11ng
Innovative ways of us1ng these as lean1lng tools :rather tham assuming thalt
expensive equlpmenr musr be p11rchased.
The most critical anr.lbuce of any technology use<l [n reachlng and learning ls Its
capacity ro engage learners and support d1elr e. fforts to understand the things they
are studying. 'Nil.ether rhe technology ls simple or complex, to 11.1se Jceffecrlvely you
W1ll n.ee<I to be knowledgeable about die technology and competent 111 using .It to
meet specific educational goals. so, IJiefore using any technology lt Is useful ro ask
yourself tl1e foll.ow1ng questions;
.,. \•VJiar need or problem am I. hoping to actctre&S with tll.ls technology?
.,. �VJiar learn.Ing tl1eor1es s111pporr th.e use of this technology?
.,. �Vilar evidence do I luuve that this r.echnology mlgllr be more effective than
orher ways of helping srudenr:s learn?
a How wm thl.s r«l:mology engage and mortvare smctenrs7
.,. How will this. rechnology help learners to bulld on their prior knowledge and
organHse new lde-0s lnro meaningful snuctures?
.t. How wJII thl.s t.echnology encourage learners to be lntenlectually curilous.7
.t. How will this technology help learner.; to evaluate their le-0n1lng progress and
s.eek help when It Is. needed?
.,. Ca!ll I Hnregrate r:he technology Into my readllng In ways that will help learners
s:ee Jr as a useful aid ro their learning, nor Just a novelty?
.t. Do leamers understand how to use this technology oo help d1em learn?
a How weal do I understand this toclmofc,gy and how profident am r at using It
ro fosrer lea1111ng?
• Does tlte 11wesm1e11r oftime, money and energy required C() use this technology
elfecctv.ely Jusl1fy the benefits It wm pro,•lde?
• How wlU the use of tthls technology affect the roles ·1 and my sttudents play In
rl1e teaclll 11g/learnlng process?
.t. How will this technology help me to address learners' indlvidual dllferences
and special needs?
Prom a psychologlcal perspective. ther,e are lbaslcally two sets of arguments to
support rhe use of technology (parrlcula:rly lCT} In reaching:;
 l. From a l:Jel1avlout1st !Jers.pecttlve, IClf can be .a useful motivational tool and a
useful way ro reunforce: rite I.earning of facrual tn.ronnadon.
2. From a constmcttvnsr Jerspectlve, llCT can l>e a useful tool for ena.b llng lea111ers
co manlpu!are lnforma:lon, explore ideas: and consm1cr personal meaning.
Koc (2005) summarises a ,conslderable amount of research sup!)Ortlng each of
d1ese views and explores sane of d1e lmpllcalfons fo:r pre-se:rvlce reaclters. The use
of te<:hnology In ways !11at su1ppctt both beh,wlourtstane. consrmcctvtsr approacl1es
to reaching Is explored furtl1er lly Ebert (2009).
The most elfectlve use cf any tteclmology occurs when It becomes a tool tl1ar
seamlessly supporrs and scaffolds learning. For r111s to occur, h t e reacher and rile
lean1ers must :be proficEenit In using tile t,echnology, Tltlnk of It this way; students
cannot learn effectlvely from a rexrbook un.less they can do such things as read,
skim, use the table of co:ntents and us:e the lnde1'. The sltuat[on. I.Jecomt'.5 much
ULtJJe c-0111rlex wheu smtlem:; c11.e nylng cu 1ea111 f1u111 a cec:t111u!1JgJcal cool :sucl I as
a WebQuest.
Throughout chapters 6 re L 4, suggesdons will Ile made .about how technologtes
can be used ro suppo1t rhe reaching strategies !lmr are described. Regardless of
the rec.hnology or the gene1al reaching str:ategy you are using, keep t1ie following
potnrs Jn mind:
..t.. Technologles are tools for communlcat'lng a1td Leaming. Havlng srncte:nis Beam
about the recl1nology (!or example. how co use a word processor) should nor
be an end in lrself.
... A]l;llT. From JilOS.<;llhff'. mD�VilrlOnilT hP.nf'.fits, rhf'.rf'. IS lin-le [)Olnr In hilvlng lf'..imf'.rs
use complex technology when using sJmpler technology wlll lead to them
achieving the same Ieanl ng: goals.
A Lean1ers wlll h!ave dJITcrent levels of frunillarlty with the technologies you
em.ploy (pardcularly rmen1et-basect rech110logles). You need to allow for d1ls
and rake advantage of .Ir.
.., You need to model appropriate ways ofusl.ng the technology and help learners
rouse the technology c-011fidendy and competently.
• '.Vhen the technology mal.fumcttons (as Ir. Inevitably wlll), a-eat nr as a leanllng
expedence for oorh ycm and rhe stllldents.
Although d1e use oftechnology In teaching Is becoming more prevalent. the body
of evtdence to suppoJt: Its use ts stJII far from co:l1e.rent. Mayer (2003) attempted to
address rhls problem by developing a ·science of e-lean11ng' a:nd his paper provldes
a useful 1nrroduct1011 to thE facttors ra1ar you should consider when atte.mpang to
use rech.nology to support yJur re:achlrng. These Ideas. are developed further Im Clark
and Mayer (20 11).

:\ Activity: Chock your CAPS

Consult the CAPS for a subject you will teach.

l . Does lhe CAPS make ony suggestions about using technology a:. a
teaching tool"
2. Whal technologies cruld you use 10 er.gage leam�rs in irx:l:ep,e,r.denl
inquiry in this subject'?
REVIEW ANID REFLECT ON YOUR LEARNING
Develop answers r,0 each. of tJtese questions .and discuss your answers With anorller
lean1er or ,virll an experlencect teacher.
I. \'\111y are current vle,vs: of ho,v people learn dlfJeren� rro1n the views that \Vere
accepted so years ago7
2. In your own words, des.;rlbe the co11ceptof'pedagogical ,;;ontent. knowledg,e',
3. How cto you m.atch up r-0 eaci1 of the c11ar:acterlsrtcs of ettectlve reac11ers lls.ted
In this chapt.e.r?. How \\'Ill U1ls Influence ho\1' you teach.?
4. Ho\v ctoyou march up ro eacl1 of the charactertsl1cs of effective learners Us.red
In this chapter? How ,viii tllls Influence how you teach!?
5. Review· die list of ways In \Vhlch quality lean1lng can IJ.e encouraged. Give
exa111pl� of ho,11 you. could use each. of r:here strategies ln you:r speclallsr
reach! HJ? area.
6. Explain rJie basic approach y,ou ,vould use to applying rhe prlnclpfos or
consrn1ot1vHsm In your specialist reacl1lng area.
7. \-Vhar are some roplcs In your specialist reaching area thatsarlsfy rl'le,definHdon
of a generative toplc?
8. Develop exalillples of how you could adapt your reaching of one of these
generative topics to suit learners wlrl'l special needs.
9. Develop an example to nllusrrate how you could use Dyksrr.a ·s. approacl1 ro
teachln:g In yotir speclal!st teaching area.
1 o. Develop a sumn11111y ro show· ho,v cite principles of co11srn1cfilvUsm are supported
by 11eur�k1glc.al research such as that reported by sous.a (2 o I OJ, Wlllis (2006)
and zuli (2002).

lJISEFl!J L WEBSITES
• For .a brtef htsrofilcal ov,eNlew· of 1nodels -0f the reachlng-le.an11 ng �rocess, visit
http ,f/,1n,,,w ,edpsy,clnteractlve.org/papers/Lnode!tch.htJnl
.t.. The Harrard University 'Teaching for Understandlng· ,veJJslre can be accessed
at http://lea nl\veh.harvard. ed.u/A LPS/ttfu/lnctex.cfm.
A,. For a demonstration of the apparatus sh.own In Plglire 2 .2. view ,he video at
htrp:/t,v,1n.v.youn1be.com/wa�ch?v=H2QPM06bo4E.
• For a useful sununary of Ho,vard Gardner"s work on multl!J)le nntel.ltgences ,mct
In; ltllf)acc 01.1 cJ1011k.l11;g au<l p1ac.Uce !Ju etlucatluu, s� t1np://www.l11feL1.u1g/
rl1lnkers/gardner. h!rm.
.& For a detailed descrtpdon of how oo Integrate (ecl111ology Unto reachlng In
general .and the teathHng of Marhelillat1cs In parllcu!ar, see lncp://W\Vl.v.cr4 me.
net/technology_lnteg.r.hrml/Prtnclpies.
• The resources available through tl1e Slya:vula Project can be found at http://
W\V\N,slyavula .com.
A framework for quallity
tea1ching a1nd learning

Th.ls chapter outl ines a model of quality reaching thar ls a pracrlral means of
.applying the .Ideas abour effective teachlng , and learning descrtbed In c:h!aprer 2.
Th.e framework. is based. on tl1e premise t· hat all reaching el'lbns should be directed
.at helpl:ng SlilHlenrs Ce-am rh1ngs rhar are lmporranc- both 111 rerms of !'he srrucmre
of the subject and In rlte personal lives of die learners. Furrh.er. rhls learning wlll
not occur unles.s the learning envlronmenr supports the learners and Is suited ito the
rype or learning the reacher Is U}1ng r.o fosrer.
.a focus your reaclllng on helping learners ro devel.op -ceep understanding or
lm.porranr content:
.a creaoo learning envlrnnments that al<) conducive ro-quallry learning; and
• make learning relevant to all learners regardless of their cul.turd(. ethnic or
academic differences.
QUALITY TEACHING
If teachers want quallcy learning to occur nn their dassroonns. they must deUber.ately
reach In w.ays raiar will e.nable and encourage learners to engage In the lntelfectual
acdvltles thar IJ)mmore quality learning. Tills can be a challenglng rask. and
• [gJood teacheIS neverunderesttmare the dlfficulty eh.at sttuderus have iln lea:n1111g how
ro comprehend, evatua,e. question. debate. imegrare and s:ynd1eslse lnfonnatlon·
(Klemm & Snell, .1996 ). Port:un.ately. most of rile hard worli: of 1denllfylng whld1
approaches to �eachnng facllitafe quali!ly teaming has been ,done for you . You Just
need to le.am how to employ d1ese prtnclple.s. .
\Ve saw 111 Chil!prer 2 rhat the !dea of reaching ro produce quality leamln,g Is
relatively new. Hlsdorlcally, as tl1e types of learning required of students changed,
so roo did the notions of 110w bes·t -ro facilitate r.hat learn1J1g:. By the 1 990s there
was an extensnve body of literature on the subject, but much of It was ctlf.fin1lt
for t.eachers to ai:ces.s. -:-111s s1n1atton changed significantly wlt11 rJ1e development
of rhe Producrlve Pedagogy Model (!Luke er al, 1998). This summary or effec¢lve
reachlng practices was devenoped as rart of a large-scale school reform project
In Queensland. Australia. Ir commenced as a synthesis of emplr1cai research
Into reacher elfecrJvenffiS, wUJ1 a particular focus on. forms or dass:room practl.c.e
rhar conrrlimte ro- elfect1ve learning for all st:udenrs, regardless of their social,
culnirnl or academic backgrounds. This extensive llternnne review drew heavily
on rJ1e Aillthentlc Pedagogy .Model of Newmann and Associates ( 1996), w hJch
was built from · r he five crlterlai for authendc l.n&trucrnon <leYeioped by Newmann
and Wehlage (1993}. In this approach ro teaching, the dlstlnctlve c:liaracr.erlsrlcs
of auihendc lnrellecrual work are 'con&rrucrron of knowledge, through tlte use
of disclrllned Inquiry, til produce dl.scourse, products, or perfonnances rhat have
val.u.e beyond school· (Newmann, Bryk & Na_gao:ka. 200 I :14). Newrnann·s
models have many slrnll arltles wJrl1 rile ·reacl1lng for understanding· ap·proacl1
of Brophy (201 O).
 TI1e Productive Pedagogy Model ,wts highly consistent w1t11. the prilnclples of
ourcon1es-based edl!lcatton ithat were proposed by Spady p 99 4), al.!11ol!lgh I r ctrct not
expllcrnly ack.nowle.dge !11ese links. Titts-model was o:rlglnaily designed to describe
classroom le.amlng e:nvlronmenirs, teaching strategies and the casks ln whl 1 1
l�FS aFe eng;tgea-. ltt ,vas larer applled ro rhe anaUys s o assessment procedl!lres
and ro students· responses t:o assessment tasks:. TI1e four dimensions or !lie model
are currently kno,vn as intellectual qualit;y, connectedness, supportive
clas:s:rooJu environment ai1d recognition of difference. These dlmenstons are
divided Into 20 elemenrs r.har are referred to as prodl!lctlve pedagogies, and ithat
fonu an Integral !J)art of the Q11eet1sland New· Basics Pr-1Jecr.
Following extensive research In Queensl and schools, rhe Producltlve Pedagogy
ll1odel was refined and became known as the Quality Teaching Model (QTM),
This model groups quaJJry teaching practices Into three dl1nenslons, namely
intellectual quality, quaUty learning eruviromment and slgnifica.nce, Each of
these ct1n1enstons ts subdivided tnro six elements. Because file 1nooel has :a very
strong research base and emphasises success for all learners. It Is highly applicable
co teaching In south Afl1can schools. What follows Is an explanal1on of thls ,node!.
The basic smucl1llre of Its diree dimensions and six elen1enrs Is retained bur so111e of
d1e orlglnal terminology has been 1noctlified re provide additional clarilty,
Focusi111g on intell ectual qU1ality
one of rile most 1n1porrant l\1ncril)Jl& o f a te.icller Is ro help learners distil 1:<no\1'ledge
and unctersrandlng fro111 the mass of lnfonnacton they encounter when s:rudynng
any new subject. Hel�!ng learners to convert Information (text, pictures, sounds.
ere) Into kno\1'l edge (f:amlll:arltygalned by experience) and rhen lnco undersrandnng
(meaningful associations)' requires careful cons ideration of the nan,re of what Is ro
be learned and fa1nlllartty 1vlll1 how srudents leanL lfhe Quality Teael1Ing : Model
Is !based o:n the prenllse rhatt teachers should use pedagoglcall practices char are
dellberately designed ro help le.an1ers develop • deep understand!ng of Imponant, :
substantive concepts. skllls and ldeas· (Department of Education and Tran11Jng.
2003a:9), Such teaching ,and learn ing Is said to have lnteflectual qua1lty.
Tliere Is consklerdble research evidence (Departn1ent of Education. and 'lialnlng,
20030) to suggest !liar lnrelleclillal qualley can be achieved If rearners are engaged
.In higher-order thlnkl:ng, If learning focuses on the deep kno,1•leclge of the s11 bject.
.If pedagogy focuses 011 producing deep understanding, and lffe-a111ers are engaged
.In substantive co111111unlcacto11 aoouc the t11111gs they are learning. These foflns
of aca<le1111c engagement are 1nore likely to occur ,vhet� .kno,vledge ts treated as
J
probIen1at1c and when learners are conscious of r1 e "'ays In ,vhlch language Is used
to shape and rransfom1 know·ledge. 111ese Ideas are expanded In rl1e descrlpdo11
of the s.lx elemenrs of Inrel!ectual. quality that wlll now be explored In more detall.
Significant knowledge
Wharever subject we are scudylng. some thing:; are more lmponram: tha11 orhers,
For example, In tine :smdy of south Afr1can hl:story, the reasons why the sourh
African \.V.ar In L899 was fought are much more tmportant than rhe names of the
generdls who fought In t:hatt war. However, .If tlle tteacher does 11or use appropriate
teachlng and asses,smem strategies. Ir Is quite possible rhar some learners wirn have
dlfliculty distinguishing berween rhe Jn1porranr Ideas and the lncldenral deraa. ln
the Qual[ty Teaching Mode:(, d1e lmporiram Ideas are referred ro as deep :knowledge
(Depa,nnent of EducatJon .and Training, 2 003a: 1 1 J. However:, because t11Js rent1 Is
often confused with deep unders tanding (anorJ1er e!emenr o:f rile Quality Teach.Ing
M
. odel), I prefer ro 1Ise the renn signifi(allt know·Iedg'e.
In any subject or ijeld of srudy, slgnfftcanr kI1owledge has three ,componen.rs:
I. ltt conslsrs of the ,concepts, principles and central Ideas that ionn rhe basis oi
the subject.
2. ,� consists of the web of reJadonslllps among rhose central Ideas.
3. Irr Includes the relationships that exist between tnose ,central Ideas and
knowledge from other dJscipl!nes or subjects.

lt should be obvious rhar ilf learners do nor understand th!s slgnllicanr knowledge,
they will hav,e difficulty making sense of the subject and achieving anything more
than a su!l)erficlal understanding of It. You should see tliat the concept of sJgnlfi.canr
knowledge ts similar w the concepts of fundamenral undersrandlngs and ge11eratlve
(l)PICS descrlboe<I In Chapt:el' 2,
If you want lean1ers ro understand a field of study (rattier tthan Just remember
Isolated pieces of lnfonnatJon) you must give d1em opportunities to Investigate the
significant knowledge of that field. ltt Is nor enough ro slmply preserur learners wlrl1
large,qu.a:ndtles of trivial lnformaclon or fragmenred Ideas. You have (O guide rhelr
lean1lng experiences so rllar rlley engage with rlle innporranr Jdeas. a11d explore
their reladonshlps. Learners have to unde.rsrand the Important. Ideas, they have
co understand I10w t11ose lmporrant Ideas are !linked lnro some coherent :srrucrure,
and they have to understand how the lmportanf Ideas link wrnh orher fields o(
study. Botl!l rhe central Ideas and their relationships must be raugll� explJclrly and

their llill[POrtance In the ffield of srudy must be ex.plained ro ieamers. Some reaching
strategies that can be used to help learners achieve this understanding are descrlbed
In chapters & tll 14.
Deep understanding
l!Vltatever ltls we are trying ro• hel!P sn1ctents lean1, we want rhem to leam It well so
thar they have an lntegrar.ect and well-st11ucrured understandJng. \Ve wanr learners
to understand Individual concepts and also bulld a web of connectlons between
concepts, so rhar tile subject really makes sense to tliem. 111 tl1e Quality Teaclllng
Model, this ls referred ro as deep undersrnndJng. Brooks and Brooks ('1'9'9'9:'15)
sugges-t that 'deep understanding t.)<:-curs when the presence of new l1:1foImal'1011
prompcs the emergence or enhancement of cognitive srrucn1res d1ar enable us ro
rethink our pr1or ldeas'. The ne11rolog:lcal l>as!s. for cons!derlng deep und.ersrandlng
In thJs way Is expla!11ed by \•Virnls (2006).
 Learners who have deep understanding are able co thlnk tlexll>ly with and about
ch.e things they understand. They can con.sider Ideas from muld[llle !PCrspecdves,
solve.complex problen1S, antve ar reasonedronclusl onsand use t.helr own lnlt1aruve
ro guide thetir explorarton ofEmowledge. They do these mlngs by l!lsln,g rh:e complex:
evaluadve and .creatJve cognitive functions that Anderson. and Krarhwohl (2001)
place at -rhe top of d1e1r taxonomy of leaml ng (see chapter 4). An lmponanc fearure
of deep understanding ls t11ar It Is roHJust; It endures rather tj1an disappearing afrer ai
short lime. Leam.ers who ltave deep understanding are aware of rhe ooundanes of
their knowledge and of t11e llmlts of Its appllcabrnlty - they are aware of what tliey
do nor k.now and what they cannot do without learning more.
To J1elp !earners develop deep undersrandlrng, teachers mus.r explicitly reach for
deep understanding. This means:
• focusing Instruction on unde.rsrandlng, 1101 memortsatlon;
• giving ,cteralled explanations:
• enc()uragtng leamers to think abour wl1at they are Iearning,
• giving learners oppon:unJtles to test their understanding and :receive feedback:
• explaining rhe difference between deep and s11rface understanding of Important
cmncepts and re:latilonslnlps: and
• de111011s11-ar111g wha·r can be done with deep understanding.

In short, teach.Ing for deep understanding requires teachers to emphasise the

development of conceptual frameworks, whlchi are sets of Ideas th.at learners can
use ro organise lnformarlon. Learners who have developed appropriate conceptual
frameworks are alble to approach new Ceamlng tasks wlrl1 Ideas, questions and
ex:pectatlons tl1at help guide their acquisition of new knowledge. WIiiis (2006)
explanns: 110w [hes.e conceprual frameworks are ac.n,aay physical. networks of
lncerconnecdons wlrhlrn d1e braln.
Activity: Knowledge or understanding
',-
When 1eachers first encounter the Quality Teaching Model they otten
confuse the deep l:nowle<fge and deep unctersta nding elements. An easy
wav to distinguish between these elements is to think 01 deep knowt009e
(or significant kn.oWledge, as I prefer ta call ii) as somelhing !hat eJOsts
independently o11he learner.The central ideas -of a discipline a� there befOl.l
ony particular student learns about them, but deep understaoding can exist
ooly in lh:e mind of a learner.
l . Mol<e a list -of ten things that you believe are part -of the d,eep knowledge
,;;,fa subje.;1 you will teach.
2. Compare your list with that of another teacher of the ,same subject. wny
do your lists differ?

C.Onditional knowledge-
Conditional knowledge Is knowledge that Is m1e onny under .certain ci.rcumsrances,
or true only If certain, aliSumptlons are made, rather than being tnte In some absolute
sens.e. For example, ttlne ·rruth' of t11e view that OBE !Is approprtate for soutlb Africa
depends very much on rhe social, economic, political and educado1ial [llerspecllves
that aire taken on rlle Issue. Ir Is a view char can be questioned and del>ated, and In
that sense It ls a condti!ional view, 1l1lngs rrhat are ope 11 t o question and debate are
somerlmes said to be problemarlc, hence the NSW Quall!)' Teaching Model refers to
this element as !PTOblematlc knowledge,
 If teachers treat kt10\l'iedge as cond!L1onal (or !J)roblen1attc) then they w•lll mot
transmit a fixed body of Jnfornnadon and expect learners ro ac cept It without
question. Rattier, they w1H lielp Jeanie.rs ·rro s.ee that knowledge Is, ln the main. 11!
s:ocJally consrructed se;r of Ideas r11ar are open to dllferenr In rerpr&adons. Tl1ey 11\f!ll
also encourage learners to ask. questions such as:
A Under wtiar condltlons n1lght n:hls Ile rrue7
A \-Vl1ar aliSun1plions are we making?
A \i\fl1ose peJspectlve are we ral<Jng7
A \i\fhiy ls r he lnfonnacton presented In this \Vay?
• 'I-Vito believes th.ls and why?
Teachers' conceptions of kn(nvledge are impo1tant, bec�mse 'ho,v we perceive
knowledge and tine process ofcoming ro know provides rile basis for [our] edu c.arI011al
practice' (l'vturphy, 199'7;1). If we expose learners ro multiple, contrasting and
potentl.alty conflicting fom1s ofknowJedge and J>erspec:tlves on l<nowledge, \Ve can
encour.ige rhen1 ro nnvestl_gare the poilrlcat social and culru raU In Bue.nces rhat shape
knowledge. n1Is Is tile : s rarttn,g, polnr for lean1ers: being encouraged to con.sider and
quesrlom 'the .lrnpUcaclons of tliese lnBuences. Tile alrerna-tlve - treating, kno\vleage
as allsolure and dlrec.tly transferable -teJds ro pedagoglca:r pracrJce& !liar dt&courage
discussion. coUlaboradon, negoc!atloru and rhe development of shared n1eanlngs.

11te teacher's goaU should be ro encourage learners r.o Ile both lnves1ilgarors
.and c1itJcs o.f the s.ubject they are studying. ,vhlle [Providing the1n 11•lth sufficient
sea ft'oldlng for 1hem to be successful I: n rhel r lear11Ing. nf r111s .approach were appDect
to [he reachl.ng: of Hls-cory. for example, It ,vould lead ro l.ean1ers appreciat111g rhe
.Interpretive nature of history and understanding the key role of the choices and
assun1pt1ons char any hllsro:rtaru makes \Vhen constructing an historical narr.artve.
Teachers have a respo11s:lbillry ro help learners understand the value of crldcall)'
,q11est1011n11g knowle<tge and a responilblllt:y ro reach rJ1e111 110w to question and
seek a nswers. This does nor 111earu that learners should be ex:pecred ro have the
depth of understanding to question eve1ythlng they are taught, but no teacher
:should IIJe reaching In ways tl1ar encourage learners nor ro qutesrJon an ything. The
·reaching strategies descrll>ed In chapters 9, 1 o and I L are useful ways of helpnng
leaniers to explore the oon.dll'ional nature of knowle.<lge.
l-ligne1-0raer thinking
For -oonve.nlenre, ,ve often <lttvlcte rognJtlve proce5$eS Into 1\1',) t>road categ,111.es:
I0,ver-order tlll:nl<ilng and hlgt1er-order thinking. tllgher-orde.r thinking Is (he type of
rognltlve processing thcat stretches your leameis' rnlnds. lt Is !lie type of cognlt!lve
processing deocrtbed by il11e upper levels of acknowlooged h!erdrchles of t11lnkl11g,
such as Bloom·s raxono111y (13100111. 1 956). T111s taxonomy ,vas updated ro @ke
account of nwre modem theortes of fean1lng (Anderson & Kr,ulJ,vohl, 200 1) and
no\v provides a conctnuum of cognitive processes stalling "'lrh remembering and
progressing itl1rougl1 understanding, applyLng, a11alys111g and eva111ar111g, r� creating.
n1e cognitive processes 111 tthe upper l1alf of tills taxonomy (and In t11e upper h!alf
of the original Bloom·s, raxonomy) are referred ro as higher-order · rhlnklng becaus,e
they require lean1ers to engage In eon1plex, contexruallsed thlnklng to m.an:lpulatte
oorh lnfom1at1on and abstract Ideas In ,�'ll!ys that tra.nsfonn rthelr 1nt>.anlng. Ir requires
leanters ro make Judgements aboutt uncertain. Issues and. to apply mul.dple cl1terlai
111 order ro make those Judgen1enrn. \oVllen learners engage In htgl1er-orde.r th!nk.lng.
.
they are typically requtroo co explain, generalise, �y11d1es1se, hyporl1es1se, Interpret
and oonsm1ct 11�v knowledge. The prectse results: of rhese processes are o�en
unpredtcrable. For example, we {annot predict what learners mlgltt create 1r they are
thinking creatively.
'lihe ,vay \Ve teach can encoumge leamen; ro thl nk ln different ,vays. iln o:rcter to
pro1nore hlgher-order rhlnklng, teachers musr strucrur.e leantlng rasks that \Vlll require
lean1ers ro do much more than simply fol!o,v routine procedures and manH pulare
pre-s:pecnfted kno\vledge. H)Sher--0rder t11lnklng Is unllkely M ocou r unless tea.chers:
engag_e learners Ln activities that ciellberarely promore ltlgher-order thinking, and
unless they teach leameis how re engage ltl rl1ese romplex thinking tasks (Arends,
201 I). lleachJng strategies such as prob lem solving and research (descrtbed In
chapters IO and 1. I J are obvtous ways of encouraging hHgher-order thlnl<.lng, but all
the reaching strategies descr1bed In rills book have rite potentlal co achJeve thls goal.
Jn-0eptn communioaffon
Teaching should nor. !be a one-,vay -con1mun1carton process, as 'chalk and talk'
rarely helps learners ro develop deep understanding_ of significant know·tedge.
JdeaEly, th.ere.should be a sus�alned lnr.e:rchange or dialogue betwee.n rhe te.acherat1ct
leaniers (and a1111011g the learners) about the Important conicepr:s and Ideas tl1ey are
encountering, The Quatlty Teaching J\.lodel refers to s11 ch dialogue as 'substantive
com111unlicat1on· (Deparnnent of Educat1'011 and Tralrulng, 2003a, 11) bur I prefer to
cal£ Hr in-depth commun.iratiou. This dialogue Is mo.stt often verbal, bur Ir could
also be ,vrtrren or symbollc (perhaps \\•ltl1 learners expressing their Ideas rlu01ugh
diagrams or plcru res). These ex.changes should be <!riven by quality thln king aomed
at furthering lean1ers· understanding - !earners should IJ.e questlonlng, probing,
challenging. debartng. comparing, pondering and hypod1eslslng, not Just repeafilng
facts ., voicing_ unsubsrant1ated opinions or d.es-crtbln.g tthelr experiences uncrtctcally.
In-depd1 con1munlrado11 focuses o:n lmporrant things and ·gets to rJ1e hearr of the
ma-tlier', Irr. helps I.earners develop deep under.standing, :berause It ls sustained long
enough for this understanding to develop and [Jecaus:e It helps Individual learners
to test and refine their unders-tandlng. It also helps tl1e group to bu.lid a shared
understanding of the slgnllicant lcnowl.ectge of r.he subject. Teac11111g strategies t11ar
encourage student collaboradon aind debate help ro fosrer In-depth co111111umlcamon
(see c ltaprers 7 to 9 nn partilc.ular).
Language awareness
Language Is rJ1e key oo commu111cacto11 lbetween the reach.er and learners. The
leamers· understanding will depend 011 the reacher's abrn1ry tto express ideas clearly
and on leamers· mastery or the language. But language rn1asrery requires mucll
more than Just faml1larlty with rhe vocabulaiy a!lld grammar or the language of
Instruction. Ir also Involves awareness of how language operates ro lnlluence
d1lnkirng, emotions and understanding.
Explorations of t11e spe.claifst language of any subJectt 11eeo to be grounded In a
solid undern-tandlng ofthe language oflnsrrucrron. Ir Is nor e:11011gh for reachers to
simply llelp learners unders,rand the speclalnst language uargon) of their subtect.
Teachers mus[ also help learners undersrand how sentence sm1crures (syntax
and grammar) 1nfluence meaning, how meaning Is conveyed (semantics), why
different 1kinds of texrs (genre) are used In particular slruaclons, and rJ1e role of
dialogue :In sl1arlng !nfonnat1oru .and leamnng from others. For ex.ample, h.elplng
leamers understilnd that each rexr genre (such as narrative) has a specific puupose
and a recognisable stmcllllre will henp them ro see rhat these srrucmres are socially
constructed - they are products of .a IJ)artlcular a11mre and are not ner essaclly
recognisable by someone .from another culmre.
These deliberate attempts to define and describe .how language shapes and
manipulates: rl1e ways people th!lnk about and understand a subject are refeiroo to
111 rile Quality 'l'e.achln_g M,1del (!De[Parcment of Education and Training, 2003a: 11)
as metalanguage (tile language usecl to describe and discuss language).
Psycliologlsrs usetl:le renn 'meracognltton· to refer tt) a learner's awareness of a11ct
control over hls/ller tlblnklng. In a slmllar way, nneralanguage can be tho11gllr of as
awareness of and control over language, Teachers should deliberately help learners
to develop t111s awareness and oontrol.
\'lhen helping learners to understand the Important role of language In learning,
you s11oulct nae ove11ook rile emorll'e power of language. n.anguage shapes our
percepdons, understanding and emotilonal reactions to Jnformarron. Par example. if
a iteacl1er uses the word 'African· ·to refer ro l>lack AfTlcans only, r.o rlle exclusion of
od1er people whose ancestors we:re born In Africa, die emotional :reacrioru of .some
srudents may distract them from teaming. Learners should also under.stand that
earning the same d1111g by dlfferenr names can result In very differenr meanings
being conveyed. Por example, the terms 'fre,ectom lighter' and ·rerrorlst' convey
very different meanings wllen used ro descrtbe rile same person.
JnsummoJY
The lnromecrual quality d.lmenslon o:f the Qua! lty Teaching Model !s based o11 rhe
idea rhar ·11tgh quality student outcomes result If Beaming Is focused on nnrellecrual
work Ithat Is challenglng, centred on significant concepts and Ideas, and requires
substantial c-0g11.ltilveand arademlc engagemenrwlth deep knowledge· (Deparrmenr
of EducarJon and TralnJng, 2003a:H)). Approaches: ro reaching that emphasise
lntelle.cmal quallcy- will not Involve learners In simply memo11stng lnfom1atl'on
and rllen regurgltat111g tr In examlnatlons. Rattier. reamers wlll be required tto
'interpret and synthesize information, sl10w relatfonshlp� behl'een various kJnds or
lnfom1at1on, explain whys:ome answers are benerman.orhers, and solve unfam!Ular
problems rhat mlghr have more rhan one plausible solution· (Newmann, Bryk &
Nagaoka, 200 I: I o).
Emphasis.Ing l1:1tellecrual q11allty starts 1\1111 slmple things, such as:
..a. being lnterestect and enthuslasdc .abour whar you are reaching;
A being clear about what ym1 warut students to learn;
..a. raking d1e rime ro develop your own undersrandln.g of what you .are teacl1Ing
oo a level that Is. hlgl1er than the urndersrandlng you expect learners ro achleve;
..a. s:hartngyour own learning proces:ses With students;
• continually asking yourself: 'How can I lmpro\'e my understanding of t11e
things I am teacltlng?', aind
• using the oentraJ concepts In the subject you teach as. the org.a:nlslng framework
for your planntng anct te-achlng. '.l\l'o or your greatest challenges: wlll be 10
Identify !lie t:hlngs that :really are lmporram and ro help• learners see what It
means to have a dee!Jl understdndlng of thls knowledge.

\, Activity: Whars happening In my brain?

1. Read Chapter l of Willis (2006). Her des,criptioo or how learning occurs
from lhe perspectives of both a neurologist and a teache,r is compelling.
2. Make a summary of how reading that chapter h.os changed your views
about how you can teach in ways that focus on intellecluol quality.

Creating a quality learning environment

You should not expect learners: to be engaged In meaningful learning If rile
envlronment Is not supportive, encour,aglng and focused on leamlng" 111e leannlng
environment rs more than Just the pl1yslcal space in whlcl1 Jeanllng occurs; Ir
includes the l11rernct1011s and relatilonshlps iberween learners and reacher .and among
lean1ers, as well as !lie sitar&! expectarl-0t1.s and nom1s for Jean1lng.and beJlavlour.
Positive classroom environments moctvare learners and create rondJtlons Jn wlllch
learr1ers can achieve to tt1elr full pot:en.tla]. •n1cre.area posl!lve leamlng envlronm()nt,
reacllers need to do rile follo1\111g:
• create an erwlro11meM rhar ls safe and comfortal>le {1'orh physfcally .and
psychologically).
• Stmcture learning experlences to take learner:;. pur!J)osefully towards. Important.
meaningful long-r.ern1 goals.
• Create learning experiences thatt are anceresdng. challenging and realistic. and
thar give leamers opposrurultles ro worl< collaboratlvely on open-ended tasks.
• Give learners experiences of using a11d discussing die methods of die field of
smdy.
.... Value !earners· efforts and help them see d1e innporumce o.f elfo 11! In successful
learning
..a. 11:ust learners and glve tllem some say ln what. when and l1ow d1ey Ilea.m. .and
allow them to partlcl pate Hn estab llshlng dassroonn norms.
,;,. Expect learners ro work l1ard to achlev,e 111,gh standards that have l>een made
explicit ..
,;,. Require leamers to l>e responsl!Jle for their behaviour and their lea.ming.
Hartle (2009:239) descti.l>es sucJ1 an environment as one ·w11ere error Is welcom.ect
as. a reaming oppo:mmltty ... and wllere parrlcl!Pancs can feel safe 10 leam, re-learn,
and explore knowledge and understanding·. These !deas are ennlbodted 1n rh.e
elements of the Quallty Teachl ng M.odel that are dk;cuS<'led In tJ1e following sectlons.
Explicit quality criteria
You cannot expect learners to strive for acadenllc excellence lf they do nor know
w lrnt they are supposed ro learn or Ift11ey do nor understand rhe difference oel\veen
hlgh-(Jualiry and lo\1'-qlllalltty achievement. i.,vharever quail()' crltterl!11! you are using,
you must make rJie:m ex!Jlllclt and clear, and explain to lean1ers why you are using
those crtterla. For example. nt Is nor enough for feamers In a language class co
�now �1at tl1e,y are expe.<:too to ·read !lluenrly and wirJ1 appr11pr.1are expr�sl<111 ';
they mus.t undersrand the dlffere11ce bel\veen donng this weUI and doing It poorly.
In this ,example. the reach.er mlllst n1ak:e tl1e crlt,erla for reading 'lluenrUy' and using
':approprtare express!on· explic it. TJ1e reaciier should make regular reference to
d1ese crlre11a. dlllrlng ooth teaching and assessment.

\ Aellvlty: What do you expect?

Telling learners whoI outcomes you wont lhern to-achieve is an important s1ep
in helping 1hern lo understand who! they oie supposed to be learning. Bui you
also have to help loorners undersl'and how well you wont them to be o ble 1o
demonstrare 1he oulcomes. Defining lhese explicit quality criteria can be a
diffi'cult Josi<:.
Selecl lhree learning outcomes from lhe CuITiculum and Assessment RJ/icy
Statement (CAPS) for a subjec1 yc,.u will te<Jch and devise a simple wa,y of
helping learnetS understand wnot hig h-quotity performance of each outcome
would rook lik.e-.

Hign ,G-xpectations
No marrer what you are trying, to reach. not all ]e11Jmers ,vi:11 achieve t:11.e san1.e
dept'.h of un:derstand:lng or rl1e same level of skill. However, yo:u should expect
all lean1ers to .achieve the slgnlHcanr learning, outcomes co app:rop1iare!y high
standards. n11s Is one of rile fundamenral principles of OBE (Spady, 1994). TI1ere
r
Is srrong resea ch suppon for rhe Idea that schools tthar esrabllsh high expectations
for am leamers - and provide 111e support necessary for learners to achieve tlles.e
expee1actons - have higher rates of academfc success than schools that rour.lnely
expect some learners to be unsuccessful (Bernard, 1995). Teachers who, have
high. expeccartons sec challenglrng tasks for lean1ers, try to build on learners·
serengrl1s. alllllrtes and Hnreresrs, and estal>ILsh relat1onshl!PS rhar convey Interest 111
tile lean1er.s and lhelr learning (Ayers. Sawyer & Dinham, 20041). l!17ey .also rry to
ac.commodare a bro.ad range oflean1lng, styles and value the m1lque strengths and
tnrerngences of each Jnctlvtdual (Gardner, 1985).
The most importa11t point here Is that all learners should be engaged Jn (and
should be trying ro master) cllalte 11g1ng tasks t11at encourage (llem ro achieve ro
die besr of their .ability. Quite dearly, there win! be very few t11Jsks (whether t'.hey
be lnrellecmal or phiyslcal) that present the sanu� level of ,challenge ro all lea111ers.
Academic engagement
Leamers need ro be seriously engaged In learning In order ro achieve deep
unctersrandlng. At a baste level, e11g.ageme11t me.a:ns belng: 'on task' (leaniers
atrencllng to thJngs !liar are relevanr. ro t:helr leamlng}. However, this ls really
just il! surface level of engagemenr. wh1ch Nystrand and Garnoran ( 1991) refer
tc, as • procedural engagement'. Thls cype of engagen,enr can be lnOuenced D)'
expecrali'lons, compliance, ttask difficulty or external re,va rds, and Jt generally does:
nor relate very srrongly ro rhe qllallt)' of sutdent leamJng. Sertous engagement that
produces deep understanding lnvolves much more tha11 1111s overt JnvoUvemenr; It
Is th.e result of sustained 1 merest and the clellberate appl.lcact'o11 of specific cognlelve
strategies, Put simply, lf the learners are w:nsdou.sly and delli.Jerately trying eo
lea:n1, d1ere wlll be ·substantive engagement' (Nysrrand & Gannoran, 1991 ), whlcl1
has srro:ng positive links to achleveme1u.
lf you wanr leamers ro be engaged, you have ro mlnlmlse rhe. barrters to
engagement. Therefore, you have to:
.._ ensure that learners know what they are supposed co be leamlng:
.A.. give them approprlare opponunltles robe Involved In meanlngful lean1111_g (as
OPiPOSed (0 rote le.imln_g):
.;.. monitor their learning so rhat yc,u can provide approprtare feedback and
encourdgement: and.
.._ ensure char Indlvidual learners do not see rhe task as Impossibly difficult or so
rlsl<y rhat Ir ls likely ro result Jn failure or embarrassment.
A!i of thls requires careful stnicrurling of each le55on and dear leadership !by tthe
reacher, so that every le.a:rnlng msk wUI nave meaning and ill\lrpose, Your best
oppom1111t:1es for substantive engageme:nt of lean1ers will usually come rhrOL1gi1
t11e us,e of s-ttrategles such as oo-operaliv,:>. learnln_g {Cl1aprer 9). problen1 �,lv!ng
(Chapre r I OJ and CllSe studies (Chapter 12).
Achieving academic engagement durlng a !esson Is difficult. lmles;s the st11denls
are more broadly engaged wlth schoolln_g. Y.az;rle-J\ol.lnrl {20'1 O) s!l.lggests th.at 1111s
broader engagement 1teeds to, lle at three levels - cognitive engagement. social
engagement and emortonal erug.a.!}emenr. Slmllarly, Harrison and Praln (2009)
sl!lggest rliat eng-.agemem has tll!Tee facers- behavioural (part1clparlon In academic.
social and exrra-currlcular activities), emotional (affealve ties with teachers amt
dassmares) and cognitive (delllberate efforts r.(J< masrer complex problems and
skills). Tiley also empllaslse the snong relattonsl11p benveen engagement and ai
srudent's capadry ro self.regulate his/her 1eamlng.

Social support for Teamer ocnlevement

The ess:encta'I Idea here Is rhat the reacher and school should expect am leamers
ro achieve and s lwuld creare a leamHng envnronment rhar wHII foster paltlclpadon.
coUabordt!on and success. Partlclpatlon depends on learners feeling that their efforts
are v.alued and rhar Ir Is ,acceptable !l'O make mlsrakes along �he way m lean1lng.
If reac.l1ers encourage !earners ro 'rake 1tsl<s and ny hard ro mas:ter challengnng
academJc worl<' (Newmann & Wehlage, I 993:10), srudents will soon lean1 rhat
uisling hypotheses and makl.lllg approxlmartons: are l1nportant parrs of learning
(C:amboume, I 988). However, ·srudents w!ll allow tl1emselves to expelilence failure
[when resting new ldeas) on]y Jf they can do so wlrllin an atmosphere of rrusr and
respect· {lmm,1rdln,1-Y.a11g & Paetll, 201-0:8! ).
 An lmporranr aspecr oflearnerself-regulartion ls focusing attendon on the learning
ttasJ<. Helping learners ro do this has both sl10rr.- and long-term b enerurs, because ·eac11
filme a smdenr focuses arnentron, rl1e act1vat1on of alerting and focusing patllways
(ln the brain) resi1lrs ln these attentk1n c.lrc�llrs t,ecomlng stronger and more efficient
ar carrying new data lnro sror.age [1n long-rem1 memory]' (\Vlrnts, 2006:39).
If a le.sson Is continually lnterrupted by tl1e teacher try1ng to re5tore oroer and
get learners on rask, there wUI be little quallry learning.. Therefore, reacliers shourc1
encourn.ge and requlre fearners to regulate their own leamlng and behaviour so that
tthere ls minimum need for teacher dlrect1lon :and regulal1.on. Teaching strategies sue It
as research protecrs (see Chapr.e:r 1 1) ca11 help ro develop learners· self-regu!atlon.
SOClal si1pporr starts with teachers developing a sense or co11111m111ey ln the
classroom and establishing a cllmare of nnumal respect so tllat all learners
acknowled.g;e and value the backgrounds, views and beliefs or others. Ir conlilnues
wl1en all learning efforrs are encouraged and supported. and wl1en teach.ers res:poncl
to learners' elfo:rt.s In ways rhar are ·r�levant, approprtate, timely, readily avarnatile,
w1th no smngs arracllect· (Cambourne, I '9'95:33).
1l1ere Is considerable research evidence (for example vygotsky, 1978; Caine
& canne, 1997) tli.ac soclal[s.atlo11 and relaC!ng poslrJvely to others can enhance
!earning. \VllUs (2006) argues t:h:ar buillctlng a suppon:1ve soolal classroom
envlronmem acntally Improves rJ1e ways sniden[s• brains cleveJop. Immordino­
Yang and Paedh (2010:69) .afao use arguments tiased on neuroscience to supi[)ort
d1elr claim that "building academic knowledge Involves lnregratlng emotion a11d
cognlt1011 In a (suppo11tve) social comexf'.
If you use readllng smueg!es t11at supporr le.amer collaoore11ilon (see chapters 8 amt
9, for example), you ren simultaneously create a classroom O!tlture of lng11lry and
munuaJ respect. encourage learner autonomy and foster snidenr Ileamtng. If leamers
worl:< together, discuss lmporranr wnreprs and frequently have oppommlt1es ro .share
Ide.as ,1�th others, tl1e.y w[ll lean1 to value rllelr own effofl'S and tile et.Tons of their peers.
Leamer selt.,egulatlon
Self-regulat1011 refers 10 rile strat.egles tthar Heamers: use to control and direct
their l>ehavlour and their attempts to learn. such str aregles lndude serctng
gs)als, deliberating about. approp rlate learning strategies and monltorlng progress
(Zlmmerman & Scl1unk, 2001). self-regulated learners are able to ace auconomously
and take Initiatives, purposefl1Uly modifying their learning approaches to suit the
demands of p.art1cular 'learning rasks and conrexrs. They also rend to persist wl1en
faced with learning c:l1allenges ancl ttend to [llerfom1 better than d1ose who do not
aµµly self-regulation co rhenr learning. However, .as .Meyer and 1t1mer (2002)
point out, lean1er self-regulation takes place wld1I n the concex:r of the school ancl
classroom and, therefore., Is a .sod.a] process as well as an Indlv.lctual µrocess.
To encourage aind suppon learner self-regulacton teachers need ro use strategies
tl1.at address four aspects of this I ssue, behavioural, c-0_gnlt1ve, metacognlrlve ancl
motlv,utonaU. Hadwin, v\fozney and Po:nnn (2005) suggest rllar tills :requires
teachers r� dellberarely ltelp sn1ctents rake control of rask unctersrandlng, goal
s:ett1ng or planning, learning strategies ancl refl.ectlon on rhe11· learn.ling. They clalm
t11at carefully scaffolding suppoit - ,11d1 teclmlq�1es suclt as focusing: .srudettts'
artencto11 on specific aspects of a rasl< and then graduaCly reducing such support -
helps students to vecome self-regulating.
learner choice
Each learner has u11lque rteeds and abllltles. so 'providing choice and giving
respo11slblllty to the student !s a vlttal aspecr of the overall !eain1!ng process·
(Ruslwon, Eirelgeorge & Zlckafoose. 20(,J: f8). '\Vhe:n students are Involved In
designing the leswrn. they better understa11d the goal or the lesson anct become
more emot:lonaUy invested In and attached ro rhe leanllng outcomes· (ln1mordlno­
Yang & Paeth, 201 O, 79). Through negotlatl'on and guidance, learners sholllld be
given as much choice and control as is teaslble over what and ho,v they learru,
how n1ucl1 elme rne.y wtll spend on parrtci.1!ar learning acfi.vll1es, and rhe cr1terla by
w111c11 they wlll be asses.sect. The Quality reaching l.•lodel refers to tthls elemc11r .as
stude.,w d!rect1011.
1b achieve h!igh levels of smdenr dlre:t:Ion, teachers need to engage learners
In specific activities that offer ;them opp,rtunitles to make decisions and solve
problems on their O\\'ll without belng told exactly \Vilar ro do. 1feac111ng s.rraregles
such as co-operative learning and re.se-ciirch projects can help tc> develop students'
self-dlrocltlon (see chapters 9 and I L). such strategies can help I.earners buUd
their se]f-{.()nfidenc.e, prompt them to engage 111ore deeply ,vlth their lean1lng, and
encourage rhen1 ro become ·more reflect1ve.abour thelr learning proce:sse:s. However,
student &elf-direction should not be at the expense of teachers raking an .active
role In the classroom: Jean1ers shouCd non slmply be left ro their own ctev.tces -nr Is
al,vays the reacl1er's Job ro guide .and focus students' learning eH'orr.s.
tnsummaiy
1i11e Ideas. described nn the preceding sections are prlmarl]y about establl&h!ing an
envlronme,ntconductve ro lean1l11g, guldi11g lean1ers and then stepping back ro.a]Jo,v
them ro lean1. Such .an approad1 Is constsrenr wl'th ,vhar Wlndschltl (2002: L 50)
refers 1,0 as a 'le.an1111g culture·, wlllch Is described. by Le Con1u, Peters. anct Co!Uns
(2003:2) as 'die hollstlc colilectlon of p:ncltlces. behaviours, attt1.t1Udes. patterns
of declslo,i 1naklng, rela d.onslllps .and value,ct sysren1s cf ehcughr t11ar consm1..:t
a particular Jear111ng co11rext·. Esrabllshlng a quality lean11ng environment srarts
with simple things such as:
• learning die nan1es of your stud . en ts;
.t. having a genuine ln�eresr 111 their backgroi1nds, !nreresrs and srorte.s:
A 1nodeJIIng l1lgh srandards of Inrer.acrioo "'Ith s:rudenrs:
A looking for strengths and posltlve features tin. students;
A bellevlng d1ar e.ach student can achieve high standards; anct
A conltlnuaUy asking: 'How cam I 111a!:.e my classro01n a more pleasant and
support1ve place for lea n1ers.?'

If you rake this approach, lean1ers will be encouraged to become and re1nal11
academlca:lly engaged and they will stTtv,e to ac111eve lllgh srandards.
Malking learning significant fo:r stude:nts
'To achieve hlgl1 qualtty lean1tng outcomes ... smdenrs need ro see why, and
undersrdnd that. their learnlng matters· (Departmentt of Educatilon and Trat nlng,
2003a, 14). Ir ts unreal!sflc ro expect sr udenrs to be enrlluslasttc about !ea.ming af
they cannot see d1e point of ltt. Learners need to be able ro see chat the things they
are 1ean1111g are relevant to it:hem and significant ro tl1elr understtand.lng of the world.
tfyou do nor explJddy tJy to establish this relevanoe, cton·r be surprlsed .If learners do
not bother ·to mke much lmeresr 111 whar;ever yom are nylng M reach thent
Because srudenrs· ·asslmtlatlon of new lnfornnan:lon depends lleavlly on whether
th.at lnfom1arto11 help,s them ex!Jllaln, or meanlngl'ully extend, thel r past experlet1ce'
(Newman, /\l• arks & Gamoran, 1995:3), the main way ro enh!anc.e reJeva:nce ls ro
rnnk new knowledge ro learners· lbackground. knowledge. rr Is also ve:ry Important
to help leame:rs oonnect new leannlng to the world beyond t'.he classroom, and
ro Integrate knowledge within and across sulbJecr boimdartes. It als o helps wlle11
you ack.nowledge rhat lean1ers come from a wide v ariety of socla! and ruOrural
backgrounds (each 1""1th lil'S -own valuable knowiledg-eJ and when you deliberately
:
bulld poslrtve:ly upon r:hese dlfferences. These Ideas are the basts of the six elements
of the Quality Teaching M·octea that are dlscussect 111 the followlng sec.lions.
Background knowfedge
n1e things that learners already understand have a very slgnl.ficanr lnBuence on whetl1er
and how well d1ey can fearn somed1lng new (Bennet.I' et al, 2004 J. TJ1erefore, you
need ro know whac b.icl;gr(nmd knowledge learners have and you need. to dellberately
bu□d on that knowledge. Each learner's background knowledge and previous leamlng
expertenoes 1\111 also have a smmg Influence on his/her beliefs, preferences, leamlng
styles amt self-etlicacy (d1elr views of how well (hey think they can perfonn the task at
hand). This bacKgmund knowledge might have tieen derived from personal expefilence,
prtor forrna:t study or mmmuntry and atlturdl sources - Its odgll1. da!S nor really matter_
Vilnat dces matter is that learners are able to use this existing Kn{l\11e.dge (whether It
ls academic, llngulsrtc, rulrnraJ o:r 1110111d knowledge) as a found.a.tlon for new !earning.
In some circumstances, learners' exlsrlng knowledge and previous experiences
can t,e a hnn.dr-ance ro new !.earning, (\Nlllls, 2006). This Is a partlrul.aJ problem
when leamers . have misconceptions or fiJawed understandings that conrradlct tl1e
new ideas d1ey are encounrerln,g,. This problem Is fmther c ompl.lcatect b-y rhe facr
tthar leamers· pnor experiences can ln�uence r�ielr per�eptlons, rJte t:hlngs tl1ey pay
attention ro, rhel:r modes ofrea.sonlng and their bellefs about knowledge.
Knowledge integrun'on
'1!11ere are very few lmportantt tthlngs In d1e world that can lbe und.erstood thoroughly
from the narrow perspecrnve of a single discipline or subject areai. Yer m11.1ch of our
reaching, pa1tl'cularly ar high school level, has rradttlo r1ally placed learning .Into
subject boxes with lal>els such as /t..tarhemarlcs, Physics or Engl.lsh. Tuese art:lliclal.
divisions emphasise r:he ctnfl'erences berween suoJects rather rhan tl1e slmlilarttles
betwee11 them-•and this leaves it up to learners to make connections for thems.elves
so rhar they can use the:lr knowledge from d.lfferenr subjects to make sens.e of the
world In some lnregrdted way. Some learners are not very adept at making ·these
Inter-subject connections.
 Connectedness
Learners are unlikely to be enrhuslitii tlc about learning: things that they see as
lrre!evanr. There are two steps to overcoming this: problem. First, you have to IJoe
convinced that what you wan( srudencs ro learn !s relevant to thelr understanding
of tl1e subject, Second, you have to help learner.. see that It Is retevant to th.em.
If :learners can see dlrect and useful cornnecllo:ns between wl1at t11ey are learning
and. their real wo rld, the leilmlng wllU be valued and will have meaning beyond d1e
111sm1ct1ona:I se.rtlng. 'Tile {hallenge Is to slntate the abstract tasl<s of the school
currlculum In conrexts that mak.e sense ro tlle stude nts' (Colllms, Brown & Hoium,
1991), Or, as Prensl<y {2008:64) puts It: 'Our twenty-first ce:nllny students are
dlfferenr. We can no longer spew content ar tJiem and ex:pect rhem ro learn Ir. They
have ro see Jt as worthwhile tto rhelr lives and wanr ro learn whatever Ir ts·. lfhree
of the most dlrecrways to make these co1111ecr1011s are:
a. to base leamlng around the leanners· pe rsonal experiences:
2. ro base learning around real-world public problems thar the learners see as
lmpommr; and
3. to give leam.ers oppommJttes co share tthelr work wld1 audiences beyond d1elr
olassroorn and school.
The Quallt:y Teaclllng Mode:! suggests thar learners are more llk .e.ly to develop
deep undersrancllng ofwhareve r they are smdylng lft.eachers deliberately help chem
tto make meanlngfu! connections between different pleoes of knowI edge wJ·rhln. and
between subjects. lfhls deliberate linking .Is referred to as knowledge lnregr:atton,
and �Vlllls (2006) explains tile neumlogtcal basis of lts Jmportanoe. 011e co mmon
approach m lnregral!lon ls ro base lns!ITllcdon around themes or problems that
require knowledge from mulrtp!e d[sclpltne.s (o:r knowledge from several subjects .In
the school currlcufum).
Ir Is also 1mponanr to 11elp learners tnregrare the t111ngs tthey are learning w trllln
ead1 subject. so that t:hey see the whole subJ,ect (Mathematics. for example) as a set of
related Ideas rather than a c-01lernon of Isolated Jd eas. However, there Is little polnr In
making.superftclal links-tnregratl-
i on or knowledge sh01ild be for the spedftc purpose
o f lletplng learners rro develop a deep uncterstandlng of the Important ronceprs they
are smdylng.i There Is no polnt 11n tty:lng m make links d1at have no sub.srance.
One of !he best ways ro derem1lne how well learners are In regrall:ng r.he tilings
tthey are leamlrng ls r.o engage them In classroom discussions (i;ee C:haprer 7) or In
solv1ng complex problems (see Chapter I OJ.
Will� (200&) explains. how conneccto11s suc:h as these help sntctents to consoll<tare
t llelrlearnlng and strengthen thelrlong-rerm memory by relnfo rclngthe neurologJcaJ
connections In the students' brains, However. ultimately, the 'connections' are made
In the lleamers· mHnds - wl1ar you see .as a strong and re:levanr amneclion may
seem totally Irrelevant t.o some learners, because your background knowledge and
experiences allow you r.o view rile world and the things you teach quire dlfferently
from rhe ways di.at most learners wl.ll view tthem.

y
I
Acllvlty: Whose reality?

mogine o fypicol closs thol you will be teaching.

1. Mak:e a list of tne signihcan1 WfJ./'S in wnich the reorners in that class will be
different from one onother.
2. How would you take these differences into accounl when lrying to help the
teomers connect their le<iming IQ their world beyond school?
Cultural knowledge
\•\'esrem socler.y h as .a long history of education that has gi ven cenaln knowledge
pr1,,ue geande[rl:lerdlscounred or dJscredltedorher k.n owledge. consider, for ex.ample ,
d1e way Chl11ese m edical knowledge, sucI1. as :herbal medtclne and a cupuncirure, Is
generall y regarded .In Western society. Thls pracl1!c:e of consldet111g some culmral
knowledge tnnportant and other culrural knowledge I r relevant was quite evldentt In
South. Africa diirlng the ap a1iheld era. Sud1 pr.act1ce,s. not only limit the knowledge
and und:ersta:nd!ng thar. learners can o:btaln, they a!so reinforce oulrnral prejudices
and lnequalltles.
Dlfferenf culruraE groups have dlfferem expertences of rl1e wo:rld. ( both pasr
and presenr) and this leads to memb-ers of each group nav!ng distinctive culrural
knowl edge th at should! be acknowl edgoo a nd valued. Most eommonly, culrum.1
groupings wlU be based on ethnJclty, gender, re ligion. age and socloecoI10mlc status.
However. a:ny group (for example people with hearing dl.sabl.llties) can develop
unique knowl edge of rhelr world that c;m be consldered as cu lrurdl. 'knowledg e.
Because of their ow11 cultural and academic back.grounds. Ht ofte n happens that
tea chers are unaware rhat rfiereare dllferent views about what consrttl!ltes leg[rtmate
knowledge, and rhts can UmJt tthelr approaches ro reachlng and l ea111Jng.
If teachers e:x(Pllcltly acknowledge t11el egll'lmacy ofci1e beliefs, languages, culrural
pracrtces and ·w a ys of knowing' of learners from all culmral groups, they ca n 1eacl1
In culturally responsive ways and ere.ace l�amlng eicp,erteI1re.s that make ril1e content
meanJngful for all learners. At lts simplest level. t111s wlll Involve communicating
w1tli learners 111 ways that demonstrdt;e seI1cslt1Vlty to cultural <llffer:ences anct making
u:se uf cultuittl.ly 1elev.,t11t ex.<1.rniµle:s {U t!llltallt.e lt:<1.Hllllg. Mole l>tualfly. It lt!ljllilt!:S
an apprec.latlon of lhe cultural context In whlch! learning Is embedded and of d1e
rnlrural sources of rl1e knowle.d,ge betn, g. explored. 1111s i1s pantc ularty relevant In
South Afrlra, where valu n i g Indigenous k.1ow!edge systems Is one of the principles
upon wllrch die NatioJ10I Culliculum Statement Grades R-l21s based.
Jnc/usivi1y
lncluslvlty lrnplles th.at all I.earners feel rhat they are belng Involved In classroom
acd.vltles, becau se theirbackgrounds. lnreresrs, Insights and lntelllgencesare valued.
Valuing Individual srodenrs and their conrrtlml1cns to the classroom goes beyond
acknowle.tglng and valulmg c ulrural differences. As cna:rk ( 1997: 1) sug:g:esll.S., you
have ro reach learners that ·ead1 one l1as uni que capacities which are worthy of
inu rntre. or our cl1lldren wlll learn r:har It Is much bem:er ro, suppress unique ness so
as. to confom1 to some :rodetal norm'. Inclusive ileacllln g p ractices should explldtly
rerognl.se and value I.earners· diversity and encourage the pan1dpatlon of learners
from all the social and culllural backgrounds represented lrn the class., Ar onson
(2012) describes one way ofachlevlng this- his Idea s are 01t1t1nned In Chapter 9 nn
the discussion on the jigsaw ap proach (O co-opemdve leamlng.
Language pl ays a vital pa1t !In lndl!lcllngor excludl.ng srndems from lean1lng. This
I s a parrlcu!arty Important l.ssue Im Soud1 Alnca. and It Is recog:nl� tn Soud1 Africa's
Language lrn Educat1on po!Jcles (IDepamna ,u of Educat1on, 1<J97). If learners are
denled access to knowledge because d1ey are nor fluent l:n th.e language of lnsmtcdon.
It will be Impossible fo r reacl1ers ro use any of the Quality Teaching Model"s elements
wtrll d1asesmd.ents. Some of the ways In which reachers,can support Umlred. English
Profa:lency (LEP) leamers 111 S:OulhAft1can schools are e,cpkmxt ln &.lilebuoch (2002).
BEYOND THE QUALITY TEACHING FRAMEWORK
\\'lien you co111pare the Quality Toacl1lng Model wllll other ways of des.:rtlbJng good
�eachlng prncclces, you wUI jj nd thar tthere ls notthlng srartlingl.y new In rl1e Individual
elements of the mixtel. Bocause .Ir has a srrong research base, r.lie mo-0el has many
similarities ro other ar.rempts .at d .�rlblng effective reaching. For ex:ample, \Vhlte
and Preder!kse:tl! (2000:368) suggest r.hat ex.pen tteaching am be chardcterlsed. by
six main ci!lrerta, namely ·worthwl1Ue engagement, adept classroom 1nanagennent,
Narrative
One very useful way of encouraging rhe Involvement of all learners and of vailulng
dlfferenr. cul niral knowledge Is ro use narractve as a teaching strategy. 'Narracuve
refers broadly to the use of stories to bring .alive the substance of a lesson·
(Depamnent of Education and lrdlnlng, 2003b: 51) and tr ls oftte11 perceived by
snidenrs as helping diem to learn (Cooper,& McIntyre. 1996}. It Is essendatly an
experlence-llasect, consnuctivlsr approach to tteachlng that helps learner:S connect
new· knowledge wlm llved ex[!)ertences (Rossiter. 2002).
Narrartve.s c.an be effective «tucatlonal tools If they have the three -charactterts.tl<:s
of any _gooo srory: they need to be beDevable. enrerraJnJng and rememberalbre.
Bellevable srorles are diose that deal wlrh! human experiences rl1at see11i to lbe
authenttc and credible. Entertaining swrles are those rhar tJ1e llstener/reacter linds
amusJng or lntrlgl!llng. Rememberdble sro 1tes are d1ose di.at engage the IJstener/reader
and lnvl-te meaning-making, It Is Important that narratJves are seen by the leannets to
be relevanr to che substanceofrhe lesson and nor)us[storles for the sakeofsr.ortes.
Narratlive caru be used to help learners bull d tl1 e!r understanding (when st.ones are
told l>y rhe reach.er or learners) and as a means o:f testilng learners· understanding
(w:hen assessment tasks require learners to produce narratives). The effective use
of na1ralive llb teach.Ing allows leamers to feel that their personal stories, cuJ-mral
history and cultural llteramre are lmporram. Narrarlve can also be used ro lbulJd
empathy be rw-een th.e reacher and learners (Boylan. Batrersby, \.VaJlace. Retalllck
& Edwards, 1991).
In summary
M:akling lean1111g relevant and s.lgnlfic.am. for !earners starts with simple tl1ings s:uc'Jl as::
• developing coi1cept maps r o show h.ow the things you are reachJngare Interrelated:
• lookl'ng for real-world applJca!iorus of the roncepts and procedures you are t.eachlng;
A talking r.o ocher reachers ro find ways of lnttegractng knowledge across Sll bJecr
tx1undai1es; and
A continually asking yourself: '\Nhy do r want students to learn these r111ngs7'

Culrural lnclusron and posltlve recognlllon of leamer differences srarr with simple
tilings such as:
A recognls.lng ·the ways ln which d.omlnanr culnues have shaped Knowledge:
• seeklmg ways to encournge all learners to partlalpate:
A recognising the value of s haring some of your life ex.pet1ences wlith leameJs:
• allow! n,g learners r.o share their life experiences: and
A repeatedly asking yourself: ·How are rhe rhln_gs I re.acl 1 and the ways I teacl1
Influenced by my culture and beliefs.?'
effecrlve pedagogy, good dru;sroom clhnate, expllclr d1nnklng about 'the subject
marcer and active Inquiry', They unpack , each of these criteria Into a set of asrects,
For example, good daJiSroom cllmatte, whlch rs de&ned as 'the soc.la! envlro11menr
of the dass empowers lean1111g·, has five different aspects: engagement, res:pecr,
encouragement. rdpporr and sens111v1ry co diversity, vVhlre and Frederiksen d.efine
each of these aspects In rem1s of !:peel B.c ct1aracteJ1stl cs of classroom pracnce, :and
d1e slmllallltles ro the Q;uall;ty Teaching Model elements are quire strong.
\\'hat Is different In rl1e Quallry Toachlllg Model ls the way In which fhese
diverse aspects of etTect1v,e reaching are grouped Into a conslsrenr fran1ework. thar
emphasls.es tlie soclan and culrnral aspects of teacl1lng and leamJng as ,vell as
d1e academic aspec.rs. As wlrh th.e Productlive Pedagogy and A.ud1enttc Ped.agogy
auxteas - fr-om which 1r. was denved - the Quallry Teaching Mode.I emp ltas.ls:es
d1ar rhe reacher's prime role Is to maxlimlse learning for all sn1dents through the
conslst:enr appllcallon of an e..xpllc[t ser of research-based principles. There Is a
growing body of research evldence to sugges[ rhat the model. provides a useful
fra1nework fCir guiding teacllers· s-enf-rellectton, thereby leading_ to lmpro-vemenu; 111
d1e1r teachlng practices (e_g Coulson. 2006).
Frameworks such as; the Quality Toachlng Model provide a very �1seful way of
examJnlng and guiding teachJng b)' suggesl1lng quire specific things ci1ar reachers
should do ro enhance student feamlng. Por example. teachers should engage
learners Jn htgher-order rllJnklng and help them Integrate k.nowledge :across
traditional subject boundaries, How,ever, in order to understdnd how to do all the
t111ngs suggescect l:n rile Quanliy Teaching (l,todel, teachers: need to undersra11d thar
the model provides p.art: of flhe picture, not the whole plctu re. To wnsl.der d1e lllgger
·- " . .
picture, we need ro answer quesd.ons such as the fonowlng:
. . ' .. . � " . . . .
. ..
...._ \<Vl1ar outcomes sl1ould we be eying ro help Ceamers a:dlleve, and how mlglnr rJ1e
elen1enis of Qualiey-Tead1ing contrlbu re ro learners' acral:nmenr of those outtoomes?
...._ Ho1v does the learnlng context lnO.uence a teacher's cap•aclty to Implement the
elements of Qua11cy TeachJng?
.._ Ho,v d()'<'.S the Jeantlng co,uexr affect the beneBcs U1at leam.ers gain fro111 t11e1r
lea.ming experiences?
.t.. \Vh:at. type of person d.oes a teacher need to be In order to effectively tmplement
each of the elemenr.s of Quality Teacl11n£?
a. '.Vl1at part do lean1ers play In enabling chelr teacher to lm![)lement the elements
of Quality Teaching?
.t.. V.•l1ar cype:s of lnreracl1ons berween teachers and learners make Ir posslllle for
the elemenrs of Quallry Teac:hJng to be Implemented?
.t.. Ho,v does the narure of the lesson conttenr affect a ceach.er·s ablUcy to Implement
the QuaUty 'I'eachlng elements?
.t.. Ho,v should reachers 1nreract w1r11 tl1e content so rJ1at they can tmplemenr the
elements of Qual:lty Teachlng?
...._ !How should learners I 11teract wlth rlle content so ·rhat rlley benefit from tthe
reacher's u� of the elements of Qu1a1Jty Teaching?
v\'hen ans,verlltg thes:e questions, we shou ld t,e conslsten.t \Vl!h the phllosophlcal
base of Authentic Pedagogy (:since It Is the foundation frorn whlcl1 much of
the Quality Teaching i\-lodel has been deve.loped). To begin with, we should
follow the advice of Ne\vmann. Bryk and Nag_aoka (2001 :14). and oy ro help
learners achlevc outcomes. that enable them to 'produce discourse. prodiicts., or
pe iionnances d1at have value beyond school (or other fonnal education settings)·.
The as.s-essment of thes,e outcoines should, as far as possible, be :based 011 re.al
or realilstlc ras:ks set Hn real or reallsctc serctngs. Thes:e Ideas are consistent \1,1rJ1
d1e future-focused outcomes-based education fram.e,vorl< suggested by Spad.y
(L 994: 1 ). who emphasised the need ro have a dear .focus: on outcon1es that are
'high quality, culmlnaling_ dentonstrallons of slgnH�cant lean11ng In conrext'. F11'om
d1es,e per:specctves:, the main ratJonale for oytng to u.se pedagogical pracllres rthac
are consistent with ttte Q11.alhty Teaching Model Is that they have the potential to
enable lean1er:s to achieve subsranctal lean11n . g ourco111es that \ViU help to J>repare
d1em fur their l!ve.s beyond school. This Is consistent \1°1111 �he philosophy of che
Natfo1ral currfc11iuN1 State11ient Grades R 12. - It.ls easy co argue that. In a generaU
sense, ea,;;h dl1nenslon-ofQ11allty Tead1lng ,v111 oontrlbute to lean1ers' .a<-hlevement
of ourcomes that have stgntlicance beyond school. However. di.ls \Viii occur only If
d1e teacherhas focused lnstru.ct1on on such outcomes. The fact that outcomes focus
o n s.lgrnl:flcantt I<no,vledge, or that they engage learners In Jllgher-ord.er thlnk:Jng (for
example), Is 11ot n.eces:;arlly evidence that they have value beyond school.
The q :uesno11 ofwliat teachers can do to,engage srudenrs In t11e type oflea.nilng
actJvltles la1pll.clt
.
In th.e Qualllly
. Te-aching
- /.1odel ran be answered at two levels.
I. Ar the sttr.aregy leveL there are baslc approaches to r.eachlng (such as direct
1nsm.1 ctlon and co-operat:Jve le.anting) rhat. can etfect:Jveiy -create a ffintext In
whlcll le;amers can engage \�•lr:h the elements of rhe Quality Teaching Model
(such as higher-order thinking).
2. At the rechnlque level, tl1ere are very specific things that teachers can do (such as
askflng certain types ofquestions) In order ro make effective use ofeach srraregy.
These ideas ican be comhlned 1nm \\'l1at I cam die Quality Outcomes, i:eac11ing
and. Learning (QOTI.) Mod.el. This model emphasises the relafilonshlp be!.'o1•een tl1e
d.Ifferenr aspects of teaching (all raklng place within so1ne curriculum fra1ne\vork)
diat lead to learners demonstratlng outco1nes In three conrexrrs: rlle dass, die school
and th.e world beyond scllool. Tile QOTI. Model 11elps ;us ro see that teachers who
,111sh to folro,v t11e Q uaClty Teachlng fl1odel nnusr not limit tl1etr focus ro dtscreoo
lessons: they m.ustlbe nnh1dful ofth:e broader contex.tlllal factors that [mpact on ,vhat
and how they reach. The nnoctel Is represented diagrammatically an FJgure 3.1.
 Teaclling
techniques

Outcome-s
demonstrated
in class
Outcomes
demonstrated
at school

Outcome:s
demonstrated
in the reel world

Worid beyond the class room, a·nd :school

Figure 3. 1: The Quality oua:omes, leaching and Lean1i1:1g (,QO,L) Model

., ...
The QOTL Model &uggests that engaging learners 1n the efoments of Quality Toachlng
con01.bures ro learning outcomes thatt can be-ctemonsrr,ued 111 ,three oo:nrexrs, namely:
1. In th.e Hmmedlare contex:t of the ·teaching staaregy, for e.xample as pan of a
gwup discussion;
2. In rhe broader rn1Tla1lmn conttext. such .as In an examination: and
3. 111 the future Ulves of the leamers, suc]1 as ln a work situation,

These outcomes will be defined l>y the curr!cuium. Th.e desired levels of learner
achievement of the-outcomes <:an l>e ct�rrbed by using r-0ols. such as the An.derson­
Krathwohl Toxonomy (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001) or the SOLO (Structure of
tile Observed Leaming ourcome) Ta."<-011omy (13.iggs & ·C1.11Us, 1982). The reacher
must. employ suitable reaching strategies (such as grou[P work or case studles:) co
provide a context w!irh!n which he/she am use specnftc ceachung cechnlques (such as
glv:lng de-ar ex.pla11ark1ns) r.o engage learners 111 elemen.rs ,of,Quallry 'reaching (Sl!Clt
as considering rJ1e pmlllemattc nature of l<nowledge). The reacher muse also enable
learners ro access suitable conrent or learning resources so tll.ar they am engage In
the forms of academlc ac,tl.vlty that will hel[IJ them to achieve tthe outcomes:.
 111lnklng about teachHng and learning lru this way hel1Ps us co see that student
engagement lru leat11lng Is Influenced by the nmellecrual dennandsemtJ.ectded Hn I earning
task.s, as well as by die broad strategies a11d specific techniques that the teacher
uses. \Ve must recogmtse that ·so me reaching pr:dct1ces are more lal<ely m promote
romplex lmreUecrual work than others· {Newmann. Bryk & Nagaoka, 2001 :31 J. T11e
cha[lenge for teachers Is first to Identify the type of lnreJ!ectua:i engagement thar rhey
are trying to foster and th.en to employ strategies and rechnrq;ues that will f'actJirdre
thls fon11 of engag_emenr. Ch:aptters 6 to 14 explore some of these strategies.
An a!oornadve way of considering how the pedagogical practices described In
111e Qm1llty Teaching Model fit Hnro rite blgger plcrure of read1Llbg and lean1111g Is
represented dlagrammatlcaJly In A_g,ure J.2.

Ta9CJlE!f-lB9tOl:!f iruE!f8CliOll9

1nteracbons

TNldle,�&tnier �:Mt IM �3CI!� $

(Qua!ily Te.".Kitmg in ;;,clion)

LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
(classroom, ,school, community, C,ulture)

Figure 3·.2: Placiiig Quali(Y Tc!ac!uirg in concexr

This way {If th[nklng about teaching and learning Is buUr around the following
plinclp[es:
.., For sntdents co lean1 worrhwhlle tthlngs, their le.anting expertenres must help
them to Investigate lmporranr knowledge.
.,._ TJ1e main purpose of roaching Is to help :reamers develop deep undersr.an:dlng of
rhls lmponrant knowdedge .
.,._ \Vherlte.r or not lean1ers develop deep understanctlrug \1111 depend on,
• the n:eacl1er and his/her approach ro reaching:
• the !eamer.: and their read! ness for Jeaml11g;
• 110w (he teacl1e:r lnteraces wnth t11e conrent:
• llow the teaclle:r lnteracrs with t11e lean1ers;
• how the learners [nreract wldl d1e ,content;
• the !eanilng envtr,onmenr .
.,._ The learning envlronme11r has several lmporranr levels or layers, nan1.ely d1e
classroom, tile school, the com.nmunlry, tthe society and the cu!ntre.
These pr1nc!ples raise a number of lmporraim questions rhat help us ro t:hHnk about
the condJrtons under wh!lch die pedagog1cal practtoes descrlbed Hn rhe Quality
Teaching Model ca11 be pur In.to practlce. A range of these �rdct1ces Is d.escrtbed 111
chapters 6 w l 4.

REVIEW .ANID REFLECT ON YOUR LEARN ING

Develop answers to each of rhese quesrlons .and discuss your answers with another
learner or with an experlencect teacher,
1. What are die most important concepts. principles and relaaonshlps that define
the knowledge ()a� for the s11bJecryou w1lll reach?
2. Should reachers tte.ar all lrnowledge (In the subject rllar you wUI reach} as
co ndltlonal, or are mere some rt11ngs rhat learners sElouM. simply aa:ept with our
question? Explain your an swer.
3. Should knowledge In so,me subjecr.s (eg History) ()e s�n as more conditional
(more problema:ttc) t:him knowledge an other subjects (eg 3clernce)? Explain
your answer.
4. At whar age (or srnge of development) do children become capable of
u11derstandJng the co11dlr.lonal (problematic:) nature of l:nowledge?
5. W1rnt difference might It make If a reacher uses a mmatlve rather tnan an
exposJrlon to Introduce learners to a new roplc?
6. Every subject has [rs Jargon . In t'.he suu)ect rliat yo11 w'Jl! reach, what Jargon Is
mostdll'Bcult for fe.arners ro understand? Expflalt1 you.r answer:
7. Find examples irom a subject you will reach ro Hllus:crate the!Polnt diar ·language
sliapes the way people think about die subject·.
8. Leamer:; can usually rcll ·the dlffcrenoc bcr.wccn rCilllly bad and rcolly good
perronnance on a task, lb:ur ·thar. does not mea.11 they u11 dersrand l1ow you will
Judge rhe quallty of rJ1eJr work. or mac they can decerm[ne subde dJfferences
111 quality. seiecr a typJcal assessment rask from your speclallsr reachJng fteJd
and develop a wrffrcen description (In whatever fonnatyou prefer) of how you
would distinguish between poor, good and excepli!onal perfomiance on that
rask.
9. rn Is never easy to k.1ow exactly what a parncular le.amer (or g_roup ofleamers)
mlgllr ti,e capable of ach.levlng at a precise moment In their leamJng; r l1erefore,
setting approprlarely high expectations Is 11or easy. ·1mervlew an experienced.
tt!aclte1 am! li11ll ullt liuw lit!/she e:;r<1l.>llsltes eX(Je\..tatlum; a!Juur. lea1t1l11g; fu1
students of dUferen: abllitles.
! o. a. Make a l!st of th.lngs rhat y(lu experienced. as a smdem that -enco1Uraged
you ro engage seriously with !'.he tl1lngs you were learning.
D. Make another list of things that you experienced as a stll.ldent that hindered
your engagement In learning.
c. How can you use these ,two lists ro help you engage the !earners you wrll.
reach In r11e furure?
1 I . Are you an academic rlsk-ra'ker? Explain your answer. Develop ,a short
narrat:!Ve that you could use to show your srudenrs :how you rake academic
rlsks to neJ p you learn.
12. a. 1)1) you b-e!leve rhar some smdenrs are noc capable ofregulating their own
behaviour 111 class?
b. \,Vhy do you hold tills lleUer?
c, How v11!ll th.ls belief lnBuenoe your approach to teaching a new c:las;s?
13. a. Un1cter,vhar clrcumsrances mlgh.r 1ean1ers· p rior kt10\1'ledge be a banier to
their reaming of ne\v concepts or i>rtnclples?
b. Ho,v \\lOUlct you deal 1vlrh. rhese s.ltuaflons as a teacl1er?
14. a. \Vlny its the school curr1culum divided lnro s1.fbJecrs?
b. Ho,v do these <tlvlstons help or hlnde,r knowledge Integrat1on?
15. a. \•\i'lnlcll ofyour llfe expe11ences have led you ro look .at rile worCd dl.fferendy
fran1 fhe W'ay It.Isviewed by the s11.1ctents you reach (or rhose tharyon 11•111
teach In the furure)?
b. Hov,1 can you use these dl!Terences to he[p studenits lean1?
16. a. \'llnar culruran groups do you belong ro?
b. l.111 ,vhat ways does rhe culrural knowledge (and, therefore. rhe views of
the worrct) of rl1ese groupsvar,'7
c Ho,v can you lllse this knowledge In your rreachlng?
17. Vl/lly Ls It lmp,ortant t.o value lean1ers. from dtfferetit cultural l>a.cl<groumds :as
,vell as valuing the knowledge of different cultural groups?
18. ln 1vhat ,vays do the ft11.dl1:1gs <.')f Hartle (2009) support or co,irradlct the NSW
Quallcy ThachlngModel'?
19. Do you feel wn1fort.allle \\•1th the Idea ,of glvtin.g learners a lot of control over
,vhat and h.ow rhey learn? ExplaJn your answer.
USEFUL WEBSITES
.a. Derailed lnfonnarlon and. resources to suppon the NSW Quam()' Teaching
l\1octel are available from tile website ofthe NS.\.Y Department of Educarlon and
Commun!tles: h ti])://\vw111.curr1culunnsupporr. ed ucatton.nsw.gov a. u.
• Detailed Infonnalion on the.Que�nslanct Ne,11 Basics ProJe(t {wh.Ich nnc,orporares
proctucdve pedagogies) can be found .at http://edlllcatton,<j'ld.,gov.au/schools.
 Of course, unplanned leanllng can also «cur, and when sum oppornmlt!es arise
you &hould help sn1dencs ro rake advantage of chem. Ho,vever, If you do not plan
for and create lean1lng opportunities tl1at make direct and obvious connections
between what you do lesson by lesson aind wllar t:11e currlc.u]um. requires smdents
tto lean1 In the lon_g te, rm. your smdem:s. wll:I not achieve rhe I.earning goals defined
lby rlle cuntculum.
o�en, reacher education s.rudents prepartng for a pm.:ocum ask: r.ead1er educators
a question something IJke this: 'Why do we have to produce detailed lesson plans
ror eveiy lesson when otu supervtslng teachers don ·c do lt'.T Here are some of the
reasons:

Planning for quality

teaching and lea1rning

�Vhat smctenrs learn Is lmporrant. How 111ey 1ean1 Is .also tmporrant t>ec.ause rhelr
leannlng experienceswill directly Influence tthelr n10t1vatron and rhel r furu re learning
strategies. Therefore, you li:ave a responslblUr.y ro mak-e every lesson a posltlve and
productive lean]lng experience for all learners:, and t11.ls cannot Ile .achlev,ed wlthour
careful plannlrug. 'fhls aspect of teaching should take place long before you step Into
t11.e classroom for a particular !es.son, and Ir often ra�es considerable time.
Regar<lless of which teaching s!Jategy you dedde to use, you will need to start,
w!th a carefully t houglnr-out pla11 th.atenallles you to match the learning ex:perlences
you develop ro rhe ourconnes you wanr students to achieve. Thls chapter provides
a foundation for rills lm�orrarur aspecr of teachlng.
\Nhen you have mastered the ideas In d11s chaprer you wlll be able to:
A tak.e a sysremadc approach t:o long- and s11orr-rerm planning; and
A pla11 productive lean1111g experiences mar lncorpor:are rl1e prlnctples of effective
r.each[ng and learning as des.crtboo In c.l111prers 2 and 3.
WHY PLANNING IS IMPORTAN!T
The Nativnal .C:IJJ7icul11J11 Statement Grades l/"-12 provides a framework for
reachlng :by specifying conrenr and achievement standards, bur le does nor !J)rovlde
specific .Information about what teachers need. tto do lesso11 by lesson. I:f you wanr
co teaclt Hn ways t11at are conststent wtth rile curriculum ancl with rile prilnclples
of effective reac11111g and learnlng descrtoed ln chaprers 2 and 3, you have to plat1
thoro11_ghly- you have to thilnk careliully about h.ow you wlll teaC:h each part of tl1e
curriculum and why you ·will teach that way.
some ofyourpiannlng wtl! be long t.e:rm, pe rl1apscover1ng several years (such
as when you are planning for a full phase). Other plann[ng . wlll be medlum tem1,
perhaps covenng. several. weeks or Uns.trnctlo 11 on .a s1ngle theme or rap.le (s.onneomes
l
caled :a unit of work}. Following the long-rem1 and medlrum-rem1 planning. you
wl[I have ro do the short-renn (lesson-by-lesson) JJlanning. You cannot expect
Individual lessons to be sucressf\.11 lf they have not oeen planned thoroughly and
Integrated carefunly Into your medium- and long-rem1 plans.
• There Is an lmpon:ant dlfference t,e1ween le.anting to reach, and pracrtstng yom
crn1ft .as a oomperem read1er. The chlngs !liar reacher education scudenrs are
required to do on practlc,11m (such as deta[led fosson planning) are designed to
build oompe:rence . .As l1lgher levels of competence .are developed, the processes of
pla11rnlng wrnl become streamlined and the plans may not need to IJ.e so detalled .
.., No marr.er what rhe rev.el of a reacher·s expertise, thoughtli.tl planning helps ro
make stiudent leamlng purposeful, effe<:tlve and eflicaent.
.., The process of developing derailed p'lans helps you ro clarify what you want
students to learn and to consider multJple w.ays of helping learners achieve
those goals.
.. careful plan111ng ltelps you ro cla�Jfy 110w each lesson Bts lneo the bigger plcmre
and provides a stepplng stone ro hel.J} learners ac111eve the long-tem1 outcomes
described In the curr[culum .
.t.. Thorough planning helps you ro r.al<e lnro accounr tlle needs of lncUvldu.a:i
learners and to anticipate po$SiDle dlfficull1es that nn!g.l1t arise because of these
differences.
• Plannlng he!� you to manage yotir time effe<::tlvely, and !111:; Is one of the
greatest cha!Een_ges for new reachers .
.i. ln--0epth planning can give you confidence that you really -do undeDStand the
things that you want students to learn.
• Comprehensive planntng call hel!P you tc, anlldpate the questions learners might
ask, so that you are prepared r,o. answer them correccly and c-0nv:lnclngly {and
you w[IJ not be stuck when learners ask: ··why do we have to learn this &tulf.?'),
.., Imaginative planning wlln ensure that lessons are morJvalilng, Inrerestlng and
relevant �o reamers - the Brsr. srep In minimising behaivlourdl profu!ems .
.., Derailed !es:son plans make your Intentions explicit ro or:hers (such as your
supervising teacher or university Sl1pervlsor) and th[s makes It easier for them
m help you_
As a student teacher (and a,s a novice teacher In rite early years of your teaching
career). )'Oll should not expe<:tto be able to reacl1 well If you do not plan thoroughly.
TI1ls means that you have Ito work through a series of planning steps a11d record
suflktem 111rom1at1on to allow yo11 to pur your plan.s Into ac11ton..!-J; you g_al n more
experience a� a reacher, the amount of lnformatJon you need ro record l.n! your plans
may ctnmtnlsh. However, your planning wlll always be more effective If you l1ave
w11rren lesson plans.
It is tme that some exceptional teachers occasionally give !}rllllantt. lessons
Without any wrtrren plans. and many experienced teachers regularly g-ive quire
good less:ons without wr[tten plans. Bud tl:lis does not mean th.at tl1ese t.earl:lers
have nor planned. their lessons. on the contrary, expert teachers usually spend
large .amounts of time planning, thlnk[n.g about rrhelt teachJng and looking for new
ways of making lt easy for srudems ro lean1. They engage rngularly in whar !s
sometimes called 'mental scrlpitlng' (me.nta!Jy rehearsing what they wlll do IJ1 their
lessons and how they wlll do l!J- This ls also a us:eful rechnlque for novice -teachers,
as .Ir helps rJ1em to g.ain confidence rhat they am pur tlie:lr p!ans Imo action. Wh1h
experience, teachers can develop effective techniques ro sr.rea1111llne tl1elr planning,
but rhere Is never a polnt at whlch planning .Is unnecess.aiy.
Later In this cl1apter there are some suggestions about how to ser out wnrt.en
lesson plans. Bue before conslde:r1.n g dmse suggesl1ons, we neeci to look at. some of
the srrategles: d1ar you <:an use ro guide your planning.
PLANINING EFFECTIVELY AND EFIFICIEINTLY
'(h.ooslng rhe topics sn1dents wlll snidy .and ctecldlng how to organize amiculum
plans are some of d1e most difficult deci sions a reacher ma'ke.s. And they are among
tl1e most Hmporranr (Wlske, Breit & Franz, 2004!27). These declslorn; are dlfdicult
because the demands of tlie currtculum have to be balarwed against the needs of
tl1e learners, the t1me and r:esouroes avaU.able, and 1J1e ,r.eacl1ers expertise.
For some teachers, the hardest part of planning Is gettnng scarred.. Bue, acma!ly,
tll.ls sh,::nIld always be file easl�t p.arr. You :srarr where you wanr rl1e leani�rs to
finish - with rhe outtcomes. Tlnar Is. you start by tl1lnl<1ng about wl]a:r you wam the
smde. nrs to Jeam and why you want rhem to leam those d1l11gs. If you get these
rwo things right, each lesson wlll have a dear focus and each lesson will l1elp
le�miers to make progress towards the long-tenn goals of the cuniculum.
lr Is obvious rhar a good lesson plan Is no guar,mtee of a successful lesson.
because unforeseen things mtg.lit happen to prevent you putling -the plan into
action. It should be equally obvious thar. few lessons wtll be successful If they have
noc been carefully planned. Different types of lessons (theory. !(lracrlcal, ffield mp,
and so on) and different reaching srrar.eg:les (group work, case snidtes, anct so on)
wm require different approaches co planning. but the folJowJng planning: steps are
useful for any fonu of l11stn1.1ctlo11,
1. (lartfy why you are teaching this particular lesson or roptc. If you are not
.absoturely cl.ear about why you are reaching wha·rever you are teach.Ing, don· t
expect your srudents ro learn very mucl1 or to be ve1y Interested.
2. ·w,1te dear learning outcomes to descrloe what you want learners to
understand and ·be able ro do as a result of the lesson.
3. Dec.Ide how you will assess the learners to detem1Jne !low well they have
ac111eved the outcomes.
4. 'Determine the constraints (time. ere} within which! you musr reach.
5. select the content you want learners ro understand, 111 order that they ml_glir
.achieve rite lesson o urcomes.
6. Make s11re that you have a �horoi1gh 11ndetstanding of the content so th.at
you. can focus your plannlng. on the Important tcteas and on rhe re:iactonshlps
oorween these Ide.as.
7. Organise r he contentt Imo a suitable sequence and select approprtare ex.amples
to help learners understand It.
8. seleor the most appropriate way to present the conrenr and engage sruderurs Jn
leamlng (diat Is. decide on a tead1ang stn1tegy).
9. Do wllar,ever preparation and organisatio11 are necesSlilry for using your
chosen strategy. (As you wrn see In chapters 6 ro 14!. some reaching straregles
requl:re special resour�es or learning envlronmenrs ro 1,e prepared. J
10. Plan lww you will ,evaluate the sucli:ess of rhe lesson, so that you can decide
how to modify your t.e.achlng. In the future.
�Ve wlll now consider each of these steps In some detail. burr It Is Important to reallse
tl1ar plannnng should not be a simple linear process of moving t11rougl1 the polnrs
lilsred above and never looking back; It should be an Iterative process: In which you
keeJ) .-econslde11ng e.arly decisions In [lght or !ater dects!ons. This wlll l1elJ) you to
produce Oexlble plans rhat can accommodate unforeseen Issues o r oppornmlrles.
Consider the purpose of your lesson
!t Is tn1ponanr �o be clear alxlut,vhy you are reaclllng ,11harever you are teaching, .and
\11hy you are ceachl11g lt now: first, w di.at you cam ure rJ1fs. purpose to guide your
lesson preparatton and second, so that you :an teU learners ,1•l�y e.ich parttcu/ar lessan
Is: lmporrant. 1b dartfy id1e pu[J)05C of your llesson, ask yourself rhe follo,vlng questions:
_. iVhy am I teaching ch.ls lesson? (\.\/hat Is I-ts general purpose and relevance?)
• vYhat new mnceprs or sKJlls will be lntroctucoo In t111s lesson and why Is this the
1nost appropriate tt1ne to introduce them?
.A. iHow wUI r.h!ts lesson bul!d on lean1ers· prior knowledge and understanding?
• \Ylhat wlll learners do a�er thHs lesson - ,vhat ls It preparing the1n for?
• iHow ls rills less:on connected ro the resr of rile subject and to otJ1er subjects rhar
rhe leaniers are sc:udylng?
• \Vhy ls this the mosr appropriate time to reach th is lesson?
• \.Vhat are tthe tlkely consequences If learners do nor master the understandings
an<t skllls that are the focus of rills lesson?
You shouild consider every lesson as a v:lral part ofthe I.earning expenences of each
learner. iEach lesson ls llke a piece of a Jlgsa\v puzzle - If It Is nrlsslng. lt will Ieave a
slgnt&cant lll)le In their leamlng .and dl111tntsh fhelr aronm:y to ach.teve the curr1culun1
out:co1nes.
Decide on thle learning outcomes
Once you .are dear .a'bout the purpose of a p:irtlcular lesson. you can start ro :be more
spec!fie about exactly \vhat It Is that you ,1,ant students to I.earn In that lesson. As
we s,nv In earlier chapters. the things that ,ve want lea111ers to lcnow and to be
able ro do, and rhe alitin1des and values rltat we want chem ro have as a result of
tlielr lea1111ng, are referred ro as learning outco111es. Clarifying the le&son. outcomes
that you want leaniers to achieve should cccur before you think about rhe derailed
conrent or rhe reach.Ing sttralBg[es that you migh.r use to help students learn.
You should also recall that significant leantlng outcomes result fronn !lie gradual
development of kno\vledge, skrns and acrJ rudes - the rhlngs srudenrs learn In
Individual lessons become bulldtng blocks for longer-ten11 cur11culum outcomes.
This Is ,1•t1y It Is so I mponarw fo plan for clear and achlevable lesson out(o1nes.
The qlllestlon of what sructe111ts are supposed to lea111 is answered (at least In ai
�road sense) 111 tthe currtculum ctoc:umenrs.Aswe s.aw In <:l1aprer t, rlle Cunic'ltlunr
andAssess,nent Polic;yState,nents (CAPS) for tile sulYJecrs you w.lll reach may not
contain expllcltoutcomestaten1ents, butth.ese lolilg-tervn outcon1es can be Inferred
from 0th.er lnfom1at1on sucl1 as the subject aln1s and che ach.levement standards.
You ran then arrive at specific leairnlng outll:o mes [hat you wa 11t students to achieve
In a particular lesson oy using the deslgnl:ig-do,vn process described In Chapter 2
and Ulusrra red in the follo\¥lng example.
y Example, I11us1rattng ttle designing-down process
Curriculum outcome:
Leorners shoukl be able io complele inves1igo1ions, onolyse p,roJlems ond
use procticol pro-,esses ond skills in evoltJOiing problems, (This i� one o1 the
specilic aims in lhe Curriculum and Assessmenf Policy 5/ateme.r.t Grades 7 - 9.
Na1uro I Sciences;.
Topic outcome:
Learners Will oo aoie ro Inves1Igate me eTtects ot connecnng several cells In
series and/or parallel in a simple eleclrical circuit. (This could be- one of several
outcomes for the 'Series and parallel circuits· 1opic in 1he 'En91g:y and change·
strand of the Narural Sciences subj-ect.)
Lesson outcome:
Learners will able to draw ihe electrical circui1 for a lxlttery-operated torch and
exploin the purpose of eoch com p,ooent. (!his could be one of .e�rol lesson
outcomes cferived from !he topic oulcome.)
In rltls example, lesson planning wot1lct start with the specllk lessl)J1 oufcomes, bur
t ile reacher would have In mind the overall purpose of the lessoru, whlch would
be to help learner� make progress towards the topic outcome and the curriculum
ourcome. \o\f11en ycu think about ·the outcomes, you should ask yourserr questions
such. as:
• vVt1at do l want my leamer s to know or be able ro do at 1he end of thJs lesso11
that they di d n:it know or could nor do !before?
• Whar lmporram knowledge and Insights do I want my learners -ro acqunre'.?
• \<Vhat Important sk!Ols do I want my learners to be able ro demonstrate?
• \,\Illar atrltudes: and/or values do I want my learners to h.ave?
• How are these Insights, knowledge. skills and attlmdes related ro rhe content
and achievement standards specified In the currlntlum?
• \,\lily are rhese outcomes: relevant and Important for learners?
• Do my learners regµrd these thlrugs as lmpo:rtan.r and lnte:resting? If not. how
can l convince learners that these thlngs are lmpornant?
• Can the ourcornes be demonstrared In a ranglble way?
• Are tile ourcomes fair anct equtrable for all students?
• How will I know wl1en my learners have developed ri1e knowledge. skills and
arttnictes rhat L w.anr them to develop?
Decide how to assess learning
If your tteaciilng Is successful, learners 1�111 undersrand things (and b,e able to do
d1IngsJ after the lesson that they did nott undersrand (or could Itor do) before die
lesson, As you thhik ,about the outcomes you want diem to achieve. It ls logical
to think arso about how you wltl deremnln.e how well rhey ha\'e achieved those
outcomes, If you think about assessment at lthls early stage of lesron plannlnig, then
you are nnore [lkely to tJJl<e an assessment for learning approa:h rather rJ1an an
assessment ofleaniing approach (Sttlgglns, 2005; )111 \.\/!nils. 20LO). Assessment
then becomes an lnttegral part ofyouT reach ing, rat11er than sometl!tlng !liar Is ta.cl<ed
on ar the end. Thinking a.bout assessmentt early In your lesson plannnng might
also help you to refine the lesw:n outcomes so tthar rlley are dear and realls!lc.
Assessment ls dealt with In more detdil lru Chapeer I 5 and In K!Olen (200.5).
The main point here Is tthar you musrr be pracdcal and plan your reaching within
rhe real consttralnrs that llmlt the learnlng experJences you can provide for srude.rnts.
Ho-wever. you must also work lma,glnartvely ro try ro overcome those constralnrs.
Select les.s.on content
The content of each less.on ls obvI01usly lmponram.. because slilldents cannot achieve
any leamlng outcomes without Ht. Therefore. one of the challenging aspecfs of
lnsmtctlonal planning ls choosing rhe coruent rhar best supports students' efforts
to achleve the required outcomes. Thls means that you should nor l!lse p.arrJa1lar
Consi·der the real constraints on your teaching
fller:e are rwo fom1s of ronsn-atnts on your reachtng- those created by !lie ·sysr,em •
and those ttlnar you crear,e for yourself. The system 1.v1I1 determine how 111\JCh ooral
time you have. wl1eru the bolJdays fall, what subjects learners must study, how yo1I
must reponr leamer achtevement, what nnafor resources are a1•allable ro you, how
many lean1ers you have ln your class. and so on. W:hen you are planning your
lessons, you must rake 111ese ehlngs. Into account and consider how they mlghr
prevent you from reachlHg In the way that you would If you did not have these
constraints. However, you cannot use r:hem .as an excuse for nor heiplng sllldents
ro learn. Tilts leads us ro. tlie second type of consrrallu.
Teachers often ldent:Ify .lnsufiklem time and lack of resources as thetr rnajor
consrralnrs, and they v:lew t11ese as s:ysrem constJa!nrs. In reality, rJ1ey are largely
self-1mposed resrralnrs that can be overcome by Imag[nartve and resourceful
�e:acllers
.t. The first of these constraints Ls rlle easiest co deal w[tl1 -you don·r have unUmlr.ed
tin1e, so you must dec[de which things are most Important for sl11dents to
lean1, and use your rtm.e wisely to help learners ac:h!eve. �hose outcornies. if
you focus on helplng lean1ers to under.stand the major concepts, and you teach
tliem m be Independent learners, you wm nor neect ro waste tttme reaching all
cl1e ulvlal. r.lme-consumlng detail. You wl'll and tl1at Ir ls berrer for learners ro
understand tile basic prilnclples of your subject very well than to have only
a superfictal understanding o.f a large amount of coinrent. Ayres, sawyer :and
Dinham {2004) gt.ve an Inreresrlngaccot1ntofresearch rhat supponrs tthls Idea.
.t. The lss.ue of resources maiy 11ot be so easy to resolve, bur the lmporrant rhl I1g
Is that you can nor use lack of resources as :an excuse for not teach.lng well -you
simply have to make rile most of whatever resources you have. Yo11 also have
to be prepared ·co spend a Jo[ of rJme colfeot!u,g and developln,g resources for
teaching, r.aeher ell.ati relylng on the system eo provide fllem for you. one of the
most useful resouroes wlll be your local newspaper. !Re,gardless o:f what subject
you wfll reach, yN1 wlll :regularly find Information or Ideas in newspapers that
you can use :as a resource for your reachln,g (for some .suggestilons, check the
secdon IJsr,ful we./Jsi� at the encl of r,hls chapter, or Mysllwlec, Shibley &
Dunlbar, 2004). As a !Janus, theS,e real-world resources will help you to make
learnlHg relevant for students, You also need to look to learners, their parents.
the general community, your colleagues and frtends ro l1elp you ac.qutre reaching
resources. \Vork on esrablishlng a network of people who are con.sranrly on che
loo:kour for resources that mtghr be useful ro you. or course, you should also
develop your skills ar fin.ding reaching resources on rhe Internet.
conrent Just oecause It looks lnte�esl1ng, 1t happens tto be In tJ1e textbook or It has
always. been part of the subject you are teaching. You must consider why the
conrent Is Umportant and whatt benefit learners wllU gain from smdytng It.
Often. lean1ers. wlll see the content (not [he ourrcomes) as the lm[l)ortant part of
wllat rl1ey are learning. In a SClence tnvesdgacton, for example, they may focus
endre0y on the Issue they are lnvesdgal!lng and overlook. die racr that d1ey are
supposed r,o be developing tlielr Investigation skills. To over,come this, you need
ro select conrenr carefully and explain ro srudencs why th.at con(enr Ls being used.
Por example, r.ake the trouble ro explain why you have l!lsed particular examples
or what they should learn from parrtcular actlvlt1es. All tthe content (knowledge.
Ideas, themes and Issues) rhar you choose should be selected on rlte basis of Its
capacity to help learners develop slgnrn:cant und.ersrandlngs. From this perspecnve,
some content wlll be essential (without It., learners "111 not he able to acllieve the
outcome) and some conrent will be supµorctve but nor essentlal. You have to make
sure that learners see thIs dlstln.ttlon, because they wlll sometimes find le difficult ro
work out for themselves which parts of th.e content are really lmponrant.
\Vhen. pfanrnlng your lessons, you have ro be guided oy the content Information
given In rile curriculum documents. However; you should also ask yourself
questions such! as:
.1.. \Vhat co menr must learners understand Ln order m achieve the lesson outcomes?
• \¥here does this knowledge come frolilt and how do I '.k:now .It Is oue?
• \Vho declde<l that this knowledge Is valuable?
.1.. \<Vllat does tr mean t o understand the sulb]ect I reach, and how wlll d1ls content
help?
• What w.ays of chinking are vanued and valualble In lhe subJect I teach? Why?
How wlll thls lnBuence my choice -of contenl1
• \Vhat atlnua l biases are embedded In the content !11at I plan ro u.se7
• \Vl1at mlt:imderstandlngs or 1111scottoept1ons.are commonly associated with what
I teach? How can I help learners to overcome or avoid these :misunderstandings?
• ls this partl.ci1lar contentd1e best way ofhelplng learners to understand the toplc'/
.._ \VIII learners see this conrenr as relevan.t and lmeres,rtng?

Activity: Prior knowledge

1. When. you are leaching. what assumptions do you usualLY make about
your students'prior knowledge?
2. How do you decide what prior kn0'.11ledge students neeal in orcler to
undersland what you ore leaching?
3. How does sllJ>dlenls' prior knowledge influence your choice of lesson
content?

Check yoU1r own understanding

Before eying ro reaclb anyrlllng, you need ro make sure 11,ar you undersrand It wen!.
You do not have to be an expert In everythlng tliat you teach - there wlll always
be more tlrnt you can learn: however, you do need a deprh of undersrandlng rliar
goes beyond the leveJ of unctersrandlng that you wanr your srudents to attain,
Achieving and maHma[nlng this understanding are two ofyourprlmary professional
development responstbll(rles. The !better you understand tl1e tlntngs you have to
r.each, the easier le wlll be to plan your lessons.
 TI1ere are several reasons why your own understanding wlJI limit the
understanding that you can help your students oo develop.
! . 1r y,ou do not have .a deep \md,erstandnng ◊f whar you ar,e r-eachltig, you wm
nor be able to provide accurar.e and detailed explanations that suit the cognlctve
level of your srudents
. (l ac◊bbe, 2008),
2. You may nor be able to provide adequate answers when students ask. you
questions.
3. If your und.ersr.a:nctong ls Inadequate, you wlll nott be able to Judge the :level of
underscandJng d1at srudenrs have developed and you may nor recognise that
students have developed mlsc◊nreptlons.
Select an appropriate teaching strategy
Le.am.Ing Is most effective when learners have opporuunJctes to tlllnk and reason
and debate their understanding, You have to deJIIJerntely create these opportunities
by employing appropr.tat,e teach Ing strategies.
T11ere are many Issues t-0 consider when selecting a r.eachlng . strategy, !Jut the
most Jmporcarnt rlllng to remember i s that you have to -choose reaching srraregtes
accordl11g to what It Is that you want learners to be able r.o do as a resulr of your
reaching. TI1e basic questlon you l1ave to ask at tllrs srage of your lesson [Planning
Is: '\.Vh:at !earning experiences will make Jt easy for learners to achieve the lesso11
outcomes?' (IB«lcause It would nor mal<e sense to d.e:llberately choose a strategy thar
would make It hard for lean1ers ro achieve the outcomes! J \Vh.en you are selecting
a teaching srrnregy, keep these points In mind,
• Learners need .adeql!late opporrunlttes and time ro construct their undersr.andtng.
• Leantlng Is a soclaVcurnura:i experience. so yol!I have ro ere.are oppom1nJtles for
approprta re 1nteracrJons between neamers.
• Leanters are Individuals, so a 'one-slrie-firs-all' lesson wm 11,1r give equal
learning oppommltles to al.I !earners.

Dnlferent teaclllng smtregles are simply dlfferenr ways ofhel ping srudenrs. ro achleve
di.e Uei!irnHng outcomes that you have decided are Important. Teaching Is oft.en
described as being either reacller:.cen11red or leamer-centTect, and that convention
ls conlinuect nn thls book to conv, ey the Idea that In some approaches ro teaching
tl1e teacher plays a more direct role than 111 other .approac ties, However, It must be
emphaslsed that learning (and, t11erefore. learners) should be at the centre of all
teaching,
.,. Toacher-rentred approaches a:re sometlimes referred ro as ctJrocr lnsnucrlon,
deductive reaching or exposlroiy teach.Ing. A lecmre I& an ex.ample of a teacher­
ce111Tect approacl1. In rJ1ese methods of reaching, rhe reacher has direct contTol
over what ls raught and how learners are presented w1t11 tile lnfo□Tiallon they
are ro learn.
A Learner-oentred approaches (sometimes referred. to as discovery Beaming,
111d\1ct'1Ve leamlng l1r ln.q111ry feamtng) place a much stronger emphas.ls ◊11 tlte
learners· role In t11e learning process. Co-operative learrnlng Is an example of
a learner-centred approaclb, When you are using leamer-ce:rutred approaches
to teaching, you stlll set tile leaml11g agenda, bur you have much less direct
con!Tol over what and l1ow learners learn. You are no longer a ffilrer through
which all lnformarlon musr. pass iJefore reaching the leamers, some of the l'hlrngs
they learn will be a direct resulr of rheilr lndlvldua! or group 1nvesrlgatrons.
The rwo approacltes to teach Ing (teacltet-cen rred and lean1er-centred) differ nit ;a
number of Important ways., Including what rlle teacher does. how the lessons are
organised, how much the learners are !Involved act'ively tn leamlng and how mud1
tile learners,control thelr own leamlng.111,e!ther approacl1, you have a cenrrai role as
botl1 tJte planner and the facilitator of !earning - you have r.o decide what omcontes
leaniers are to achieve and you have ro help rhem leam. The real difference Is In
how you strn.cture and mediate their !ea.ming,
D[fferent teach.Ing strategies are simply dlfferenr ways of helping students m !earn
- that ls, different ways of l'lelplng them to achieve the learn Ing outcomes that y�1u
have declded are Jmponanr. ¥our choices rang,e f1om a r.orany reacher-domJnar,ed
approach. In whlch the learners are pas.slve recipients of the lnformal1on yo;u give
tllem, ro rorally lndepemtent Learning. Un which yo11 play no active role. On-1>envee11
t11ese exrremes there are several major strategies (refer to the chapter headings of
tills i.Jool<) and there are numerow; v.a:rtadons ro each strate gy. You cannor expect
to gu[ckly vewme an expert at using all tl1ese strategies, but this book explains
sysremarJc approaches ro de.clsJon-maklng that wUI help you ro select a[P;proprlare
strategies and gradually Im.lid up yoiir te.achlng expertise.
T11e approaches ro reaching descl1bed In this book emphasise that knowledge Is
constructed rather than discovered, and thait teaching and !earning should foc11s
on learner 1mderst.andilng rathe.r than memorlisatlon. Understanding happens when
learners th.Ink about and try to make sense of ,he world, You can 11ot expect most.
lean1ers ro do this without some help - you cannot leave them ro make sen.s.e
of tJ1e world through just their personal observation and thought. However, y'1u
need to ibe careful ·that your ·hel[Plng· does not become too prescl1ptlve, or learners
wt[I think that they must accept your undersra 11dlng of everytl1ing, rather rhan
developlng their own undersrandlrug.
No reaching strategy Is tierrer than others ln aU circumstances. so you have to be
able to us,e a variety of teaching strategies and make ra tlonal decisions al.>out when
each one Is Ukely to be most effective. This decJslon wlll be lntluenced very strongly
by the out,comes you want lean1ers to achieve - after all, this Is the purpose of
reaching. Learning is a process of acqul.rlng new lnfom1at1011 and abll111es, so you
musr choose reach.Ing srrategl.es tl1at help learners to thin k about, understand and
remem!Jer the lnform.atlon that Js directly aHlgned with the oul'Comes you want !hem
liO achieve. However. you aloo have to consider whatt Ht ls rJiat you want lean1ers
ro cto w1111 1111s lnfomial!lon and what generdl views you want them to have about
learning. Do you. for ex.ample, want learners ro chunk aiboucappllcarlons as a use of
t11.ooryor d.o you want them ro see theoty as a rool for understanding appllcatlon.s?
You probabUy have a favourite way of teacl1lng; some books refer to rh[s as
your preferred teachlrug, style, However, you need to keep In mind that. whatever
t11.1s: :style mlght be, nr will not be suitable for all the thlng.s you wane sruderurs to
learn, and not all your srudents will fee! wmfon.a!ble learning In tbls way. Since
t11ere ls ample evidence that variety and Oexll.Jlllty In lnsrru.ctlon help ro malmaln
learners' attention and Irtcrease achievement (Klndsvatter. Wilen & lshler. 200 7). Lt
seems logical that you should II)' ro master all reaching scrategtes rhar can be its.eel
effecrlve[y In your specialist area. You will tl1en be able to develop the flexlbHlty
and Juctgemenr ro select me 1nost appropctate read1ing .srraregy for each occasion.
 Not al! lea.mers llke to 1:!a111, or are abfe to lean1, ev,ezyt:Mnig In tile same way.
D.lffere:n r ways of learning are sometimes called tean1ing styles or tllinking
styles. It ls lmporrane ro note that differences In 1ean1.lng .styles are not the sa111e
as differences ln lea.ming a:biilties. 'An ablllry refers ro how well someone can
do something. A .style refers to ho,v son1eone likes to do son1erhlng· (Sternberg,
1 <J<J9 :8). Sternberg c!aln1s rJ1at dlfferences 1111 ablll ty (as Indicated by ttesttng) accountt
fr1r only al>out 20% of the vartat1on In tthe school p,e1fonnance of learners. sren1berg
auoo reports resea:rch In tl:e USA :and south Afl1ca whHcl1 Hndlcares char learners·
thin king sflyles contdbute slgnlfrcantl y to a correct predlc:lon of their achievements
across a variety of learning rasl<s. However, Stem.berg also e:mpllaslses that each
foan1er in your clas:; ,viii have a collectlon of learning styles rather th<11n Ju::-:t one
learnnng s1ryle. Ar some tilmes, or In some subjects, they will like ro learn In one
waiy, and at other times tltey may like to lean1 In a different way. Thls Important
point Is supporral by Rlen2r and �Valllngha111 (201 O).
It seems tnatvaJ1iatlons In lean1ers' acad.emlc sucee.5S can beinffluenced greatly by
any mismatch berween reaching styles and learning sryles. Put simply, th.ls means
diat your learners will be dlsadviln,aged nf the way you like to reach doeti nor march
the \Vay they like tto learn. To help all learners, you w!ll need to develop a range
of teachilng styles. By using nta,�y dllferenr style.s, you ·,vm avoid ctusactvanrnglng
lean1ers who do not lean1 easlly fro111 your favour1tte way of reaching.
You mciiy 11ot find It ea;y ro decide on what teaching strategy ro use ror ;a
partlallar lesson, because the nuunber of factors that sholllld be considered Is quire
large. An lmportantt ltirst. step Is to accept that having oontent knowfodge Is shnply
not enough to enable you ro reacll effectlvely. You must also know how to engage
lean1ers lru the Ieamlng process and know how to OQ; ,anise lnfom1atlon so 1har It
Is easy for t11em to understll!nd. The desired learning outcorn1es, fhe characrerts!lcs
of your lean1ers, the learning context and the c.ornrenr mttst guide your seleclrion of
reachJng strdtegles; yoltl should never select the srraoogy before constctertng tthes.e
Issues.
E.ach strategy dl!Scrtbed In this book has advantages a:1d IIInrnartons. You should
select the strategy �har 15 1nosr Ulkely ro help lean1ers ro achleve rile reqllllred
outcomes, takJng Into oor,slderat1on the ttype of knt>wledge r.hae learners wlll be
cteal!ng wlih, £he type of ,cognitive processes rlley l1ave ro use. r:he sk.U.ls Involved
and the atitHudl na! factors that are relevant. Once yol1 have decided on an overant
strategy. you slrtll have lo select tile specllic rech:n lques you ,.viii 11 se dur1ng each
stage of your leSS-Oru. Par example, If you have decided ro use direct Instruction.
you wm still have to decide whether ro present all your lnformarJon orally, or to
support your presentation \1,lrll die use or approprlaue n1edla. You alro have to
decide how you will n1orJvare yoU1r learners, how you wlll ger feedback on ,vhat
d1ey understand and l1ow you ,viii assess their lean1ln�. You cannot make tthes.e
choices u nles:s you ]1 ave a broad knowledge of tile poss Ible app roacl1es to reaching.
\-Yhen you are makJng your choices abour ,vrulch reaching strategles ro use In a
parrlcular lesson, you sltoulct ask y,1urself quesdons sucJ1 as tile fol!o\\1ng,
A How do people come ro deve!oµ the knowledge, skllls, values and artttrudes rJ1a-r
I am �l}'lng to teach? How can I lncorporare these 'naniral' ways of leamlng
lnt!D my lessons?
A Do the strategies I ann planning to use take into account how the human brnln
f11.1nCJt:lons durnng !earning?
A Do rhe learners have rhe necessazy knowledge, skllfo and atrJl!Udes to lllSe the
s:iraregies tllar I am con:stderlng?
A How ran I take advanrage of learners:· p rtor knowlect_ge?
• How much rime, space and -01her resour<es do ·1 have, and how will these
resrrla my choice of reacl1lng s·m1 regy?
A How ran I •engage !lie learners In real-1.lfe expenlences as they I.earn?
A How wtll my own knowledge, skUls and attitudes Influence my reachlngi'
• How can I make it easy for learners to learn.?
A Do I have the know ledge and s k.Uls co use the srra regI es I am consl dertrng?
A \.Vh.at. molivalrtonai strategies can I use ro foster .se1f-confidenoe In my learners?
A How wtll I know that I am reaching as well as I possibly can?
Le.sson pl.anntng.and longer-rem.1 plann[ng 11eed to t>e 1rer,;11!1ve process-es. Yout need
ro make dedston.s, progress with yolllr plannl.ng, make more cteclslons. reOect on
how your early deds[ons have in�uenced your later decisions, and possibly go lntck
and change some of your ear1ler !Jllans. Thr-0ug.hou.r tl1ls process, [t Is Important to
seek. allgnmen r between rJ1e ourcomes you want. learners ro .achieve, the reacl1111_g
strategies you wlll use and the ways: In wh.lch you wllU assess srudent learnln_g,. The
foflowlng secdon will help you to ach!Jeve thls alignment

r Activity: Leannlng from experteneed teachers

1 . l11l81View three ex:perienced teachers wno ore willing to share wiln you
lheir approaches to instructional planning.
2. How do these leachers use file culTiculum IO guide lheii' day-lo-day teaching?
3. Use the info1TI101ion ftley provide lo produce a planning guide that you
con use lo help you pion your doy-t�ay teacning.

IIJSING TAXONOMIES OF LIEARNING TO GUIDE PLANNING

',,\l'hen we are clear about t11e ourcomes we wanr leamers to achieve, we can
select appropriate reach!n_g strategies. Thls wou!d be an Impossibly complex: task
If we mok rhe view tthar every- outcome required a dlfferent tteaching approach.
Fortunately, there are some tools available ro he:tp teachers Identify the commo11
aspe<::ts of groups of te�untng outcomes, s:o rhar rile process of al!gnlng outcomes
w1ch reac:hilng srraregles Is simplified.
Largely as the result of rl1e work of BanJamln Bloom and Ills ,colleagues: (Bloom,
1956). l t Is: common practtce for cu111cu1um designers and reachers to group lea.n1l ng
outcomes Lnro rhree d-1matns, nru:nely:
1. the cognitive domain, concerned with menral processes;
2. the psychonaot,<>r don1c-1iru, conc:emed with th.e control -of vody movements
and physical acnons; and
3. t11e .tffect.iv,e doru.tin, oon<:en1ed ,11th feelings, altitudes and values.
These broad gro11plngs o:f ourcomes provide a useful sra1t1ng point for thinking
about the things we wanr srudenrs to learn. They are a practJral ponnt of departure
for exploring the Idea rhar dllTerem types of leanllng require different approaches to
teaching and assessment. For example. tr Is clear rllar r.eachlng: a pract1u1n skm (sucl1
as rile motor skl.lls and co-orctlnallon lnvolved In playing a muslcal lnsoomem) wm
requlre a dlffere.nr approach from reachlng a cognlttve skill (sucl1 as reading music).
It ls also clear that knowledge, skl.Us and aotlrudes are related In quite complex
ways. Thus, 't11e broad categories (domains of lean1111g) are Just the scaltlng point;
d1elr Internal components and the relatlonsh.lps between ithe domains also need to
be consldered In .1nsm1ct1ona1 planning.
As we start ro write outcome sraremems ro describe what we wanr learners to
achieve. It soon becomes obvious char not all outcomes are equal - .some will
refer ro simple Ideas, others tto complex Ideas; some wili require low !eve.ls of skllls,
od1ers h!Jgh levels; some will require small change& lru amrudes and values, others
large changes. To help us think aoout and discuss tltese dJfferenr types of outwmes,
Ir Is useful ro have a common language for des:crl.blng them. The search for dils
common language has led to the creatton of taxonomi.es of [ea.ruing - hlerarcl1lcal
ways of classifying possible learning ourconnes. For exam!Jlle. Bloom ( 19.56)
propose<! thae outcomes 111 rile cognitive domain could be ciassrned Into a hierarchy
of six levels. Harrow (1972) ()roposed a six-level classllicatlon of outcomes In
the psychom<1tor domain, and Krathwohl, Bloom and .Masla (19&4) proposed a
five-level d.asslficarlon of ourcomes In rite affective clomalru. Other wrl.rers have
propose<! altemattve taxonomles In each domain (see, for example, Romlszow.skn.
1999; Mar.cano, 2001}. These taxonomies can be very useful planning rool.s. as
you wUI see in the followl ng pages.
The boestt-known taxonomy Is that de.veloped by BIL1om and his: colleagues In the
I 950s. lt was developed at a time when behaviourism was the dominant. theory
al>out t.eamln_g and Ir provided a valuable guide for many curriculum planners and
teachers. It Is ac,rualiy quire amazing thatt Lr embodied many Ideas ciiar are conslsttent
wJth some of rhe laresr theories onean11ng based on neurological research, such as
char reported In Wlllls (2006) and Zull (2002). However, lacer theories of learning
also hlghllghred some of the llmlr.attons of Bloom's taxonomy.
One attemptt to remedy this situation Is a taxonomy known as the 11:!xonomy for
Learn.Ing, Toacillmg and Assessing (Anderson&. KratJ1wolll, 200 I). Thi!: taJx.onomy
reraln.s much of tile srru crur:e (an ct simplicity) of Bloom ·s original taxonomy, bur has
been ex[l)anded to rellecr new ways of t:hlnklng about cognlll.on anct leantlng. The
development of rl1e revised ca:xonomy was ddven by four questl.ons th.at Anderson
and Kr.athw<1hl (2001) see as fundamenral ro teaching:
I. What .Important things should. stiudents team?
2_ How can lnstructlon be planned and delivered so r:har high levels of le.a.n1lng
are acll.levect by srudencs 7
3 _ What asses.smenr 111sm11nenrs and procedl!lres wtrn provide accurnte Informact o 11
about how we[! students are learning?
4 _ How can reacJ1ers ensure that outcomes, lnsnucoon and assessment are
aligned wlril1 one all other?
Because these quesdons focus on Issues t11att are so fundamental ro reaching, It ns
nor surprising that they draw our arrendon ro cite focal point of outcomes-based
educart<Jn - tile allg11111ent of outtwmes, reaching: scraeeg!e& anct assessment.
 The revised raxono111y reralns rhe bast concept of Bloom's taxonomy (tthe
hlerarcl1y of cog.i1lt'.1,,e processes lnvolvecl l:n !earning In the cognitive domaln),
bur develops: and extends rhe ortglnal raxon:omy In several useful ways. Tine
nta)or difference sttems from re«1gniSJng thar '�] ust as there are d!fTer-ent cognitive
processes. Chere are d[fferenr types o.f kno,vledge· (Anderson & Krath\\rohl,
200 I :232), If we want to understand ho,v stllldents actually learn, ,ve have
to wnsld.er both the type of kno1l>'ledge tlley are atte111ptlng ro acquire anct tthe
cognltlve prooesses thar need ro be applied ro that kno,vledge. Th1s Idea Is .also
cenrral ro Marzano's (2001} r.ax-0non1y, bur he organises the !deas quite dl1Tere11cly.
Anderson and Kr.arhwohl suggested th.at che lmponance-0f both cognllilve processes
and types of kn1nvledge ci.l111d be recognlsect t>y sm1crur111g the rax<1nomy as a grid
rather Chan a list, as sho1vn In Talble 4. l.
1'.i!b1e 4.1: A lea1ni11g taxo1101ny_grid (baud 011 rileA11derson-Krathwohl
taxonollry: seeAJ1de1son �<{ Kratllwo/11, 2001)

Ty�ot Cognitive Jl<rocesse,s

knowledge
!Remember Undersland Apply Analyse Eva'lual,e Create

factual

Concap1ual

PrOOGdur<:11

Metocognitive

The key tem1s �1sed ro cteftne the cog;niti:ve process ,din1emsion of this grtd are
defined ln 1'&ble 4 .2, \Vhlch also contalns.exam1P1es of ·actlon verbs' ro suggest some
ways In whlcil these cogn.ltlve proces:s.es can be lndlcaroo In oua:on1e sr:arern1ents.
 n11ble 4.2: 'l)'pes 91'cognitive pr,,c:,�es (developedJr<>111 A11derso11 &
Kratl1wo/1/, 2001)
Cognitive What leorners are reql!li red
Examples of action venbs
process fodo
RQm,;,mber Ref00\19 roovonl mowlooge rocogn,iSQ,rocall. c191ine. des.crribe.
from l ong.1,;,rm memo,ry and use identity. �t. l abel. match, n amo.
it i ra
i a :simplo way. rGprodUCG. SGl'.Gc'l.statG
(eg: Name -th<> p!O'tinoes ol SoulhAlrico.)

Understand 0on:ilruct P9iSOl1□1 meaning inte«rpret. paraphrase. g i-.a eXCJmpla:s.

from information and c:tas.si iy,summari5e. irnfer. deduce.
demo:nstTOte c:omprehemion. compare.d iscuss. e.xploi11. rewnte
(eg: �xplain lh<> differonce oolween.
\/81o.cityond accel<>ralion.)

Apply Use a slandord proc:<>dure or c:alc:ulale, demonstrate, predict,<<> late,

fochniqu:e-in a giVGn s ifua-fion sdlve,. detGrmime, eocecute.,operafG., use,
(eith.er routinely or o:tter c:ommunioole,conslruci. illustrate
deckfing wh ich procedure (gg: Solvg routino mathomati cs
shoul d b-9 used). problGms.)

Analyse SQporatB. info.rmonon into ports analysB.. comparG. contrast. -or garais.G, .
and deie<mine !now the poris distin9ui°sln. examine, iUustrale,point
r<>ial<> to one a.no:lher and how oul,re lol9, <>•pla in, drffef'31ntiial<>,
lh<>y relol<> lo an ovararn purpose attribut9, dGOOnsf riucl,01.1f l no,
i sfrucfure,
or stnrciure. if1"<>Sligal8
(gg: Compare thG writi ng S'tylGs of two
authors.)

Eva lume M aka judgements basecl on
criteria and/or s!andords (fool
aro Gith'31' given or doVG>loPGd).
OIQOfe Put GIGmont.s 109011"91 to form o
cohB.rGl'II or tuncfio.nal who!G.or
morgan.is.e elements into a nev,
pottern or �truch.ire-.
assess. oppiaisa. oommant on. chec�.
clfiticise. judge. critique, discr i mi nate.
jus ti f y. irnterprol. support. rGViG\11, docido.
c-onctudG.!GSI. prior iti so. rgcomf"Mllt
(eg: Criti que on BJCPB(im91llal process
in s cience.)
combino. dooi9 n. pion. roorrongo. 11rn1a.
compooo. rB.Co�lruc1. rewritB..goo�ratQ,
produce:, nKJke,. invent, in itiaf8
(eg: Dooi9n a w,;ib pa9e.)

In AJ1cte:rson an<l Kratlnvohl's raxonomy, rile four distinct types of kno,vlfd:g·e

(factual, concepn1ai, procectnral an:d n1eracogn1r1v-e) are defined anct sull<llvldect as
In latlle 4! .3:
There are three steps In using the taxonomy table In l'dble 4, I to allg.11 outcomes,
Insrn1ct1ona:i !(lJocedures .and assessment for a uruttt of,11ork or lesson:
! . Eacb outcome :is mapped on to the taxc,nomy table (Thble 4!. 1) by
answerlng two questions:
a) \Vhat type of c ognltlve processes does the outcome require?
I>) \"11th what ty!(le of lcnowlectge will learners l>e deallng wJ1en demonstrating
rrhe outcome?
For example, .a low-level outcome, such as: Learners will be able to name tile
f
pro-vi11ces e Sout!r Ajhca, requires leaniers to remem(}er factuan lnfom1atloru,
so Ir Is mappetl Into the rop left-hand cell of rlie grid. A hlgJier-level outcome.
such as Learners 1vill /Je able ro annpare die South Jjfiican parlia1ne11tary
system wit/I tileA usaa/ian parlialltentarysyste1n, requires learn en; tto analyse
concepn1al lnfonnarlon, so !r Is n1apped lnro die cell ar the lnrer:secdon of the
'Analyse· column and t:he ·conceptual· row.
2. Next, the teacbing strategies are considered. If rhe outcome requires
recall of :facllllal lnfonnatlon (as In rhe example In Step I of the south Afrlcan
provinces), then a r.e.achlng procedure such a& direct lnstructlon (perha[l)s
Involving drill and practice) might l>e approprtat:e. For rhe second example
our.come mentioned In Step i (comparison of parrnamenrary systems). the
teacfltng strategy would have to be one tl1ar shows learners flow to analyse
concepntal lnfonnarJon that has to :be undersmod (nor Just remembe . red). A
strategy such as eo--0perat1ve learning or student reseaJ7Ch could be used.
3. Next, an a p pro priiate assessment procedllire is selected. For die first
ex.ample ourconie In Step 1, the assessment could be as simpl e as List tile
pnrd11ces Q/ SOut!r JYtica. For die second example ourcome In Step, 1,
several approaches ro .assessment are possible. A question such as List three
d.f.tta·enct:'5 /Je.ovee11 tile par/;amenro.,y systems q/So.1It/1 ,1/iica and.Australia
would require learners tto make a simple compa11son of the 1\110 sysre.ms (a 11st
or <lllferences could be memortsed and rocaUed), so such a <111est:1on would noc
be approprtare. A <JUest1on &uch a& IJe.saibe flow rl1e stn1cture and/unctions.
f
q the South J!{iica11 a11d A/J$,tralian parlia1ne11tary systcllrs are djjferent.
would req1.11re learners ro go beyond 1ocan1 of factual. lnforrnarJon {rl1e ltsr of
d!fferences) and demonsrrar.e an 1.1ndersrdndlng of concepcs such as ·propon1ona1
representation·. Learners wl-rh a high level o:fundersrandlng would alsolle ab:le to
ctescr(l>e t11e lntteractlons bel\11een r:he srrucrure and funcno. ns of the t\l'O syMems.
This question appears to be a more appropriate way of assess.Ing die outcome,
An lmportant point here ls: char thlnklng about I10w to march t:he assessment to
tthe outcome forces yo1.1 to clarll:y Just what die ourcornie means.
If the aoove pro,c,ess :ts followed, !t·wm assist teachers In detem1111I11g:
• wh.erher or not the outcome Is appropr1ace:
.._ wh.erher or nor the chosen reaching strategies am possibly enable learners ro
achieve the ourcome; and
.._ wh.erher or nor the assessment procedures wm provide reliable evidence so that
val.Id Inferences can ibe drawn about learners' achievement of the outcome.
\Vhen you it1y to use this taxonon1y, yoll ,vlll quickly see how difficult .it. can be
ro put outcomes lntto near categ:orles that correspond to r.h:e cells of the grtd (sucll
as 'analyse conceptual infomnadon'). The outcomes will often overlap several
caregones. Do nor be too concemed aJJour rills.- simply use tile taxonomy as. a root
ro help yo11 think carefulty about what you want students ro lean1, how you can
help them ro learn and :t1ow you wlll assess thelr lean1111g. For a deraUed dlsrusslon
of the impllcarJons of this ove r!apping or categories, you can refer ro Anderson a11ct
Kratlt.wulil {200 I) .
One Umittatfon or rhe taxonomy Is r har it does nor all ow you to describe the
quality of learning represenr.oo by each :ell fin the raxonomy table. For exan1ple,
If the outcome "'as Learners will be a!Jk to explain tl1e concept Qf straregfc
planning, we could map tMs lnro rhe cell of the raxo1101ny table corresponding
ro rile ·understand' column and tile ·concepnmu· row. We could also develop
a straightforward aS:SeSSmenr task l11ar would provide evidence of learners'
understanding, so rhar we could make ,·alJd Inferences abour their lea:mlng. for
exam.pie, you might ask leamers to dgir.e the conc:epi q/5traregic: planning and
gtve three exa,nples. Ho\vever. you "'ould semi be left with rJ1 e problem or describing
the dJffere11oes tn quality of answers frc,111 ctllferent leaniers. Put slm,ply, sonie
lean,ers wm be able ro give better explanatilons and/or more appropr1are examples
than others. When we start to think atourr thls issue. It leads us Into !lie field
of srandards-referenced as:sessment (KJl!en, 2003a. 2005> or ro a conslderacton
of other ways of describing tl1e quality cf learning, such as the SOLO taxonomy
(Blggs & corns, 1982; Kll.len & iHattlngh, 200,4 ).
The expeaatJon r11ar tt.ad1ers shoulld make Ju<fgemenrs abour rhe quallry of
learner leamlng, ls not unreallsrlc - tteachers cto lt all the time. Every ll:me a reacller
gives ai marl< for an essay, rates an amvork as creative or describes an argument as
logJcal. che reacher ls maktng: a value Jud6emenr ailour !he qu.allty of rhe learners·
attempts ro demonstrate rhelr leamlng. If !he c rtreria ror rhese Judgements are made
expllcltt, they can be used to create .a hlerarcl1lcal set of descriptions of levels of
lean1lng. Th!ls.is the essence of creating a ser of :srandards In a standards-referenced
approach fO assessmen.r (Krnlen, 2003b, 2005). once the sttandar<fs are des.cl11Ded.
they provide a relined view of die our.comes - they descnbe whatt !s tto tie learned
and bo,\' ,ven It Is ro !be learned. Teaching and leamlng experience.5, am r11e11
be planned r.o, enable !eamers ·to ach!Jeve an appropliattely hlgl1-quaUty level of
l ean1lng. l'inally, the assessment task can be deslgned to provide leam.ers ,vlth an
oppommlty to demonstrate l1lgh levels of achJeveme:nr . We rel1llm to rJlls J&s.ue ln
Chapter 15.
A simple way of!Jnklng !lie issue of quality ofieamlng ro theAnderson-KrathwollU
taxonomy ls to lmag)ne a d1ree-dJmenslonal grid. The two-dlmenslonal foundadon
of this grtd ls the taxonomy table alr�cty descr1bed (lable 4 .1 ). Tile thtrd dimension
conslscs of a rowerlmllron each cell. 1!1ie J.ncreaslng hetghr of any one r.ower represents
the outw111e being, achieved .at lilgher levels of competence. This can be represented
dlagranrmatilcally as shown ln IFlgure 4. I. ustng as an ex:;unple an outtcome !mapped
onto the cell corresponding to 'applying cmcepl11al knowledge·.
 Qu� lity Of perfOrn\iOf\<!e

Facts
Con.;epts
Procedure�

Aemcmber Un-derstand Apply Analyse EYaluate Create

C09 nitive processes.

Figure 4.1: Addi11g a quality dime11si01l to the Anderson-Krat.Jnvo/JI taxo110!llJI

We then have the task of ctescribJng, .in words r�1tber tlian numbers, tile
difference ben11een hlgh-guallty and low-qua.111)' achievement of each outcome.
Tliese descrlpdons provide guldance wl1en we are select.Ing reaclllrng :srr:aregtes
.and when we are developing: assessm.em tasks and marking guides. such as rhose
,described In Chapter IS.

y Aellvltv: Using 1he taxonomy

l. R'efer lo the·CAPS foryourte-a:ching speciolisolionond finclexomp,les of
learning outcomes in lhe cognitive domain. Map each of these outcomes
on to the taxonomy grj,cJ! shown in Figuie 4.1.
2. How would you explain to learners who I type ·of learning was required for
each outcome,?
3. How would you explain to learners th."OI lhese outcomes con be o,chieved
to dif1erent sta111dard:s?

BASIC LESSON PLANS

There are many different ways of seni1ng our your lesson plans (see the Useful
we:bslres secrJon ar-rhe end of rhis chapter for examples). With expe11e:n ce, you wnll
develop a fonnat. d1at works best for you. TI1e lesson plan fonnat shown in Figure
4.2Is a good s tarting point. Ir emphas.lses:
• tbe lesson outcomes, dear statements of what you wa11 t student;& to be :able
to do vy che end of rn e lesson;
_., tile lesson content: a summary of the .Im po:rran.t things the smde:ms need to
understand In order to be al>le ro achieve the lesson outcomes;
_., the lesson .introduction: a summary of how you wll.l gain the learners·
attention. arouse their rnorlvadon. ex.p!aln the pufiJ)ose of the lesson and review
any prerequisite knowledge;
_., tile teacbiug/learning phase: wha.r happens here will depend on the
teach.Ing strategy you have choseru. 'r/ou muse al.ways cons[der how you wUU
faclUtare !earnJng, keep learners on task, manage the learning ernvtronment.
gain. feedback from rhe learners and taelp them ,ro monitor their own learning.
TIiis- parrlcular fonnat requires you to thJnk about what yoiI wJll do:J and what
rhc learners w:11:1 do at each point In the lesson;
..._ the tessomi closure, a summary of how you wJll lb1111,g the lesson to a logtcan
condusto n ar an appropriate tlme:
• assessment of learning: a summa:ry of how you wUI get feedba-ck on what
srud.ents :have learned; and
_., lesson evaluation, a reminder to rcB.ecr on whether or nor your ·reaching has
been sm:cessful.
A QUALITY liEACHING CIHECKLIST
Tlte folk1,11111g sections oonraln ques!llons rhatcan be used as a ,checklist to help you
reflect o rn rhe extent ro ,vttlch your planning has rdkeJ1 lnro aa:ounr all rhe eJemenrs
-0f Quality Tea,chlng that were desc11bed l.n Chapter 3.
Of course. these Usr.sof quesrlons arenor exl1austlve- nnany more such questions
-can, and slloulct, be asked as you make your declsfons about ,vhat anct he1w ro
reach. Your re!llecrlons on these Issues sl1ould nor address Just tile rechnlcaJ aspects
of teaching. You should als-o consider tlte 111ore dlfftctllr moral, ethJcal, soc1an a1HI
pollctcal queslions that relate ro wl1y you are reaching \l'hat you. are reaclllng anct
,vho&e ends are being served by ,vttat and ho\\• you are teachIng.
An lmporran t pol11r ro note about each ofihe questions Im the Usrs ·ro fol!ow Is it11ar
they cannot be answered "'1th a sln1ple 'yes' or ·no'. The quesdons are destgned r-0
h.elp you r.o be reilectlve - an Issue dealt 1vlrh In more derail In Chapters..
Basic lesson pion format

les:son lille Dole

Outcomgs
Whal do I wantlearners fo-ba al:Jla la doa,; a 1et;Uff of th& lesson'?
i;ow a1e tho lesson out� linklld to the curriculum cutoomes?
L=n cont9nt
\'l'haf are tha /<:er facts, concepts or procedures Iha/ I wont oom..-s 19 undE>£Slano as a
f(>SUrtCf ttli$ iasSCll?
lntroduetion
How will I get the Jwrners motivated, curious and rfK!dy ta Jearn?
Teiach-er ocf.ivifies L&amer activitie:s
Wool am I going ro oo doing during Whal aro lh0 /oomoo, going to oo doing
thGJosson? dLHifl9 loo /Gsscl:J?
Closure,
I/ow wiH I bring loo lssS011 lo a logical conclusion?
Loorner as.sgs�mool
How willI knc>w whelh«th"" loornefS ochieve>d wflalI wanfed them to a,;hme?
Los,son �aluation
How will I gel lfle J9C1mers motivated, curious and rfK!dy ta Jearn?

Figure 4.2: Basic lesson pla11far1nat

Outcomes
.Ask yo11 rself the fol101v1J1;g quesaons regarding the ie&Wn outcomes you have
form111lared:
.& Are the lesson outcomes directly llnke,ct r;o the broad currt<:ullum g(!als?
.a Dorl1e outcoa1e s@temenl:5de.sc11beslgnJficanrle111rn!ngtl11tt \\'lll be demonstrated
In reallsrlc contexrs?
a Do t11e outco1ne sraremernrs describe learning that can be dernonsitrared at
different levels of competence?
.a Do 1 have a dear ·p1crure of how tllese dlfl'ererut levels of co1nperence : march
rhe dlve.rse abllltiles ,of my learners so rhae I can 11ave ap;proprtatei)' high
-expect.ittons for all lean1ers?
.a \VIII. lean1ers be able to achieve il he outcomes w[thout developing deep
u11dersrandlng? lfso. are my ex.pecratlons roo 10,v?
a vVhat speclHc reaching r.echnHques ,viii encourage and support the rype of
learning ,described by the outconies'./
.a vVhat have I done ro ensure rhat the ourcon1es. reaching strategies and
assessment are arngned?
1ntellect1Ual quality
Ask yourself·the follo1\rlng quesrlons regarding �he Lnrellecrual quality of the l�on
conrent you have prepared and the ways Hn \\'hlch you pla11 to engag_e learners with
this -content,
.._ \�rhat Ls really lmpor@nr 111 the subject L am reachJng7 Why are rhese things
Important? '<Vho doclded tl1ae these «hlngs are lmpomn.o
.._ \Vhar are the fundamenral concepts and prlncl.ples rJ1ar lean1ers mus,
understand In order to achieve the outcomes of �hls s11bject or unit o f \1'ork?
,Vhy are these concepts a11ct principles regarded as fundamenral? \Vhar wlll be
the consequences lfa·1ean1er does not understand these 111.lngs?
.A. Ho,1• are r.hese rundarn1enral conoepts and pri lnciples 1nact� expllcHt and emphasised
In n1y nnstn1ctlonal plans, both In the ,va yi r tea.ch and b n1y assessm.ent tasks?
A
. . \<Vhlch learning activities and assessmen� tasks enc()1t1nige lean1ers ro thlnk
beyond slrn1ple recall or repeated .application? How do these lean1Jn_g actilvlt les
and assessment tasks engage :iean1ers In h.lgher-orde: thinking tasks such as
analysis, evanuatlon and c.reanon? Why haven chosern these parllcular learn.Ing
acctvlrles and assessment tasks?
.A. \,Vilar ts the ctllterence tJierween deep anct shallow (surface) unde:rstan<llng or
the Important things that I ,Yant studentt.5-to I.earn? Do d1e lean1lng acl11vltles In
this lesson encoura,ge lean1ers ro develop deep under.;ranctlng and co resr thar
understanding by engaging In dlscusslon and de.bate\1•lth other lean1ers and
pracit:Ittoners?
.._ ,Vhac pall'.S of d1e fessoD \Vil! engage learners In hlgher-order thinking? v\lhac
evidence \\•Ill r look for eo Indicate that t.hey are engaged In l1lgher-orcter
rhlnklng?
.._ Are all rny learners capable of 111gher-order rl1lnklng? V/hy or why not?
• v\'nat Incentive Is there for my learners to engage ln higher-order d1inklng?
.._ !How does rny reaching encourage lea111ers wl10 rnay '!J.e relucranr ro engage
deeply \l'irJ1 tine subJecr?
.., !How d:o niy plans accomm.O<tare the <llverse needs of Individual learners?
.._ !How Is die conrenr of my leswn organised so that leanners ,1•1l1 bulld 111ult1ple
levels ofundersrandlng or the fundamental Ideas, central concepts anct deftnung
principles o:f rhe subject?
.., lln what ways does my teaching treat kno\11ledge as o:i11tent1oms, quest1C1nable,
open ro challenge and changeable (rarher than as 11! body of facts to be accepted
and remernbered)? What specllic aspects of this: IESson requtre learners co
consider informauon or Ideas frorn several perspectives?
.., \\'lllcll of n1y planned le.an1111g :act!vlrles wlll encoul'age learners ro 111.vestJgate
ho\v die spedailsed language of d1e subject dernnes lt:s central ldeas and shapes
rhe ,vay people understand rhe area?
.._ ,Vhat opportu:nories w111 lean1ers :have to engage ln ser1ous dtlalogl!le (Including
debate) al:iout rlle central Issues of this area of study?
• a low do my planned tead1ing straregles encourage and help learners ro be
1netacogntt1ve (thar ts, ro tl1lnk aoout and contr◊l their ways ,of thinking) and
co regulate d1elr 0\\1ll leam.ing?
.., iVEllcll of niy pla1uied assessment rasks \VIII ,encourage Learners t◊ thJ1.1k and to
apply ttheir kno,vledge Ill! \vays rhar ,1,m reveal tile d.epd1 oftheir understanding?
Significance
Ask yourself !11e fcllo\1'lng questions about the ways 111 which y,ou are anen1prtng
ro n1a�e lea1111ng signl&cant for all lean1ers:
.;. Ho\\• "'eJI do I understand the social and cullrural lilackgroi1 nds of fihe le11Jmers
In my class?
• ll1y lean1e:rs are not all the sarne - so what 1l!m I golng to do about It? In
w:hat ways does my plarunlng recognise that d1e learners come from a range
of socloculrural backgrounds d1at are likely tto i11flue11ce their acaden11c
achievernenr and their approacl1es ro learning?
• \-Vhar spedlic reachIng srraregres Will I use to enoouragean. leanners ro part1clpare
and lean1?
.._ \.Yi1at special lean1lng support Is provided for learners wl10 need Ir?
.;. In \l'hat ways do my lessons lnc:orporate c:ultumi knowledge from grol1ps other
tllan those wh.ose knowledge ls tradition ally included In s1rudies of rhls subject
area?
A How will :my teaching deepen lean1ers· undersrandlng of human differences?
A Havel planned to use narratJve as a \Vay ofpre.sentlng and explaining Important
Ideas? \Vhy or why not?
• \•Vilar opporrunHdes are provided for learners co express rhe[r developing
understanding eh:rough ttarrarlve?
• In what parts of the lesson (and In wh!ar ways) are lean1ers explicitly r.eqilllred
to use their background knowledge as a foundation for wh.at they are lean1111g
or as a rrame\l'Ork for organising 1vlnar they are leamtng?
• \.VJ1ar are the 1n1portant real-world problems that this s11bJe<:t \Vlll help lean1ers
ro s:-olve?
• How do my planned lean1Cng act1,,1r1es engage learners ,111rh these lmporranr
rean-,vorid proble1ns:?
• \·VJ1ar le.anting act1v1ttes have I planned to help le<1m.ers connect ,vhat they are
lean1lng ro current ev,enrs ln the real world? l<Vl1at specUfic learning acdvlties
link the rontent ,vnth the lean1er.s' ilfe expertences?
• To ,vhar exrenr have I planned ro use assessment Items based on major real­
world applications of the prtndples, wncepts and ted1nlgues- that learners are
studying?
.t. How have I made exptlclt. the links Det\l'een ci1ls suil) ect and other subjects that
learners are studying?
A Have I used Idea& fron1 other subjects or learning areas to help learner& develop
a deep Ill ndersrandlng of the core conceprs I ain reachln:g7
• When I am reaching Hlsro1y (for example), \vhat tteachlng straregles or
educatlonal ex.perlences spedftca:lly he!p learners to develop the kno,vlectge,
understaindlng, aiJUides, habits ofmind, ways of kno,1•ing and ,1•ays of problem
s:oivlng thar define the \vork of an hlsrorlan? Ar ,vhar point do I expecr my
lean1ers to start to think and act lilke historians?
.;. \Nhat w1.1rk are my lean1ers req11lfe<I ro pr<.lduce for audiences other rhan 1ne
and their fellow lean1ers? How does th.ls help srudents to !earn?
• liVhern did r last discuss my teaching ivU,11 a colleague?
Quolity
1 learning environment
Ask yourself tthe follo,vlng quesl1ons regarding tthe guallcy of ·the lean1!ng
envlron,nerut that your learners are experiencing:
A \�1J1at have I done to create a rich and st!Juulating environn1ent for leantlng?
.._ HO\V have my lessons (or self-dJrecred study 111arertats) been orgarulsed so that
learners devore t11e maJorlry <.'bf their dute ro trying to un<lersrand what they are
supposed to be !ean11ng (so that. rJtey are nor.\vastJng 11me eng_-ag_ed In actlvlrJes
designed Jutsr to keep them busy)?
.._ Ho,v w'JI! I convlnce learners rliat eveiyone Is expecred ro acl1leve htgh
standards? Have these standards been 1nade explicit?
• Do all the leamlng actlvltle.s en courage learners to explore ne,v Ideas, think
creatively and strive ro ac l1leve high standards?
• Ho,v have1ny high expecrratlons about studenteffort and learning been emphasised
111 rny 1nsm1Ct1onal plans, tn the 1vay I reach and ltn n1y assessrnent raslcs?
• \Vho derem1lnes 1vhat ls high-quality wo:rk?
• \\1here have I planned ro give lean1ers clear, expllclr srare,nenrs and examples of

whar consdnues high-quality ,vork for each o.f the learning acdvltJes and tasks?
• \Vilar ,viii 1 !ooK. for ro tell 111e thar !ean1erS: are acade111lcally engaged and
learning?
• \Vilar opponunlttes have I provided for lean1ers to excel by helping tJ1e111 to
review. redo, polls:h or perfect. ch.elr wo rk7
.., Ho,v have I provJded learners >1•1111 feal and 1111pl1rrant choices about wh.at they
wtll leam and llow they 1vlll leam nn.
.., Ho,v llave I del!berarely tit«! ro teach lean1ers how to make lnfonned choices
about how· they lean1?
""' Ho,v w!ll this learnlng episode encourage and hel.p lean1ers. �o regulate their
ow11 behaviour?
• How 1vlll I encourage and suppon lean1ers "'ho are unmotlvatted or who are
experiencing ctlfliculcies?
_.. \\that opportunities have I !i)rovlded for lean1ers ro reHecr on d1elr I.earning-?

REVIEW AND REFLECT ON YOUR LEARNIIN:G

Develop answers to each of tl1ese quesrlons and discuss your answers with anorJ1er
teacher educadon student or wlrh an experienced reacher:
I.. \Vhat approach to lesson planning wo:rl<s best fur you? Why?
2. vVhy Is Ir lmporranr ro carefully plan the lnrroductton to each lesson?
3. TJ1e CAPS give gul<f('.llnes for t1111e allocations. How wllU you use thls lnfom1at1011
In yo11r planning?
4. BegHn11ll1g teachers C!Cten have troul>le getting rl1e 11111111g righr In tJ1elr lessons -
they e[ther linlish. earuler ,!nan expected or they :run out of·ct me. What {ech!nlques
could. you use to n1lnlmlse this problen1?
5. HO"' \\rill you :kno,v ,vhet11er or :nor you have .a deep enough unctersr.a:ndlng of
the -content you are teach.Ing?
6. In rhe last sectilon of tl1ls chaprer th.ere Is a long list of questions you c-0uld
ask yourself to check char your !i)Uannlng adheres ro the prtnclples of Q11.allty
leaching descl1.bed In Chapter .3.
a. From each sect1on of that list, select rh.e two quesdons that you 1J1lnk are
mostt lm[Portant.
b. Com[llare your choices wl.rh d1ose of another teacher educarlon srudenr (or
reacher).
c. Jiusttfy your choices.
7. How will you ensure ehar your shorr-tem1 planning (less:on by lesson} t'dkes
Into account the long-ttem1 0111rco111es that lea:n1ers should be achieving?
8. In every lesson, lean1ers· pr1or lutowledge wlll lnOuence wllat rhey can I.earn.
HO\\' can you hellp I.earners ro recognise die ln1po rrance of t11elr pr.tor kno\vledge
and dellberarely l>ulld 011 It?
9. How do ttaxo1101nles (such as the Anderson-Krdtllwohl taxonomy) help you to
u11derstand exactEy ,1•har you ,vant lean1ers r,o achieve?
10. \l\ll1ac sysrem "'Iii you use to organise your lesson plans and tea.:hing resources
so that you ran make efficient use of yo1ir planning tln1e?
11. Vifhy ls It Important to carefully plan rJ1e ·caosure· of eacl1 lesson?
12, On the lnte n1et, tl1ere are 111any sites that provide e:xan1ples of lesson plan.s,
a. Find a website tthat 11as p!ans rllat you could. possibly use.
b. Co1npare those plans \1•ld1 che guidelines given In rhls chapter.
c. \"lhat are the dangers ln usln.g lesson plans that have been developed by
someone else?
13. lnrervle\v three expertenced ireachers who are \\1llllng ro share wlt:h you rh.elr
approaches m· lnstructlonaJ planning.
a. H<1,v do these teacher:; use rile syUatius to guloe t11e1r day-(o-day r.eachtng?
b. use rile Information they p:rovlcte to produce a pl annlng gulde rhat can
help you plan your day-to-<lay reaching.
USEFUIL WEBSlllES
The fo(lo\11ng websites provide a range of ln fonnatton and exan1ples abo:ut lesson
planning. AlrJ1ough 1'.he e.xamples are not'b.ased on !lie south Afrlca11 scJ1ool sysr.e111,
the Ide.as rhey embody can readHly be adapted to topics ill south Af11can cun1cula.
A.. A derailed dlscussron. of how the revised Bloonrs Tuxonomy can be us.ed
to describe l.ean1lng related to lnfom1arton technology Is available on the
Edu.:at:1onal Ortga,nl site: h rop://edor1gaml.\\1lklspaces.com/.
• A \Vlde variety of lesson plans and lesson plan templates ts available ,at h.t[p,//
w1vw.p11maryschool.c-0m.,nll
.._ For exan1p les of using ne\l'spapers as reaching resourres, see
• httjp ://\1n.11w.educat10nworld.co111/.a_Desson/lesson/lesoon I 3-9.shtml
• htl]p ://\1n.vw.kldscoop.com/framed-teachers/reaching_w'ith_newspapers/
• hrr,p ://\1n.11w.pr-0reache r. or�orvcto 9&_Newspaper_Act'.lvlrtes .llt111l
.._ The UK Primary Resources \Vebslte (hr(Jl://w1vw.p11rnia1yresources.co.uk) has
free works:t1e.ers, lesson plans and reaching Ideas .for Pl1n1ary teachers th.at ecm
readily be adaptted (O tO!)lCS In South Afrtcan Cllrrl C111la.
• The Read-Wrlte-ThJnk website (http:/lww\v.read,l'rltethlnk.org/fossons/lndex.
asp) ls an excellent wurce of lesson planning ldeas. Although. rhe examples: are
based on the US school system, th.e. Ideas they embody can readily be adapted
ro roplcs In south Afr!can currlClllla.
Reflecting on quality
teaching and learning
1

No matt er ho,11 ,veil you teach, tl1ere Is ahli'ays room for Hn1provennent. One "'ay to
mnlilnually 1n1prove ls ro adopt a S)'Stematlc approach to lean11ng ftom your day-to­
day ;teach.Ing experi ences, By l.ooklng at ho,v you teach!, thinking about,vhy yo11 do
It rhatt way, . a nd evaluating how wern Jt works, you can ldenrlfy your strengths and
target d1lngs ro Improve, This process Is often referred ro as critical r•etlect.fon, and
Ir Is a vital part of effeclilve teacher planning, declslon-rnak.lng and ceachlng.
This chapter brtelly descrli)es several perspectives on ,11hy teachers should
reflect and ho,1• they can exan1lne ch.elr reachJng phllosophy, metthodology and
efl'ecrlveness. Ir Identifies a range of techniques d1at you <'an use to help you reflect
on the conrexrs \Illthin \Vh!lch you reach, rile techniques and strategies you use and
d1e effects you have on d1ose you are trying ro reach.
\-Vllen you have ,nastered the Ideas In d1ls chapter you wrn be able tO!
• explain rhe concept of reflective reaching:
,t,, I 1tcrease yol!lr self-awareness abour ho\1' you t:e.ad1 and l1ow ot11ers. perceive
your reachIng; and
,.,, develop a personal cl1eckllsr ofquest1ons: to ask yours:e3f Ivhen plannnng lessons
and when revre,11lng your reachlmg, so lihar you ,can co1111inually lmprove your
reaching.
DEFINING REFLECTIVE TEACHING
In otireveryday !Ives:, 111hen ,1•e use terms sucl1 AS 'reflection' or 'reB.ective t11nnklng',
,ve usually meam char we are looking :back at someth.lng and. thinking about ,vhat
happened and why It happened. �Ve are rrylng ro learn fro111 our experiences so rhar
tve can use r111s knowledge to guide what we do nn rile tunue. In this sense, the
concept of reflection Is cercalnly not a mod.em one. Throughout history, re�ecdve
thinkers have been hlghJy regarded for t11elr abU.lty ro analys:e complex. slruatlons,
to recognise su!brlel1es In pro'blems, to think divergently and ·to offer solufilons to
problen1s that others fou11d perplexing. Plaro, Arlstot'.le, Confucius, GalJleo, Newron •
and Einstein are examples of such tlllnkers.
Vie can re�e.<:,t on anyth[ng, but ,vhen you are lea1111ng t.o be a reacher It Is
part1c.uJarly useful ro reBecr about yourself as a learner and as a teacher . Reflecllng
on leanllng and reaching ls nor a new tllln;g - most teachers have probably always
<lone lt to some exrem. However. lt has l>ee:n only ql!llte recently. In rhe study ,of
lean11ng and reaclllng, rliat the lm[PO!tance of reflection has !been wildely recognised.
Mosr Western wrtttng In this area Is based either directly or lrnilrecdy o n d1e work of
Oilwey (193-3-), who made a dlst111ct1on oonve.en ·routine' action (gul<loo by tractlrton,
habit, authority and Jnst1mttonal expecrar!ons} and ·reBecCilve· acelon (guided by
,constant self-appraisal .and development). 'l1:1ese Ideas have been refined by lat.e.i·
,mrers such as van Mane n (I 977). ze1clmer ( 1981--s:2. 1983. L987). SChon
(1987}, Crnlckshank (1987), Korthagen and Kes.sets (L999) a:n<l Ghaye (201 I).
The wrt tlngs on thls theme. and t11e teacl1er education prog:rammes. �hat emphasise
renecl!lon, hav, e as their general aim 'the development of teachers who have the
sklUls amt dlsposl\1011s to <:onl!lnually 111qi11re Into rllelr own re.a<:lllng pracuce and
Into the contei.t.s In which their teach[ng Is embedded' (Zelchner. 1987,565). Prom
this gene.rat perspective. rellecrlve teachers are t11ose who are aw.are of rl1e reaching
declslom; they- make and of rhe conse(!uences. of tllose decisions.
Dlffere:nt writers approach the toiJ)lc fr.om quite different points of view. In fact,
unt11 relarJvely recently there was no srsong agreement oru what, beyond thlnklng
about reaching. ls the essence of reBecrlve teachlng. -�,'hen rrylng ro place the
various views about reOeCTlon Into a manageable c011cept:ual fr.unework, It ts
useful to consider the !PerspecrJve provided by G-llllert ( 1994). She suggests rhar
there are ess:enllaHly ttwo views of edl!lcaclon. From one J)erspective, educatlon is
seen as ·ai servant or the economy'. and comperenr teachers are rllought of as
·rechnlclans who have developed ce1talt1 specifiable skHlls' and who ca11 produce
·pre-deteITTlined lean1lng outcomes In sn1de,ms·. Gilbert refers to this as a
'tech nlcJst· v iew of educacro11. Prom the altemadve perspective. e<lucatlon Is seen
'fundamentally as an agent of social chang.e· .and teachers are seen as ·tnnovatlve
professionals.' whose c ompettence goes well beyond simply ha\'lng 'a sett of specific,
ldenttli.able reclu11ca1 skills'. Gilbert refers ro th.ls as a ·unerarory· vJew or education,
a r.em1 based 011 d1e Ideas of' rhe Brazilian educator Pal!llo :Freire. (Educatlo ru d1at
Is Uberatory encourages rea rners ro challenge a11d change t11e world, nor merely
uncrlllcally adapt themselves ro Ir.)
V.lffere:nt views of i"eaclilng give rise to different views about reO�tlon. 'f11os.e
who rake .a rechn!clst view of r.eacl11ng ,rend ro favour reflectlon on rile rechnlcal
aspect.5 of teaching, Those wl1e> �ake a llberrl[e>ry view of teaching tend to favour
reOectlon on the moral, ethical, political and social fa<:rors t11ar Influence reac11111g.
These approaches to re:HecrJon are often considered Jncomparlble. bur they can
equally well be viewed as complementary. Refliectlon can en:cou:rage teachers to
d1lnk crtdcally about all tl1elr teachlng practices and ro accept tha rwhat happens In
their dassrt)oms sho11ld !be questioned and, If necessary, changed.
van Manen (1977. 199LJ ldenrtfied rhree dltferenclevels.ofreflectton-r.echnlcai.
prac!tcan and crttlcal. Tl1ey are defined as follows,
1. Technical reflection: At this level teachers are concemed ·wlrh the technical
.appll.:atton of ed.ucado:nal knowledge In t11e dassroom ro maintain order and
·to achieve predetermined otm:omes; rell'eorive skllls are developed and used tto
.Improve rhe ap;pllcat:1011 of re.se.arch-base<l kt1ow·ledge. [fhls type of reHecrton
.ls rhe ce ncral focus of rhe work or -Cruickshank [ 1987] .)
2. Practical reflectiou: At this level re.ichers become concerned wlr:h goals, the
ronnectilons between principles and pracdce, the assumptfo11s d1ar underlie
rhelr [Practices an.d. rite val\1e of rhelr g.,als. (Tltts Is tlte basis of&hon's [t 983]
approach ro renocnon.)
3. Critical reflectio11: Ar this level tea,lters become concenie:d. wl!l1 Issues beyond.
the classroom, so that moral amt social Issues such as equity andemanctpatlon
can lnfonn their reBect1011s on c]ass:rcorn prac,tlces. (Bmok6eld [ 1995:S] goes
:i srP.[l fi 1rtl1P.r hy snir,gP.sling rl1 �r rP.t1P.�r1o rn sllnnM nnr hP. c.onsl rfPr
. P.cl ;is <.litic.:il
unless Ir serves r.wo dlsrlncr purposes: the fir:st being ro understand the power
retafilonsll!ps 111 reachJng and the serond oelng r,0 question the assumµttons
and prnctlces that ·seem co make 011r lives easter bur th!ar acrnaUy end up
worl\lng against our long ren11 Interests'.)
Zelclmer and Liston (1987) addressed thi!5 Issue sllglldy differently by focuslng on
crtterla fo:r reflection ratl1er than levels o:f reflecrlo n. They noted tha:r when teachers
use technical criteria for their reruectlon, they concentrate on the applJcatlon of
previously acquired knowledge for the achJevemenr of gtven ol>Jecrlves. ·when
d1ey use educational criteria, teachers cc•nslder how slruadonal and lnsrlmtlonal
conrexil'S Influence reaching and learning, and 1hey consider the value of dlfferenr
educational goals. \-Vhen they use ethical clilte1ia, teachers reHeer upon the moral and
et1llcal aspects of teaching and education. It should be -noted that zetclmer ( 1990)
opposes the notion that r:hese levels/cri.reria should be seen as hierarchical, since
this conveys th.e lmpressloru tllar tecl1nlcal and p ractlcal re:llectlon wlll ultimately
be transcended by crtt1cai reflection. As retchner (1990:61) 1tghtly claims. ·t111s
devalues technical skll.l and d1.e reality of tteachJng and s lwulct therefore be rejected'.
some of the most tnfluenrtal w rttl.ng on re�ocrton has been by Donald &:hon
(1983, L 987}. He argues thar technlc!st models of professional knowledge
(based on knowledge gained from Independent sctenrlfic research) are Inadequate
for explaining h.ow pr-0fesslonals, such as teachers, develop �heir professlcmal
knowledge and Improve their practice. Sclltin uses rile concepr of· frames· to explain
how tteachers perceive the situations In w ltlch they work. Baslcal!y, a frame H& a
vlew or a s,ec of expecrallons (based on know!edge, vat11es a n:cl bellefs} tthar teachers
use to inrerprer anct organise rhelr e,11Jvlr11nme1w an.ct ro _gulcte tl1e1r behaviour In
that environment Teachers· frames are detennlned b_y their past. experiences: and
d1eir previous efforts to make sense o:f those experiences:. Some teacher:s are able
to ·fr..me· whar happens: 1111 their classroom In multiple ways (thar t.s, view Ir from
different perspectives), whereas others are able to frame it ln on!y one way and,
d1erefore, can see only one ser of posstb[IJtles for .action In a given st niarton.
\.Yhen teachers are able to deliberately d1ange !lie way In which rJ1ey are looknng
at a slruacion, they are said r.o ·reframe· It. Tills would happen, for example, tr
a reacher lnltlally thoughr. that leamers:· tack of elfo:rt was dil.le to laziness, bur
d1en <lellberntely started to look at l1ow his/her approach; to teaching might be
cternorJva:ttng the I.earners. 'To achieve change, reacl1ers need ro discover that their
existing frame for understtandlng what happens in thelr da&lieS is only one of
several ·possible frames· (Ban1es, 1 992, 17). This Idea that refr-amtng a struatlon
needs ro be a deliberate, ·m1ndfuf• acr Is ia:ken up In co:nslcierable der.all by Linder
anct Marshall (2003 J anct rn fonns fJ1e basis !.'If rite su1ggesrJ11ns by Shay (2003}
 simultaneously s-tandln_g_at the window wat.chlng what Is happening and trying
to e.xplaln why It ts happenlng-.a rarher rrtcky sldll to masrer. In orderro re:H&t­
ln-actlon. a teacher millst be able to frame problems almost subconsciously.
generate !typo theses and ImmedJ.arely test them. Bct11 t11e frames employed to
make.: f>P.ni;r. of da&<;mnm P.VP.nl'li anrl rhP. p ror.P.ss of 111ill1,I11e
. rhP..'iP. frnml'.� ar<P.
raclt {rhey are nor made eKpllc:ltJ-
aboutways 111 w11td1 teachers mlglit resolve differences c•f opinion abour tJ1e quality
of aeamers· work. Ba111es ( 1992: t 7) makes tthe Hmporranr point t11at ·co achieve
change, teachers need to discover that their exlstlng frnme for understanding wfiat
happens nn their classes Is only one of several poss! ble frames·. This point becomes
Increasingly Important as our unders[andlng of learning changes In light of tl1e
neurologlcal research de.scribed. by zun (2002) and sousa (201 O).
Geddrs (1996:251) suggests that die frames teachers use have two lnteractlng
componenrs. ·one component Is a descrlptlve concepnial scheme tllat enables
teachers t,o, see classroom elents ln a particular way, the other componentls a script
wlllcll provides organised i:arrems of action arlsln.g from that way of seeing.· Both
tl1e conceptual (wl1ar teachers think) and action (what teachers do) components
of these frames must be the focus of ref.lecrlon If teachers are to leam fronn their
experlem:es.
Using tl1e notion of frames, SChon (1983, L 987) argues ch.at professlonars
develop their expert knowl�dge through tv110 separate. b11t related, processes that
he describes as reOectlo:n-on-accton and reOection-ln-acrlon. Both approaches uo
reflection lnvo!ve .simUar a,tlvlt[es -:framl.rug and ref@mlng proble111atlc sltuatlo r1s
-but they oc-cur .at different limes In relation ro the shtuar. lons being considered:
.l Re:fllection-on-action Is the typical .self-evaluative th!lnklng that teachers
engage In after most lessons. It Is a dellb-erace attempt ro understanding pasr
events In order r,o shape furure actron. Because lr occiUrs when the reacher is
able co concenrrare on reflecr[n.g (free from other dlstrac.Iions), the reacher can
care.fully choose the focus of reflection and the frames that will be used to guide
rhar reflection. Both rhe frames and the proces:s ofrefle,ctlon can be exptlclr anct
dellberare. Par e.xample, a reacher might as'.k a colleague ro observe a lesson
and make notes. about che !eve! of!ean1er engagement so ·that chereacher coul ct
refllect on hls/her teachlmg strategies.
..._ Reflection-in-acti.on (ICCUrs ·on the r un·; reacllers slmulraneous:ly reach and
analyse wha.r th.ey are doing, why t'hey are doing Ir and how rl1e learners
are reacctng. You can plc.rure this as. rhe reacher IJlres:entlng a lesson and
When refloct1on-ln-act1011 ts cont1n1tot1s and automatic, It becomes thedlsl1ngulshlng
characteristicof the· SIJlonra111eous Inrultlve perfo nuance of the comperenr proressron.aJ
functioning In -complex envTomnents' (Geddis, 1996:250). This poli1t Is ed1oed In
tl1e researcln of Faun (200'1) on rJ1e dispositions. of exceptlonal teachers. Butler
(I 996:.273) polntl5 out tha�refflecrto,1-ln-acllon is 'possible only lfrhere Is mental
processing capacity av.allable ro get outslde the. ac.r ofgenerar10111 of tile perfonmance
and ro watch lrs e:ffectts- and evaluate rhenn'. That Is wl1y you may find lt difficult
ro cto reOect1on-tn-actLon m me early part or your reacnmg career -your mental
capacity might be ;raken iUp Just by thinking about how to survive and perfonn. As
you gaJn expertenre, yo11 can pay less arteJUlon to sur.rlvlng, and many of your
teachlng acrlvltles wlil l>ecome routine. You wlll rllen be better .able ro reflect on
what .Is happening as It Ls happening.
 'r\/hetheJ· teachers are reOec11J1g on eheJr reachlng as It happens ,or afrer It has
ha ppened, IWO Important factors can vary: the depth of their reftectlon (varying
from non-reOectlve to highly r ell'ect. 1ve), and tl1e nai:ure of the things they reBect
lllpon (varying_ from techn.lcal to ethical Issues). Valll ( J 993) suggested that teacher
ectucatilon progrnmmes that. focus on the technical aspects of teaching In a non­
reftecr1v,e way are !basically emph asising sk.llJ devel opment ('Do Ir thJs way, but
don't ask. wh!y'), 1711s was a teature or many reacher educadon prograrn1mes about.
50 years ago. Programmes that encourage student teachers to reflect, bur on only
�he technk:al aspects of their teachJng ( encouraging thenn to ask questions sucl1
as, •W'Jiy does thls r.eclmtque help sr ucte11es ro Iearn?'), are emphasising practical
declslorn-maklng. Programmes rhar emphasise the moral, ethical am! social aspects
of teach.Ing In a non-reflective manner ('IIIs morally wrong co do that., IJutdon ·raslc
wl1y') are labelled by Valll as !ndocrrtnatto:n. Prograrn1mes that encourage student
reachers ro reflect on rhe moral, ethHcaJ and social aspects of reaching (asking
questions such as: ·Why are we Imposing these values on learners?') are said to oe
emplias.ls:lng moral reHecrton.
Vallti (I 993:36) s uggests rhar mordl reflection ·1s the mosr Juslilfiable and holds
tthe greatest promise as a vi able Image ,of reach.Ing·. This v.lew Is ochoed by Zelchner
,md r,c1rP. ( 1 qqs, 16) whe.n rf11>.y dP:sc.nl;P. a s1x!al rec.onsrmcltlonlsr appro,ich m
action research In reacher educat1,on that 'brings the social and political conr,e :xt. Into
focus and considers whether our work In teacher education Hs contributing towards
tthe ellmlnattlln of 1nequa:u11es and HnJusl!lces 111 schooling and soclezy·, I prefer eo
tM1:1k 1hatte.ad1ers need to take a balanc-oo approach to reOecrl,011 a11d queselon oorh
rile teclm!cal and mor.al aspects of thelr �raalces. and tl1Is view Ls lmp!Hdt In the
Qlllallty Te.aching Model ctescrtbe<t In Cha�rer J.

Activity: Reflect on your teacher education programme

Using the framework suggested boy Volli {1993), lhink ot>oul the different
components ol your teacher ed.ucati:oo programme.
l. What is being emph<1si.sed in lhis pro.gramme, and why do you thJnk this is
h<l ppening?
2. What influence is lhis likely 1a have en 1he way you will teach?

vVharever approach Is taken to relleccto1. rim ulctmare aJm of helping teachers

to reflect fs to produce wl1at Schon ( I ()83, 1-987) refers to as the 'reflective
praclltlon er' - one who can think abour teaching whlle reaching and who can
respond appropriately Eo ·the unique situations thar. aiise. '\\�1ile the approaches
to achieving d1ls aim may vary, the basrc Ideas aw slmllar, If teachers adopr a
reflecdve approach to their reaching, th:ey not only quesdon their own prdalces lb;ut
also render problemaflc many ,of the aspocts of reaching that are generally eaken
for g:ramed. (To ·render problematlc' simply means that these Issues are opened to
qt1estton and lnvesrtgatilon, rather than beln.g accepted without ehouglit.)
As Smyth ( 1984:32) suggests, 'Pur:slmply, ro act reflecti!Vely aboutteachlng ls to
pursue acllvely rhe posslllllity that exlstln� prdctlces may efle(r.lvely be chall enged
and, In the Ught of evidence alrout their efficacy, replaced by aHtematilves', 111.ls
reflection must b e open to the posslblllty that exlstlng pracl1ce.s are nor only
Ina ppropriate bur mat rlley are being driven by lnapproprtare sets of beUefs amt
values. Indeed. as Noffke and Brennan ( I �88) suggest, th.e real choice for teadlers
Is nor so much wh,erher or not to tile reflea1Ve butt, ral11er; what w reflect lllpon.
Characteristics of reft'ective teachers
From the brief overv1ew of effecl1ve reach.Ing g,tven 1n Ch!aprer 2, you n1lght have
nodced rhat che concept of reBecrlve tteachlng did not srarr to 'become prominen t . I n
·the literature. until the late 1970s, even though Dewey and others llad been writing
.about Ir much earlier. Ht th.en rook some rlnne before people such as Pollard and Tun
( 1993) and Pollard (2014) made comp rell enslve attemprs : ro ldennfy char.icrertstlcs
dnar dLstlngu!shed highly reRecltlve reachers from thel.r less reITTecttve co[leagues.
·,ve can now say 111lrtl1 some cerrailnty rhat reflecdve teachers rend r.o dtsplay tile
followlng charactte11sdcs:
"' They accept rl1at their actlons are the [Plime cter.enulna1ur of their smdenrs·
learning.
,.... They have a high level of awareness of llow rJ1ey reach and how leamers and
co((eagues perceive tihe1r teaching.
"' They are enthusiastic aoour Improving rhelr reaching pract1ces In o rcter ·to
Improve lihelr srudenrs· Iearning, but they are co11cen1ed wlrh alms and
consequences, as ,veU. as 111ea11s and technical effide1tcy.
• They take time to think about th:etr reaching so that d1ey can engage 111 a
coni'.lnuous cycle of monlrot1ng, evaluattng and revising d1e!r reaching pr.icttces .
..., They use a varleey of strdteg:les for gathering evidence fron1 their classrooms to
guide tlte develoi;imen.c of their teaching compettenoe.
"" They are open-,nlnded and wltllng ro change their reaching practices.
"' Tl1ey wlllJngty ccillaoorare wit'[] corneagues.
• They view cumcrulum documents as guidelines ratilt>J rhan recipes.
"' Thelr tt1dg,eme1us and dedsl,1ns are I. nformed by self-rellecrton, lly ,evidence­
llased lngulry and by :lnslghJrS from educatlonal cl1eoiy.
... They use deliberate sr.rae,egnes for refr,u11I11g pro:blem slmatI0Iis.
No approach oo re.Hecrlon ls wHthout its critics, and the most common cl1tlclsm
of any approach Is rhar it denies rhe exlstenoe of other views. Such a criticism ls
somet1mes levelled at even tile crltlcal/moraJ reflection approach, wlllcll should be
die most open (see Vaill!. J 99�). Any approach to reaching or retlecdon that does
11ot acknowledg,e that other approaches have some me11r Is dangerous.
l.n che remal1Hter o f this chapter. a broad view ofreffectlve reaching Is taken. This
approach wlrn e1npl1asls!! rhar :reflection is a form of inquiry through which
teachers can question tltelr .acUons, tile contexts iin wltich they tteacll, and
all Ute infilueuces on tllose aclioms a11d oon�xts. It ls based. ,111 tlte premJ.s,e
tllat when teachers become conscious: of the beliefs .and theories 11upllclt Jn d1elr
pracllces. and when they reflect crtilirally on these [)ellefs and theories. dney can
rum their e:xpertem:es lnro !riggers for rundamenral changes to t11e:1r dassroom
pract1ces, This approach &tresses that experience alone Is. insul'fficlent for teac'h.ers'
profess:lonaJ growd1, but that reflection upon experience calll be a powerful too! for
11nprovI11g teaching. It also encourages teaclters to focus on their srrengtl1s as ,1•ern
as -011 things they find difficult, an approaca1 ro reflection strongly supported by
Ghaye (2011 ).
The benefits of being reflecfiiye
The benelits of reflectl\1e practice are considerable and tangible. For example,
Kort'.hagen and i,vubbels ( I 9'91) provide evldence thar reO.ecllve teachers have
bemer nnrerpersonal relat1onshtps wlth leamers t11an non-reflective reaclle.rs, amt
d1.ar reflective reachers experience a higher level or Joti: sactsfacdon. They aUso
suggest that reflective itea:l1ers have strong feellngs of security and self-efficacy,
can tall< and wr1re readJUy about their ex:perlences. and at! more likely than non­
reflecdve teachers ro allow their srudenrs to leam by :lnvestlgading and srrucmrlng
t111ngs for themselves. Yol wlJI come to appreciate rhe 1rn1ponance of rll!s approacl1
ro it'eacl1lng as you explore the teaching strategies descrtbed In chaprers 6 ro 14 of
dils book.
The literature suggests several orller reasons why teachers should be encour.a;gect
ro [Je re@ecctve. Sorn1e of mese reasons have a sociologncal IJ.asls. (zeJchner, 1992).
while others dearly attempt ro Uni\ reA.ecrton wlrh r,eacher etfe<:.tlve.ness 111 a
rechnJcal or bel1avlourlstway. That ns, rhey s111ggesr that through reflecl1on reachers
can lmprl'>ve their teaching and tlte:Ir srudenr.s• learning (Cruickshank, 1987;
'ltoyer. ·1988: KUlen, l 991}. Oth.ersd.alm tl1arunJess teachers engage In th.ouglltful
reOecdon on 111e1 r reachtn. � practice, they wlll oo unlikely to help rhelr smctems to
become t11oughtfuJ learners (Onosko, 1992). Burler ( 1996) suggests {har reHectton
.
Is an Important r ool for h�lplng teachers ro move rlmmgh a learning proces:s tliat
takes rhem from novice to experr. S1mllar Ideas are expressed In the ·ure cycie of a
teacher' model descrlood by Steffy, Wolfe, Pasch and Enz (2000),
Dobbins ('1996:270) highlights several reasons why teachers should be
reOecdve and why d1e practicum In teacher ectm:adon programmes shouM have
a focus o:n reHecelon. IFlrsrly, she suggests th.at !11rongh refleccton smde:nr teachers
ran 'maxJmlse their leamh1g from the praccicum arnd .accept responslllilll)' for tl1elr
ow11 professlo11al development' a11d that this can empower snident teacheIS ro
'chink a:nd Ee.am for themrelves'. Quite clearly, a similar argument coi1ld be made
for encouraging exper1enced reacl1ers to oe retl!e.ctt'Jve. Dobbins· second reason for
encouraging reflection ls that 'reaching and rhe cl.Imare within whtch teaching cakes
place are dlfforenr now frum whar tthey were'. Because of tlte changing demands
and responsibllltl.es placed on tea(:hers, they must be reBecttve 1.11 order ro respond
appropriately to t:helr changing circumstances. This ls parr.lcularly lmporrant In
South Africa. Finally, Dubbins em1phas[ses rt1ar reflection ts lm!(lortant because
·reaching. as wern as being a pracitlcal .an<! lntellecntal acttvltY. ls also a moral
endeavour·. \Vnthout the ability co reflea, teachers wlll find I( dlfficu.lt to m.ake
morally approprlatte ctecJsJ,)ns abom what rhey do and why rhey do Ir.
TI1ere Is l!rde doubt that the ctevelopmenr of tteachlng sldlls can be hastened If
beginning teachers have oppommldes for guided crllical reHeccion (Killen, 1990;
Sellnger, 199 1 J- There Is also evidence tthar experienced teachers can change their
classroom practices quire read�y If they are provided wlth srrncrured feedback on
wlllcll to reflect (Klllen, 1991; Nolan & Huber, 1.989; Phillips & Gllckman, !991;
Coulson. 2006). W'hlle some would ar:gue that rech.nocrnttc approach es ro c.han,glng
teachers' das,.sroom pra<.:tlc.e:; are lnappropdaee (Gore, 1987), there are oth:ers who
suggest that technical. com()ete.nce may be a precondltilon for reflectilon (Hoy &
Woolfolk, 1989). and the::e Is some evidence th.at re@ectlve, criltlral. self-analytic
tllougJlt ls dlffia11r for teachers with Bittle experience (Ber[lne.r, t 988: Marshall,
1990). \Vherher rhe rechnl.cal and crldcal aspeers of teaching should be reOected
upon concur rendy, or whether the crltlcal Issues are better dealtt with after teachers
have .achievoo an acceptable level of technical ,competence, Is likely ro remain an
 l
issue of d.ebate, \.Vlatever vle,v Is taken on this poJnt, It should 1,e rememl:>ered that
·1r Is worth while ro pursue reflection In reaching only to the extent that tr oornrrtbuces
to better teaching' (Korthagen &. \Vubbe!s. 1991 :I), 1111s Is a pragmatic point of
view, butt It does nor exclude conslder:atlon of Issues of equity, morality. ·power
and social fuslice. ThHs book emphasises rJ1ar reEectlon on rl7e rechnlcal aspects
of reaching and reflection o 11 broader educa lionaJ Issues are complemenrary, nor
munially exclusive.
nie importance of reacher refle.ct:1011 Is reeognls.\d 111 the scuth Afllcan N1Jm1s
a11d Standards.for Edlicaro� (Department of Education, 2000), wlrh ·re�ecctve
study and research' belng speciBcaJ.ly ldennfled as parr of the ·scholar, researcher
and lifelong lea.mer' role of edurarors. More generally, the 1VoT✓ns a11rl Sta11dards
.for Edlicators requ[re teachers ro have ·reBexlve competence', whJch ls the alblllty
to lnregrare performance wlrh declslon-rnakilng and understanding, and adapt ro
change and unforeseen clrcumsr-ances. Tills ls nor possible If reachers have nor
mastered the abllll!y to reflect orn thelr practices.
\Vhar.ever the prtme 1not1ve for tl1elr ref:l:ecflon, He Is likely ehat retl:ecotlve teachers
will devote more rime and effort l!o crlncal review and analysis of their teaching
and t11elr learners· perfo:n:nanre fllan \l'lli teachers who are not re fl«tlve (\Valke.r.
Adamsky, Bro,l'er & Hart, 1992}. According to Nolarn and Huber, reOecdve teachers
are llkely to h ave a grea rer lnterest111 self-1rnprovemenr anct 11.1 dam on thelr teaching
llehavlour. They are likely co have higher self-esteem, to make greater efforrs to
encourage thelr lea: mers to be reBectlve aind to th.Ink critic.ally, and t.o believe that
they h.ave more power ro ln!lluence srudenr learning slgnlficantly ( 19'8lJ). All of
these outcomes are obviously w·o rthwhile,
Arguably. the most 1mportarnt reason for belng reflective was Jdenctaed by Le
Comu and Peters, They made the point that refflectlon Is a constn1ctl vlst acl1vltty that
enables teachers ro learn more atxJut teaching and leamlng, .and they argued that
students' ':levels of partldpation In the le.anllng pro.:e.ss are lnextr1,.ibly linked to
their reachers· levels of participation In their 011111 learn Ing· (2005:51). The reason
for that Is straightforward - the mo:re teachers reITTect on artd !earn aoout learning
che easier tr Is for them co help srudenrs ro reflect om and develop their leam.lng. If
teachers follo w the advice ofGhaye (2011) and reflect on their srrengths as weU as
their challenges, an<lther por.entlal slgn.lficant benefi.r ls enhanced positive emodo:ns
and self-esteem.
As y<lu progress tthrough your reacher education programme, you wlll IJ.e
confronted with a !bewildering array of theories of learning, reaching sttraregles,
educat1onal phJlosophles and advice fromi knowledgeable and experienced Cocturers,
teachers and supervisors. Balancing d1ese d1eorres and experience-based advloe
agaJnsr dne reallttes l1f the class:r1.1om anct your Immediate co11cer11s for survival and
preservation of self-esteem can be cmnfuslng .and stressful. Slcllls .In reflection 111ml
help you to unctersttand rile slruattons you face when tteaching ano tl1us mln!mls-e
your concerns. IFnnaJly, :rel'lect1'011can 11elp you to appreclare rhatyou, r.oo, can bea
producer of educational knowledge - through careful consideration of your !earning
and teaching experlence, you can develop lns!ghtli that wLII help you, and others,
ro bet1fer understand teaching and reamlng.
 A useful sta1tlng polnt for deddlng on what rellect1on processes you will use Us
to asK yourself these quesrlons,
..._ '.\ hat speclrnc l&"Sue. problem or situation do 1 want to focus on? (For exan1ple.
1

you mJght IJ.e concerned about. your ablll�• ro engage: learners In sustained
discussions alx>Ut roplcs rharthey 6nd bortng.)
.., What data could poss[l>ly l>e gathered to sl1ed tight on tills Issue?
.._ Howcoufd thJs daca be gathered. ;md )ywhom? (for,example. lt could be done
by means of an audio or video re<:ordlng.)
JI.. Ho,v should this data be revrewed and evaluated so rllat. some plan of action
can be developed?
SOME STRAlEGIES FOR IREFLECllON
The ltteramre contains many sngge.srtons for ways 111 wltlch re.achers, or re.acher
educarlon students, can team ro reflect on d1et:r teaching. on tlle1ns:elves as leaimers
and on education In g:enernl. The suggested techniques for reBectlon can be
grouped lll!to what Garman (1984. 1986) refe.rs to as processes of ·reHectton-on­
actlon· and ·refflectioll!-ithrough-recolloctlc11'. (Note here the ex:tenslon of &hon's
Idea of rnllectlon-0n-act1on.) In order for a teacl1er to reflect-011-actlon, segments
of {helr reaching must be recorded as ·stable daca· so char tthey am be analysed.
and Interpreted at a lar· er tlme. This might be an audio or video recording, or It
could oe data recorded by .an obs:e,ver. ror reflecrlon-'tl1rough-recolleooon . .a reacher
simply rocaus slg:nmcant events, possibly makes some record of th.em (such :as 111 ai
;ou maU) and then reClecrs o 11! them.
Before conslder[ng what techniques y,ou might employ to help you reHecr on your
teaching, It Is worth considering a point made: by Zelchner and Gore ( I99.S.:15),
namely rhar readters' actions ·will nor ne:essarlly be better 'jusr because rJi.ey are
more de:IIIJ.erare and tntte:1utonaI· - d1ere must be a vattd basis for d1e:se dellberare
actJons. Kreber and cranton. (2000) argue char rh:ts valld basis should be an
unctersrancting: of what ,::0I:1sctmtes qualltyteach.lng pracrttce In your fie.Id s.o tltar you
can c01npare your experiences and findings w1th d1ts yardsdck. They emphasise
that tlie thief purpose of re Hectrlon Ls to make your teaching practices evidence­
based. Thr,oug:h rellectlon on whatt you r.each. how you tteac.h and why you rreacl1
the way you do. you can test your as{mmptlons albout teaching and learning and
look for evidence to Ju&[iify your approaches ro teaching.

'y' Aettvtty:Take-a positive approach

Ghaye (2011) advocates o positive opp•oach to reflection based on four
stei:,s:
1. Appreciate who! you ore c urre,ntly doing well.
2. Imagine what could be done to make things even better.
3. Design a way of ocnieving your new goal.
4. Act to achieve your new gool.

IJ:se this opprQQch lo reflect on and improve some aspect of your teaching.
Document your progress. using af least cne of the techniques described in the
following section.
some specific te<:J1111ques rhar you -::an use to guide your reB.ecd..,11 are summans:ed
beJ(l\1•. All these tec.hnlques are d.escgnect to help you garJ1er and evalu.a(e data 011
how 1.veJI you are teaching an.ct ho\v 1�·ell your students are learning.

Refl 'ective journal writing

A relleciflve Joim:1al Is a wTlrtten account <>f )'lllU experiences at1d your thoughts
about those expe11e:noes. Ir Is a means of 11elplng you co thlt1k cr[t1ca]y about how
you teach anct wlly you re<1cl1 that way. A Journal can provlde:
.._ a recoJ'id of events and d1elr consequences:
• a descrtpl!lo11 of your t liou,ghrs about rflose eve111'S;
.._ a fran1eworlc for viewing your ex[l)er1ences from dHfTerent perspecdves and
rr:yong {O Integrate thoory attd practlre:
.._ a recoJ'id of your de,1el oping unde:rsrandlng of teaclllng and learning;
..._ l.n:s.lght 1.nto your bellefs .an<l v..Jues: and
.._ a framewo:rl< for pla.n nlng and taklng 1nformed action to lnnprove your reacl1 Ing.

\.Vrlttmg abo111r your tead1lng (and lean11ng} experlences wun help you ro develop the
habit of being tho11ghttul, reflective and analytic. T'he ronnat of yo11.1r journal !sup
to you: how·ever, rl1ere are two ,common approaches. that you can consider, namely:
• a Journal th.at docu1nents your personal learning journey and your developing
ut1dersrandlng of teachJng a11ct lean1lng; a11Cl/or
• a }ou:rnai thatt focuses 0J1 Incidents, proolems or Issues that arise In your
re,achlng.
You n1lght find Ir useful to keep your reBecdve Joun1al as a blog or as an electronic
portfolio so rhar II Is easy �o share your rellec11011s wlrll coll�gues. Ban-el'! (201 t}
provides useful gulctellnes for tills process.
If you are keeping an 'Issues-based· journal, you could srrucmre your enrrtes around
a se.ne , s of quest• 1◊ns sucl1 as rile followlng:
...._ \<Vhar happened?
... \t'fhy <lid It happen?
a w·har effect dJd Jt have on student learning?
• Ho,11 could the lssue or prG.1blem have been avotdoo?
a ls there anorller way of looking at ·rhls Issue?
A \o\l'har did I lean1 about teaching from this experience?
• w11ar did I lean1 about n1yself from tthls ex.pelience?
A vrhlch of my assu111pt1ons; \1rere ,questioned by thls e:xpelience?
a Hc,v ,vm I alter my eeachl ng as a r�ul r of this expe11ence?

\oVhlcllever approach you tdke:, you wrnl find your Jour11al most helpful If:
A you make your entries soon after tl1e evenrs you are describing (your enmes
,,vjln then Ile more accurate records and a better ba:sus for reBecclon): and.
A you make regular noun1al entr1es.
Y' Actlvlty:Your loornlng Journal
11 you are in a reacher education programme. keep a journal in which yoo
describe andl renec1 on each of your learning experiences tor a _period of two
weeks (ttl:ese aJCpeoences might include attending lectures. partici PClting in
tutorials. visiting a school, resoorchin-g on the Internet. etc). Then on,s,vef the
f-ollowing ,que-�lions:
1. What types o1 leaming eJCperiences do you find most useful?
2. Do you learn better when you are 'teaching yourself' (eg through library
resoorch) orwher.you,are'being taL,ghf (e,g in a lecture}?
3. Do your lecturers/tutors. use teaching s1rategie-s tho1 match you, learning
prererenc-es? How do85' this malce you feel?
4. How has re:necting on your learning helped you to unders1and how you
might teach?

Feedback fTom learners

It ls very useful to t:ry to view your teaching through tl1e eyes of your learners
(Hactle, 2009). o n:e ,11ay of doing this ls to gather ev.alualilve data from your
learne rs and rlten compare these data! ,v!th a self-evaluarJon based on rhe same
form. This enables you ro check rJ1e extent to which your ass'l.lmp!!ons abour
your reaching con1pase w·Jd1 the vleM'S. o.f your lean1e:rs. IKJllem :1 991) :found
this technique provided teachers w1111 a clear focus for reflect1011 rllaf resulte.d In
significant changes to their reaching pracctces.
1b gather rile dara, you oould <:onstnt<t a que:.-!lonnalre �hat addressed .specific
aspects of your reaching, such as the clartty of your explanatlons or rhe pacing
of your lesson. Alternatively, you cou!d slmpl'y ask tl1e stUidents wh:at you did to
mak-e Ir easy (or dlfficulrJ for them ro un(ferscand the rhlngs you ,11anred the1n to
lean,. Pollard 120 14) has numerous. other suggestions. You should welcon1e all
student suggestions on how you can enhance rhe lea.ming experiences: you creace
for diem. Radier than seeing student comments. as crtdcaJ. view d1e conunenrs
as ,constlltctlve s.uggestlons on how you can be.t:ter serve the students· needs. if
yn11 f'P.£111.rirly rn(JllP."-r FP.el\rlhr1c.k r1ho11r S[lP.[lfic. fP.rir.hlng P.plsm1P.S (lnc11vlc1uafl lP.S!sClns.
asslgnm.ents. etc). you wm find that even quite young sll1dents can gJ.ve you
valuable Informatio n ro reflect on. However, generalised Feedback gained a:r tll.e
end ofa long penod (such as theend-of-semesrer student evaluations often used 111
unlversll1e.s} rarely provide a \h5eful l>as!s for reflecl1on.
Recording less.ans
Sometlntes ltisdUfficult t.o recall all the derails ofa lesson. and sotnettmesyou wlrn
nor be a,vare of evetythl.ng that happenej ,1•hlle you were reachlng. If you want
to r.�pture. .ind re.lfle.r.r on t11P. momP.11t-ro-momP.nr. rrnrP.s5e.s of yo11r re.,irhlng. you.
meed to make an audJo •or vldeo recordJng, An audlo recorcllng will usuaUy be less
lnoustve and less disrrac.tlng for learners. The disadvantage of an audio recording
Is that Ir cannot capture any of the non-vesb al Lnfom1at1011 that ml.gin h.elp you co
reflect on the lesson.
 \\'hld1ever appro.ad1 you use, the aim ls to capture as much data as possible, ro
help you reflect on what was happening ln. the class and wily It was l1appenlng.
tr you m ake regular recordings (perhaps once per 1nont:h.) you will have ample
evidence from wllEch m Judge r,J1e results ofyour arrempts ro change your rea.clllng
pracdces. Of co111rse. there Is no point In captLuing s;o much. hnfom1adon rl11u you
cto nor have t1me tl1 analyse If; a 30-mLnure r,e«irdlng 111 each les.s-0:n ls usually
sufliclenr. Yol!I should alw;iys follow school ;ind depamnenrd!I policies l:n re:latlon ro
obtdlnln_g permission to make audio or video recordings of students,
Reflective partnerships
Ther:e Is a l:lm!r ro how much you can leam fromi self-analysJs of your reaching. The
benefits of re@ectlon wrnl be greatly enhanced If the process IJ1Jvolves sflartng Ideas
'
wOth a colleague. One srrucntred. way of doing rills ls a ·reillectlve parrnerslnlp[ , as
described In Krllen (I ()()5). The basic procedure Is the following:
1. T\110 teachers (or reacher educarlon sr.udents 011 practicum} agree ro assist each
otherr.o reOecton thelrteachlng and lean1lng by observing and being observed.
2. l'Tlor ro each observation, the rwo reachers Ineet ro revlew the plaru for ttlne
le s son so tlnar the obseIVer knows 1.v'hat is co be taught, who the le<1111ers are.
,vhat general approaclt rile teacher plans to rake and what (If any) dlfliculrJes
are anticipated..
3, Dtu1ng the lesson, the obs-erver records Information about the lesson Jn a
.
rom1at tthat has been a.greed UiPOn .. T hls m ight Involve using a ctata-garhe11ng

:lnsrrumenr, or It could be rree-fonn t1otes. 'T'lte observer \viii also make notes
abour .any parclcu9ar Issues that lne/sbe wanrs ro raJse with the reacl1er.
4. As soon as possible after the lesson. tJ1e nvo teachers meet to :review the lesson
uslitg rhe ctara gat11ered by the observer and the recoltocttons of b:.11h the teacher
and t11e observer. l11e purµose or this cliscus.sl.on. ls ro help the reacner reframe rl1e
events of the lesson (look at them fron1. dllferen.t perspectives) and. come to a bellter
undersrandlng of how Ills/her actions lnRuenced student rean1I11g. These reHecdve
d:lscusslons help both read1ers ro develop new Ideas and reaching s.mregJes.
5. The alrove steps are repeaited sever al times with the two parildpan ts aitematling
berween reaching amt observing.
on e of the main adv . anm
. ges of a rellecttve pMnership Is «hat It helps you ro
avoid one J)OSSlble pitfall of self-rel:lecdon - simply relnforcl.ng, your own bellefs
and assumptions. Although reflective pam1ershHps. can be productive leamlng
experiences, the proces s ls tlme-consumOng and Its success depends on trust and
honesty bet,l'ee11 tile two partlclpanrs.
Lesson study
An lnteresr.tng vartaitlon on me reflective parrnershi!PS procedure has been developed
In fapan. ltt If: kno,m as 'lesson &tucty· (Fenbande:z & Yoshida, 2004 ). TJ1e lesson
study process Involves groups of reachers ,vho .are teaching die same subjects
to similar ,groups of learners. I n Japan, this process ls used most frequently In
Elementary schools. TI1e sreps !In rile !Process aire die followtng,
l. A group of tteachers meer and co llaborarJvely plan tthe focus lesson - often
choosing a topic rhar is ttradltlonally dufficult for learners,
2. One teacher presents the lesson co hils/her le.arners and rhe other members of
thegroup ohsecve.
3. TI1e g:roup then meets ro discuss wl1at happened In the !esson and to
collaboratively modify the lesson plan,
4. A second 111ember of t11e group reaches rile revised lessorn ro hls/lleJ leanters
and tl1e otl1e:rgroup members observe.
5. TI1e grou[P rllen meets ro reflect on th.e revised version of the lesson.
6, If neces;sary and pracn.cai, rh.e cyde of revision and reaching contftnues unt1l
rile _gJoup ls happy with the procedures they have developed for teaching the
focus lesson.
7 . The grou[P tlien Identifies a new focus lesson and repea� the process.

1111s ls obviously a very t1111e-consumlng p:roce.5S. fuut It demonstrates the lengths to

wlllch son1e �eacher:s are J>repared to go ln order to learn fro111 one another amd con1e
to a 'better under&candlng ofceachung and 'learning. Cerbln and Kopp (2006) de.scribe
ho\v rJtey succe.ssft!lly adapted the lesson study approacli for college re.aching.
',, Activity: Whal lo do ne.x1
Tice (2011) suggests ltlat. once you have go1hered information about your
teoching..lhe next steps should be: think, tall read. ask. Read the Tice article
and develop a strategy for fonowing her advice,

SOME BARRIERS TO IREFLEClflON

There Is considerable research evidence to sugges:r tliat Unex.perlenced r.eachers
,nay not analyse, evaluate and direct their reaching pratrlces Un ithe metacognl.dive
manner that Is t11e 111ark of an accomplished retilecttve practtt:loner. S.ome of the
reasons for rills are explored by calderhead. (1989), coulson (2006), Graham and
Phelps (2003), Killen (1990), lv\<:calle, Walsh, Wlde111an and 'vVlnter {2009) and
Thompson and Thompson (2008). The follow'lng cable summarlises some of the
reasons for thls fa.llure, and Indicates ho\\' you mJght deal w'lt�1 these lssues, Nore
thar these polnrs :are nor Intended ro discourage you! Tl1ey are made e:xpllclr to
hel!P you appreciate the challenges: facing you as yoti strlive to become a :reRectl!ve
teacher, and [O hefi> you co develop srrategles for overcomlng these dlfficull!les.
 'l'dble .5-.t, ,Ui11imifiing barrfers to r¢ectiou
Common barriers lo 1relleclior.
Time mav be limited.
Beginning teachers may oo "°
preoccupiocl with the subjecl moffer, or
wi'th lh<>ir dGl"we,y "4 the lesson, that they
hove- little time lo C017$ider how well ii is
going.
Beginning fgochc;,rs may oo rQfuclanl
to oo sc;,lf�ri1icat al a fimg whc;,n lhQy
am lacking in SQff-eonlidc;inc0 and
whoo lh0Y arc;ifoolful of'failurc;iand lhGlii
wlnarobilil'y.
Beginning teachers may lock
knowledge of diverw IEK>Ching
slralegies th-oi might help th&m lo
perceive olternalive5 ta their curren1
proclice.
l nSJCperienced teachers may ha\/9 a
\/8ry limil0d number of fromes within
which lo consider their ieochlng.
Some beginning leachElrs ore unable
to ochi8'191he deklchmen I from their
own procticc;i ilhat would enable 10011 to
rc;illQct upon it objocli\/911y and crilioolly.
lx>ginning teaclhers moy see each
class and eoch "3clmar os unique,
and therefore see limiled poienlial in
rell8ction on proctice.
lx>ginning teadhers may fool tho: l lhQ\I
have no control ovgr too social, moral
and pol[iioal issu.oo ihal impill.9"- 011
th9ir closi;rooms.
The busy routin� of teoehing moy mcka
it difficull lo davGlop a challenging (Ind
queotioning perspective,.
Many teacher edocation students. 11.ant
'recipe;,,;" lo help fti81Tl develop patterns
of oppropriofg leadher b9haviour (WOVS
of ,oooting •vilh 1Ngryda'{ classroom
0Vel!lls) so !hat thgy can macl in fixoo
\VCJ'fS.
Wars of meeting the ,cha'llenges
• Make rellechoo on infegJal part of VOi.if
routine plamtng. teaching and evo'lualion.
• PliaifisG your commitmoots.
• Prepare thoroughly,= that you are
co,nfident of �r knowledg<> and cl<>or
about ihG, slruciure of your lesson.
• Use a clear (855()11 plan lo guide your
leaching.
• Don't g�pocl to b9 pgfocl. bu1 do
acknowtoogg lhat you nQQd to improvg_
• Dalib<>rc,lely try ilo leam bonn your mistakes.
• study chapters 6 lo J,1_
• Talk lo olh9r teachers about hoW they teach.
• Ask for CIClviClll.
• Obs<>M> other t'90Chers.
• look for icleos on the tnleme1.
• 6G prgparoo lo tal:c;, o risk aoo ·step ou1sid9
your comfort zooo·.
• Practise delibefotely 1-ooking at si1ualion;s
from more than ons perspecti¥9.
• Try lo look at your 10ach'ing t tuough too
f;;,/l/J$ of your lkl<:lrM<S.
• To�e Edword de Bono's<XMceond change
'thinking hero' (1965).
• Gel feedback from your learners..
• Ask coloogu0S lo ob SQf\lQ your loochi:ng
orsdg�you!Mdbaelt.
• £stablish a relleclive partnership.
Look beyood the Ufliq1Je� of each learner
and lesson end fry lo idantify the common
eleme,nts. fho1 help or hinder looming in your
ckl5ses.
Vou may not oo ablG lo chong0 lh<loo issues.
but you co11 a t klosl discuss them with o1hGr
k>ochers and dg,,,g,lop woys of controlling their
in�oonc0 on your teaching.
• �t osida lims. Ion r(lfleetion .
• Chollenge yourselt lo question � mojor
teaching d-ecisio<n you moKe.
• Don't e�I to be able lo deal 11/ith similor
8Ve()ls in Iha same w;ay each time. Ile
flexible;,.
• Da!ibarc,1aly try to davG-lop your skills al
doing ra,flection-in-oction 4
 Pre-service 1eocher oouoation students Begin your rellections by adopting just one
are often contused b!( Iha range of theoretical stance. Use tho1 perspective, to
lheoretical models of leaching and irnterpret what is hoppening. Them try lo odopl
learning with which lhB\" are conJrornted. a differ9flt theoretical stones.

l?llfloction is not a normal mooo ol 09"Qfop too habit ol rellocling on G<IQIYfhing

ooho'Viour fo.r marv,, pool)le.
tt is =sy to oontuoo klnowtoogo
acquislfion with. r.of!Getion.
that happens in • your life.
Th<a a.SGneo of rGft<ae.tion is not to disO<:Mlr
som<alf!\ir.g onfiroly naw. but lo com<a to a 0011«
und9rstancling of somelning that is already
familiar. MakG-!nis your goal.

Real teaching slllll.atl ons are exrre,nely complex. and. as Korcllage.n and Kessels
( J 999) po11u out, teach. ers slmply do nor have ttme ro re.fleet on all rile numerous
and complex relatlo11shlps 1Je�1'een the vadous factors embedded 111 every teaching
situation - they have r.o act. As a result, many teachers rend ro respond to
challenging slntadot1s In ,vays d1.ar reflect: how rhey behaved In s1mllar slruadons In
t11e r,asr. This may be appropriate and proctuc tlve In some clrcun,srances, bur there
Is a danger tl1atyotL may fall lnto Inappropriate routines: If you do not syste111at:1cally
reflect on your reac11Ing.
so, ,v11ere does this leave yot1?' \Veil, It basl<al.ly nteans that you will need.
to learn how· ro reflectt, wltlch wlll probably be a difficult an-0 lerugrhy process.
Ho1vever. the sooner yot1 sram robe re�ectlve. die sooner you ca11 be.con1e proffident
at It. <Get statt«I as: soon as possllbfe - srart rellect1ng ooday on what y(lu belleve
about reaching and lea.n1111g. sraa keeping a Journal of your experiences and your
refl.ecrlons on those experiences. If possible. find someone wtrh \\1hom (o share your
reflecr1011s, because yo\1 are 111uch more likely to gain Insights: !nr,0 reaching and
Into your own teaming processes lf you are able to reflect collabor:atlvely.
CONCLUSION
',Good. teache.rs are made, not boni: and the niaklng of a re�cher .Is a contplex
process. Re8ect1011 ls a cntclal parr of rhar process and It canrnor. be expected to
develop l\1thour training, n1odel!lng and. stntctl\lre<il exper1enc.e' (S-ellnger, 1991: 1 ).
Although expressecl 111! man)' dnfferenr ,,·ays, rhts vte,I' ls comn1on In rhe IJreranire:
It embodies the notion that re.B.ecl!lon Is a 111ode of rhlnkJng that can be tden!ified,
descrlhed and developed. It also suggests rhar, given the rtg:ht ser of condJc:Ions. a
�eacher who Is not reOect!ve can be trdnsfonned lnro on.e \l'ho Is reHec,t1ve. Th.ls
t:ransforn1arlon requires kno,vledge .and practice. It also requires keen percepllon,
because ·percepflolb ts the filter througlt wltlch lndlvCdt1als Interpre t their experiences.
u11avoldably, our perceprJons are rn011e11ceo by our ,vorld vte.w (our nndlvlduaJ way
of lo(lklng at the world) - these ibellefs and values dererntlne "'hat lnfonuat1on we
use ,vhen reflecting on our expe:rtences. As Hart. Shulrl, NaJee-Uillah and Nash
(1992:4 I) put It, ··�vhat ,ve s-ee depends on what we are look.Ing at when we
reflect·.
 Unless teachers understand wliat they are donng .and why they are doing Ir,
d1.ere Is Urrle chance ci],l!t tl1elr efforts will result In elfecave student learrulng or d111C
t11elr acdons will be mor-a91y and ethically approprtare. Rellectllve reachJng sllould
Involve ·searching for patterns about one's thinking about classroom pracdces and
lnterrogatlng the reasons for laoolUng some lessons as successes or failures' (Raines
& Shadlow, t '995 :30). By developing the dlspos:ldon .and rhe abllJcy to be reaecc1ve,
�e:achers can ensure thatwhar r.ltey do Is both effectilve and defensible. \-Vhlle It will
alwa>•s. be rnue rhatdelllberarlon and lnte.ntlon alone will not ma"e teachers· actions
correct or defenslble, reflecrton that Is focused on understanding and Improving
reachin g (from both fe c.hnlcal and moral peJspecttves) should oe a routine part of
each teacher's everyday acfilvU:les.
REVIEW AND REFLIECT ON YOUR LEARNING
Develop answers to each of these questJons and discuss your answers with another
student or with an expertencect �eacher:
1. Vl'hy ls lt [mpottant for you to ()ecome a reflectlve prnctl1ioner?
2. How would. you ex.plain tlle difference bem,een rechnlcal reflection and c.rttlcal
reflecrloru ro a reacher who had never heard of (hese concept s?
3. 1.Yhy Is i t .lmpoitanr for you to rry ro ,,Jew your reach! ng rllroug:h the eyes of
your learners?
4. ·Gonslder tile followlng questions that a teacher mlghtrellecton a�er a le.sson.
1>Vl1att types of rel:lecl1on (tecllnlcal. prac11cal, crtrlcal) wolllld be prompted by
·these questions?
.a. Did rhe le:amers. achieve tl1e outcomes I Intended? Wl]y or why not?
b. \'\'hy does Ir m an:er whether or not learners achieved rrllese ourcomes?
-c. \�1as the strategy I used effectlve ror all learners? llf Ir was, llow might r bulld
on d11s ln furure? \Nhar other srraregtes mlghr have been more effective?
d. \\'Jnlch learners were able to relate the Je5.50n to their p:rtor knowledge,
experJences and Interests? What can I do ro help fean1ers who had
dlfficuli.y making these conn ectlons?
e. How flexible was I ln modJfytng the lesson to accommodare 1.mforeseen
responses from rhe learners? How could I do rhls better?
f. W'hat learning r:t1eor1es ml_gh.t ex.plain wJ1ar happened ln this. lesson?
g. As a res!ll1r of this lesson, what have I learned abour teaching?
h, As a result of this lesson, what did the students I.earn about learning'?.
s. 1-vliy ts!t lmporram to refiecc on the things you dllweJI illnd notJusron problems
a:nd difficulties?
6. ln this chapter, &ome common barriers to reHecil'lon were lderutlhed,
.a. \"llnlch of rhese barriers have you encounrered?
b. What did you do about It?'
c \"llnar would you do ln futllre lf you experience .a slmllar oarrter?
7. 'Develop a check:llsr of quesrlo11s co ask yourself when planning lessons and
wl1en r:evlewl 11g your tead1l.ng, so that you can contlnual.ly lmpmve your
teaching.
8. 1>V11att are tJ,e advantages and llmlratlons of gaining feedback from smd.enrs ro
help you reflecton your reaching?
9. 1>Vl1at might be the advamag-es a n d. dlsadvanrages of using a blog as the vehicle
for re�e:crln:g on your reaching?
IUSEFUIL WEBSITES
• A useful. w e bbased
- oool ror l1elpln.g teachers to reflect on their teaching practices
Is available ar tile Harvard UnlversJr.y ·Active Leaming. Practtces for Scl1oots·
sire: http://leannveb.harvard.edu/alps/,
A The Vlc.rortan Depamnent of Education and Early ChUcthood oevelopn1en.t
we'bslte at lutp:/1'\l\�"lv.educatlo11.vlc.gov..au/devresklt/\vebdev/blogs.htm has
some useful gl!lldellnes on l10,v teachers ca11 ser up .and use !biogs (not Jusr as
refllectJve Jol!lmals).
Using direct instruction as
a teaching strategy

leaching can be thought of as t:h.e process of helping learners to find lnfomnacion.

remember it, understand It, organise It. apply tr, evaluate I t and do creative things
with It. This chaprer, as weU as chapters 7 to 14 of this book, wlll he.Ip you ro
explore different ways In which you can guide learners as they explore lnfonnal1on.
The strategies that you wUl learn about vary from the very direct Jnreract1011s w.lrh
learners descrtbed In this chapter, to methods that require learners co have high
levels of Independence. How.ever. all eeaC:hlng srraregles are based on some of the
fundamemal prtnclpl.es d1at are Inrrod11.1ced. In tihls chaptter.
Vie saw In Chapter 3 that there are three key aspeas of Instruction that p romote
quality reaming: focusing on lntellecmal qu.allty. creating an envtronnnent thar fosters
learning, and maklng learning relevant and lmponrant for leamers. We also saw In
chapters 2 and 3 that wlrllln !his broad quality reaching fran1ework there are many
specific things t11at teachers need ro do to help learners understand the things about
whl'ch they are learning. These Inducted glvJng learners a clear plcmre of what they are
required to leam, organising and explaining maretlal In ways that are ap prop:rtate co
learners· abilities and: current level ofundersranctlng, and helping sructenrs to ibecome
autonomous: learners. Dlrect IL1Strucdon ts one approach to achlevtng these goats.
This chapter explores. some of the circumstances In whJC:h direct lnsl!rllctlon
can be an approprtare way to facUlrare lean1tng. The chapter highlights s:ome of
!he srrengrlls and weaknesses of this teaching strategy, provides gulde.llnes !for
planning and Jmplemenrlng chis srracegy and suggests ways In which you can
evaluate your direct lnsm1ct1on.
When you have mastered the Ideas In this ch:apre.r you wlll be able to:
... decide wheru direct Instruction ls an appro prtare strdtegy for helping learners to
achieve pamcular learning ourcomes:
.., prepare thoroughly and rhoughd'ully for te.ichlng thro11gh dlrocr h1sm1crlon;
.._ crear.e a learning envlron.ment that. motivates lean1ers and encourages tthem to
accept the challenge of achieving wortthwhlle outcomes;
... present your direct lnsrructlon lessons In ways that faclllrate lean1Jng while
catering for tthe cultural, ethnic. language, leamlng style and other dllferences
of the learners; and
... eval!uare the success of your direct Instruction lessons.
SOME IMPORTANT FEATURES OF DIRECT INSTRUCTION
The rem1s direct instruction or explicit. instruction usually refer ro whole-class
expository reaching techniques. Baste forms of dlrect tnstruccion :Include lecmres
and. demonsrratilons. They are teacher-centred appro aches In which the teacher
dellvers academic co nren:t In a highly smtcrured format that directs the activities of
lean1ers and malmains focus on acad.emlc achievement.
\Vllen used effectively, direct Instruction has the follo\\•lng Important features:
• The req1111red !earning ou,rcomes and success criteria are made dear ro learners
before Instruction starts .
.t. The reacher organises and controls the sequencing of all lesson activities.
.t. l11ere ls a s11rong emphasis on academic achievement.
.t. The reacher carefully monitors learners· acr111·t1es and gains frequent feedback
on their understanding.
• The reacher provides frequent. clear feedback ro learners.
The basic fonns of direct lnsrnuctlon (ilectures and demonst:rdtlons) have been very
popular approaches to teaching for many years. and yet they are o�en criticised.
The reason Is simple: wh:en rhey :are I mplemenr.ed poolly, they can be very boring.
Ho\vever, 1v1ien lmplemenred ,veil, <!lrecr 111sm1ccton remains one of tile most
effective ways of promotlng student learning. l11ere are two malill reasons why
many teachers stlll use direct Instruction. Some teachers use direct Instruction
because It gives ti1em maximum l:Ontll'ol over what. when and how srudenrs lean1,
and this Is lnrn!Clvely attractive ro many r.eachers. Orhers use dlrecr lnsrrucclon
because It has roong research support (eg Rosenshlne, 1986; Ross & Kyle, 1987:
Rosenshlne. 1995: Kirschner, Sweller & Clark. 2006: Hattie . 2009). \Ve ,vm explore
some of these research findings later In this chaprer.
TI1e extent to which any teaching strategy Is appropriate f-0r helping students
achieve 1nsm1ct1onal ouocomes can be Judged by Relgeluth's ( 1999) criteria of
effectiveness, efficiency and level of appeal to students. As you develop
sklUs In using a wlde range of reaching srraregles. you will find that. based on
die 6rst two of these criteria, direct lnstruct1on ls slmply the most appropriate
strategy ro use. For example, when learners are being Introduced to a new area of
srndy, It may be useful r,o develop their basic knowledge and sl\111s through direct.
lnsm1crton techniques before giving rtiem a more active role In knowledge-seeking
through srrategles such as problen1 solving or experimentation. Huter. Monetti
and Hummel (2009) agree with Retgeluth's third crlte:rton. They also suggest that
If several different methods of Instruction produce equally effectlve and efficient
results, It Is wise ro employ rhe approach learners like most. \Yhen exe<.:uted well,
direct Instruction can be very appealing ro srudenrs, particularly those who prefer
direction rarller rhan free,ctom In their learning.
As Brookfield (2006} suggests. there are times when It Is necessary to lay out
ideas for learners In such a way that the Interconnections are obvious, before
lean1ers can dlocuss or reflect crltlcally on those Ideas. In s111ch circumstances. dllfeCt
1nsm1ct1on b5 quite :appropriate. Rowe (2006) supports this argument Makln.g a
similar point, Geddis (1996:254) highlights the 'Incongruity of !eavlng chlldren
on diet r 01vn to devise sclentlftc perspectives char have taken the human race
centuries to artlculare·. What these 1vrlters are saying ls d1at sometimes It Is better
for teachers ro explain and demonstrate things directly, rather than leaving learners
ro discover knowledge for themselves. This does not mean that <illrectt lnstrucfilon
excludes the use of consnu.:tlvlst approaches ro reaching - quite the opposite. It .
emphasises that lean1ers often need careful guidance ln order ro construct meaning
from rh.elr learnlng expe:rtences.
 111 recent years there has been a proliferation of llrerarure on Direct lnscructton
(with a capital ·o· and caplral TJ. This llteraurre usually refers to the specific
approaches to Instruction descr1ood by Engelmann and camtne ( 1991} and refined
by others such as Huitt..Monetti and Hummel (2009). Their approach Incorporates
the gen.era! approaches ro direct Instruction, described In this chapter, coupled 1vlth
carefully des igned lesson sequences that focus on small learning ancrements and
clearly defined and presctlbed reaching tasks (ofren based on prescrtbed a1rdculum
matertals). Another variation of direct lnsrructlon. known as l'lemln,g's IExplttcit
Teachtng Mode!. Is described by Green (201.3); It Is very similar ro the explaclt
reaching model described by Archer and Hughes (20 11}. The broader view of direct
lnstruccJon advocated In this chapter subsumes t11ese Ideas.
Direct lnstrualon. Is Just one of the tools available to teachers. However, It
remains one of the most. effective ways of promoting student leanling and dt has a
long hlstmy of strong research suppon (eg Rosen.shine. 1986; Rosenshlne. 1995:
Kirschner, Sweller & aark, .2006; Hattie, 2009). �Ve wil l explore some of these
research findings later In this chapter. The control and sm1crure that characterise
direct lnstructlon can be achieved 1!11 Interesting, wam1. concerned and flexible
ways, so that a positive classroom cllntate Is mal11r<1Il11ed and students can enjoy
lean11ng. As with all ocher teaching strategies. che success of direct lnsm1ct1on
depends prlmarlly on the teachers enthusiasm and efforts.
\.Yhen using direct Instruction. the emphasis Is on ·reaching In small steps.
providing forsn1dent practice after each seep, guiding students during Initial practice.
and provldtng all sructents 1vlth a hlgh level or successful pract1oe· (Rosenshlne.
1987:34). Hulcc, Monem & Hummel (2009) refined these Ideas and suggested the
following steps for direct lnsttn1cclon lessons:
I. The direct lnscructlon lesson should start ,vlth an overview that reviews
prerequisite learning and tells students what they will be learning and why.
This provides strucntre for thelesson.
2. Next, the reacher should give a clear explanation of the knowledge and skllls
to be learned.
3. Srudenrs should be given multiple opporrunltles to demonstrate their Initial
understtand1ng ln response to teacher probes.
4. \¥hen the teacher ls satisfied that die smctents are ready, they .should b e given
guided pracdce under th.e reacher's direct supervision.
5. Flnally. learners engage In Independent practice.
Each of these steps requires careful planning and conslderdble skJU. TI1e following
pages provide a brief summary of Ideas that mlght help you co develop your direct
lnstn1cclon techniques. These Ideas 1vlll also prompt you tto reflect on some of ·che
Important Issues In teaching. and they provide a window lnto the literature so that
you can explore these Issues. In greater depth.
REASONS FOR USING !DIRECT INSTRUCTION
The potential benefits of direct lnstruc!lon have l>een known for a long time. In a
comprehensive review of research linking teacher behaviour to learner achievement,
Brophy and. Good (1986) emphasise the following points:
.._ In general. academic learning Is lnBuenced by the amount of time that learners
spend engaged In approprtate academic activities.
.._ Leaming Is easier for srudenrs when their t.eachers cate:fltlly strucrure new
lnfonnatlon.
A Teachers should help learners to relatte new lnformacton to wh.ar they already
know.
A Teachers should monitor learner performance and provide corrective feooback.
These dalms were reinforced by the research of Hattie (2009). Kirschner. SweUer
and Clark (2006:76) make the additional point that the most effective guidance
tliat teachers can provide ls 'guidance speclfically designed to support the cognitive
processing illecessary for learning·. All of the5e things are possible through direct
Instruction. and often It Is the most appropriate way to achieve them.
Direct lnstmctlon can be used to help learners achl.eve many types of teaming
outcomes, partladarly those that are based on knowledge, attitudes and values.
Dlrnct Instruction can also be used to demonstrate skills ro l .ean1ers and to guide the
praccice they need la order to master skllls.
Tiie main reasons rhar you might choose this strategy are summarised In die
following list.
A Direct lnsrructlon can be an e.fficlent way to Introduce neamers to a new area of
study by giving them. a broad overview that defines key concepts and shows how
diey are Interrelated. This hel[PS leamers to develop the foundactonal knowledge
diat rlley need for later learning (possibly using learner-centred strategies). TI1ls
Is panJcularfy useful df Important lnfi:>rmadon (sucii as relevant examples and
results of recent research) ls not otherwise readUy available to leamers.
.._ If presented In an enlivening and Inspirational way. direct lnsrmcdon can enable
the teacher ro convey a strong personal interest In the subject and stimulate die
curiosity. Interest and enthusiasm of the leamers.
• Compared with ·ctIsoovery· approaches to le.arnlng, direct lnstr1.1c!lon reduces
the cognidve load on students' working memory (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark,
2006), pan:l·cularly for those learners with limited prior knowledge (Archer &
Hughes. 201 I).
• Direct lnsrru.ctlon can allow the teacller r.o provide a role model of a scholar
In a part1cular fi.eld (for example, by showing leamers how ro 'think like a
geographer'). In this way, rhe reacher can show leanners how problems can
be approached. how Information. can be analysed. or how knowledge In. a
specialise. field 15 generated and snucrured: however. you need co heed the
wan1lng of Klrsclmer, sweller and Clark (2006), namely cl1ar presenratlon and
explanation of knowledge are often more useful ro students -rhan demonstrating
the methods of a spe,c:lalist field.
• Direct lt1structJon allows the teacher to highlight Important points or possible
dlfficultles for learners, so chat their expooure ro these things Is nor left ro chance.
A Direct lnsmIct1on can !be equally effecctve with large an.ct small classes and wlrh
learners from most cultures. partlatlarly when reaching facrual Jnformatilon.
• Direct Instruction Is one of the most effective ways of reachlng explicit conceprs
and skills ro low-achieving learners (Berliner, I 982; Ross & Kyle, 19&7}.
However, Jahr & \Vysock.l (2011) caution chat It may not help these lean1ers to
gain higher-order thinking skills.
• Direct lnsnucnon can be a useful way to provide lnfom1atton ror learners
who are poor readers or who are nor very skilled at locating, organlsl.ng and
lnrerprel1ng lnfom1atlon.
• Direct lnsnuctlon ca.n be an effective way of demonstrating to learners that
there are alternaillve perspeclilves on Issues.
• Many students lleam more deeply from strongly guided learning than from
discovery (Moreno. 2004).
• Generally, direct tnstrucl1on allows rhe teacher tto create a non° threatenlng
(reasonably stress-free) learning environment. Those learners who are s'hy,
not conlictent or not knowledgeable are not forced to participate and become
embarrassed.
• Direct lnstructlon (P"artlculanly demonsrrat1ons) can provide opporruntlles: to
challenge learners ro consider app-arent dlsjunctlons between theory (what they
predict should happen) and observation (what they actually see). This Is the
first' step In helping learners to overcome mlsconcepdons or mlsunderstandlngs.
(Refer ro the example illustrated In Plgure 2.2 In Chapter 2.)
• Demonstratlnns allow lean1ers roconcentrate on the results of some event ratller
than the technlcalltles of achieving the result. This ls particularly Important
when the learners lack the confidence or skills to perfonn the task well.
• Demonsrr-dtlons are useful when there Is Insufficient equipment or resources to
enable learners to work lnct lvldually or In small groups.
• Direct Instruction lends Itself ,veil ro reacher reHectlon. as Jt snmpllfies die process
ofgathering data to connect what the reacher does with what the learners achieve.
Tok.Ing all these factors Into accoun t, direct Instruction Is likely to be most effective when
the teacher has set dear leamlng outcomes. Is deliberately ll}'lng to buUd on learners·
prtor knowledge, and has In place a proactive classroon1 manage:ment progran1me.
Activity: Review your learning experiences
1 . Think bocl!: to some learning experiences vou had at schaol when one of
your teachers was using di rect instruction.
a. Did you enjoy these l essons? Why.or why no1?
b . D,cl you learn 1/efY much from these lessons?
c . Do you think the teacher used d i rect ins1n.tction for any ol fhe reasons
given ,above. or for some olher reason?
2.. Which aspects ot the Quality Teaching Model described in Chapter 3
seem t o be consistent with the princi ples of direct instruction?
3. Are your views about direct instruction a t univeisity any different from your
views about direcl instruct ion in schools? Why?
ISSUES TO CONSIDER BEFORE USING DJRECT INISTRUCTION
Direct Instruction Is not always the most effective way to help students to learn.
Before using It, take the following Into consideration:
A If the direct lnsauctlon does nor involve some learner panlclpatlo n (such as
asking and answering questions), the learners· Interest will be lost after Io ro
15 minutes, and they will remember Ottle of the content
• If used r.oo firequendy, direct insnuctlon can lead studen rs to beUeve d1at It Is the
teacher's Job to tell them .all they need to know - they might not be encourdged
to rake responslbtllry for their own leamtn.g and to exp1ore .alternatives beyond
what the teacher tells or shows them (Bonawitz et al. 201 'I).
• Direct Insm1ct1on relEes heavily on lean1ers being able ro asslmllate lnfonnaaon
tJuough. llstenlng, observing and note takang. Learners who are nor ver:y good
at these skills wlll find it difficult to learn from direct Instruction.
A When the material to be learned Is very complex:, detailed or abstract, direct
lnscrucl1on .(particularly In the fonn of a lecrure) may not provide learners
with sufficient oppornmttles ·co process and understand the lnf.onnarton being
presented
.._ During direct Instruction. and! particularly In large classes, .It Is very difficult to
cater for the differences that exist between Individual learners· ab!Utles, pctor
knowledge, !merest ln the subject, rates of leamlng, levels of understanding or
learning styles.
• Because learners have llmlted actlve Involvement In dlroct lnstrucl1on, there
are few opponunitles In this cype of lesson for rhem ro develop thelr social and
Interpersonal skills (such as rJ1elr communlcatlon skills) .
.._ There Is some research evidence that the high level of stmcrure and reaci1er
conl!fol rJ1ar Is characcertsrttc of direct lnsrmctlon may have a negative Im pace on
learners· problem-solving abllitles. lndependence and curtoslly (Ross & Kyle,
I 98 7) .
.._ Direct tnstru,ctlon presents learners with the teacher's vtew of how the ,content
Is (or can be) organl.sed and synthesised. Thls wm not always be a view rJiat
learners can easUy understand or one wlrh which they agree. and they may
have llmlted opponunltles ro explore or debate these Issues.
• Because direct Instruction Involves a not of one-way comnumlcatton. there are
llmltoo oppomm!tles to gain feoollack aoour leame.r uncter.;tandlng. l11e reac.her
may not be aware that some learners have developed misconceptions.
• Demonstrations rely heavUy on learners· observation skills and. un.forrunately.
many learners are not slcllful observers. Hence, they may fall to see what you
want them ro see In a demonstration.
A Some things, such as psychomotor skUls, cannot be raught through direct
lnstruccion alone .
.._ Because of rhe reacher's central role In dlrect lnstructl.on, the success of
this strategy depends heavily on what I call the 'Image' that the reacher
projects (Klllen, 1990). If the teacher does nor appear to be well prepared,
knowledgeable. confident, enthusiastic and well organised. the sructents will
become bored or dlstrc1crect and rhetr learning wlll be hindered. Some of the
student-<entred strategies dealt w1rh In later chapters are less dependent on the
Image of the teacher.
 At a glance

• Learners have limited p{ior • Learners ,are highly motivated

knowledge of the topic.
• The concepts and relationships
you want leomers to understand
are very complex and difficutt to
identify.
• You wanl reamers ro focus on
learning rattler than on the
procedure of learning.
• You want to intlOdl!lce learners
to a broad range of ideas and
examples tn a short time .
• Learners tock the skills to learn
independently or collaboratively.
lo work independently or
collaboralively.
• The content to be learned requires
a 101 of time to assimilate.
• There are extreme vor.ialions in
learners· plior knowledge and/or
abilifiies.
• You want teomers fo develop
t heir social slcills while learning
academic content.
• The conlent requires inelividual
interpretation and adaptation.

THE RESEARCH ON DIRECT INSTRUCTION

In chapters 2 and 3, a brief overview of research on effective teaching was
presented. Our exploracion of tl1ese Issues continues with a consideration of
rhe specific reaching techniques that help to make direct Instruction an effecrtve
teaching strategy through which to faclllrate quality learning.

Some key aspects of effective direct instruction

There are several aspects of direct lnstmcdon that consistently receive research
support as important contributors to learning. These variables are highlighted In
reviews such as Brophy and Good ( 1986), Rosenshlne (1995), Borich (2010) am!
Hat:tle (2009). These components can be viewed as specific techniques through
which elements of Quallty Teaching (particularly Intellectual qua!Jcy elements) can
be put Into practice.
Teacher clarity
A clear teacher Is one who presents !nfonnatlon In ways rhat make It easy for
lean1ers to understand. In rhe r�ch literature, !'.here are rwo distinct approaches
t'dken ro die lnvesdg,atlom of teacher clarlry.
TI1e first approach describes clarity In r.errns of things that teach:ers do to bring
about learner undersrandlng. This ls often referred to as oognitive clarity. To be
cogntctvely clear, the reacher needs co:
.A. rel! learners what they have to learn and be able ro do (d1at Is, tell thenn what
outcomes they have to achieve):

y Activity: Some dlfflcuttles with direct Instruction

l _ Think oboul the learne.rs you hove taught as a teacher or student teacher.
a. Did some of them respond focfirecl instruction more posili\lely1han
others?
b. Wily d o you think this happened?
2. a. What are some of 1he problems that students might experience when
they are watching a teacher demonsfration?
b. How c ould the teacher minimi� these problems?
The second research approach describes clartty In tem1s of things thar teachers s.ay
and ho\v they say them. Thar research gener-dlly focuses on things that make the
teachers message unclear. fo-r example using vague expressions such a s ·a lot', or
using Incomplete sentences. Not surprisingly. this aspect of clarity ts often referred
ro as verbal cla.rity or vagueness. (Since ·vagueness· and 'clartry· are opl)OSltes,
this can be a bit confusing!)
Although Land (1987) considers both vagueness and clarity ro be aspects of
the same genern.l variable, Cruickshank and Kennedy { 198'5) suggest chat they are
quire distinct pltenomena. lvlore recent research (Coulson, 1 998, 2006J suggests
d1at verbal clartry, cognitive clarlry and the teacher's communication styl e are all
very closely related, but nonetheless distinct. aspects of teacher effectiveness. It
seems that dear and unambiguous speech (verbal clarity) Is an essentlaU part of the
teacher behaviours usually referred oo as cognitive clarity. It makes sense that If
you are ro gJve learners a clear explanation of something, you need oo use language
and speech patten1s that will nor confuse them. This ts panlcularly tmponanrwhen
the language of Instruction ts not !lie lean1ers· first language. If your presentations
are unclear. Jt wlll be very dlfficul t ro engage lean1ers Jn any of rhe elements of the
tnrellecr.ual quality dimension of Quality Teaching descrtbed In Chapter 3.
Clartcy of presentation has been shown to positively Influence leame:rs·
achievement and satisfaction ·with theirlnsrrucdon {Hines, Cruickshank & Kennedy,
1985: KIiien. 1991; Hattie, 2009). If you wanr to reach clearly, Jt ls Important ro
do the following:
1. Plan your Instruction well In advance.
2. Make sure thar you have a deep undersrancttng of whatever you wanr the
learners to understand.
3. Prepare a ,1,r1rren plan for every lesson.
4. Make sure rhat learners understand what outcomes rihey are supposed 10 be
achieving.
• present die lesson content In a logical sequence (so Ceamers can follow lt easily):
• present the lesson content at a suitable pace (not too fast or too slow):
• give explanations that make sense ro learners:
• explaln the · meanings of ne,v words (every subject has Jargon Ill.at learners
must master If they are to make sense of che teacher's explanations):
.6. emphasise significant potnts (so that leam.ers can see what ts Important);
• use appropriate examples to support a:11 explanations {examples relevant to the
learners· world, If possible);
• explain things again If learners get confused;
• give learners time ro think about new lnfonnattton:
"" ans\l'er I.earners· questions satlsfacrorlily;
• ask questions to check learners· understanding: and
.6. give an adequate summary of the main points of the lesson.
5. Write c.areli.tlly worded ikey questions In your lesson plans and use them co
gulde reamers· thinking.
6. Make sure that you have clear definitions and explanations for all key concepts
In your less:on plan.
7. Include appropr1ate examples In your lesson plans.
8. Be conscious of your vocabulary - define all new Jargon and don'( use vague
expressions.
9. Make deliberate conmect1ons bev.veen lessons and between key points 111d1ln
each lesson .
10. Reflect on every lesson.
Ir Is relatively easy for teachers to Improve their clarity - tfley simply have to
Identify the pmcl'lccs that arc maldng them unclear and then change these pmcl'lccs.
One very good way ·ro Identify the things that make your teaching ·unclear Is to get
feedback from the reamers. A simple way of doing this Is described In the followlng
actlvlty box.

y Activity: Getttng feedback on your teaching

It you are not leaching clearty. learners will not understand -ycur explanations
Y()lf
wil not make sense to them. Ore wa; to find out how you c-oudl leoch more
clearly is lo ask learners lwo simple questions at !he end ol a lesson:
• Whal did I do in this lesson that helped you to understand?
• What did t do in this lesson that confused! you or made it difficult for you to
understand?
1. ff you are teachingi young learners. you can ask 1hese questions orally.
or even have a short class discussion aboUI them. It you ore teaching
ol d er learners. you might wont to get 1hem to write down answers to the
questions - this is a good idea. because tt also gives you feedback about
the teorners· ability to expiess their ideas in writing.
2. Discuss 1he l earner feedback with o colleague.
3. Work out how you could do mo<e ol the things that help students to learn
and fewer ol lhe things that make it difficult for them to learn.

Instructional variety
111e main reason for deliberately vazytng your approames to reaching Is that not all
srudents can. learn die same thing In die same way (Spady, 1994), Leamers perceive
and gain knowlooge dlfferendy. l'hey have dllferenr ways .of lb.nnlng Ideas and rhlnkb1g,
and they have dllferent background know:ledge, sk.llls and dlsposltlons. 1l1erefore, a
'one-sl7..e-firs-all' approach ro reaching Is un!lkely to be vecy successful.
The second reason for using ai varaery of reaching rechnlques Is that we all ger
bored lf we .are doing the same thlng for ·roo long. Th!s Is especially m1e If we are
lnaalve. such as when we are sitting passlveJy tn a classroom. The third reason Is
d1at 'the more ways something .Is leamect. the more memory pathways are built'
(\Vl1lls, 2006:3), which Increases the possibility that the lean1ed lnfom1al!lon can
be recatled In the future.
To carer for the different needs, ablllrles and learning preferences of students,
and to avoid boring them, you should deliberately vaiy aspects of your direct
ln.structlon. These aspects Include:
Ao. the way you commence your lessons ( for example statlng the outtcornes. asking
a question, posing a problem. showing an. object ro arouse learners· a1rtoslty);
.t. the way you check learners· prior knowledge (for example pre-rests.
bralnsromllng, surveys);
• rhe way you give learners acce.ss ro !lnfonnatton (for ,example by means of a
lecmre. handouts, a Powerpo:lnt presentation, srort .es, televlslonJ;
Ao. the way you emphasise main Ideas (for example by veJbal ,emphasis or wrlding
rhern on me board):
• the way you ask questtoms amd the rype of questions you ask;
Ao. die types of feedback and reinforcement you give learners:
• die ,examples you use ro lllustrare points;
• the type of dilnklng you ,expecr from £earners;
• the challenges you present. to lean1ers;
Ao. the acrlvltles In whl.:h learners are engaged (for example llstenlng, reacting,
writing, speaking): and
• the typesof!nsrructlonal mare rials you use {for example rextbooks. newspapers).
Each learner will have different expectations about what will or should happen in
your classes. For example, some learners might expect you ro write derdlled notes
on the board; orJ1ers: might. expect you ro give detailed explanatlons and put Just a
summazy on the board. You will also have cerratn expectal1ons about flow learners
should respond ro the way you teach. For example, you might expect learners ro
develop their own summaries of die information you present. It ls 11ke3y rhar your
preferred teaching style for cerratn types of content mirrors your own preferred
leanilng style for that rype of con tent. \!/hen your expectations or preferences don't
mattch those of the lear11ers. there ls a problem. lf some learners .are constantly
req111lred ro work outside their preferred learning style, they will q1Ulckly become
ctemotlvared. You need ro be aware of rhJs and try to find ways of aUgnlng your
exp,ectatlons wtth those of the learners. 'if'his wlll inevitably mean using a variety
of reaching Iech:nlques.
If you use appropriate variety tn your reaching, this can expand lean1ers· views
of what they are learning and how they can learn, challenglng them r.o chink
In new ways. Vartety can positively Influence learner achievement (\Vesrwood,
2000), reduce the amount of disruptive behaviour by learners (Evenson, Emmer,
Sanford, demencs & Worsham, I 984J, Increase learner attention (Lysakowskl
& \Nalberg, 1981) and mal:ntain learners' motlvatlon and their engagement ln
lean1lng (Klndsvatter, Wilen & !shier, 2007) _ All of these factors contribute ro a
quality learning environment.

Task orientotion
In any form of lnsrructlon, both the teacher and the lean1ers should h!ave a clear
focus on the outcomes char learners are trying ro achieve. The learners· responsiblllty
sho.tlld Ile ro actlvely tty ro achieve these outcomes. The reacher's responslblllcy
ls ro assist learners ro sysremattcally work towards achieving the outcomes co a
high standard 1n a reasonable time. 'TI1e things that teachers do to keep students
focused on learning specific things are referred ro as task orientation behaviours.
During dir&t ln.structlon, rhls requires a we!U-organlsed .and srrucmrect leanllng
environmerut In which the reacher:
A keeps learners focused on achieving specific teaming outcomes ro clearly stated
standards;
A provides learners 1vlrh the oppoltllnlty ro learn lby IJ)resentlng relevant
tnfonnatlon In an appropriate form;
A asks quescions ro prompt leaniers' thinking;
A encourdges learners to think Independently;
A keeps learners molivared and Involved:
,.. seeks feedback on ileamers· understanding: and
A encourages and rewards learners· efforts.

Successful task orientation starts ·with effective classroom management - you have
ro organise and ·manage the learning ,enV1ronn1ent in such a way that It ls easy for
all smdents ro focus: on learning. Th.en you have to ensure that · the Interactions
between you and the learners are focusedl on lntelJecrnal content and achievement
of predefined goals, and not simply on control. Sln1ple techn.!ques, such as writing
a dally work schedule on the board so that learners kno11• what to do without
needing regular verbal directions from rh:e teacher, make It easier for the reacher
and. learners to remain focus,ect on the learning task. Once you establish the basic
organisational smtcrure that allows you and the learners to be task. oriented, it \Viii
be easier for you ro monitor die actl.vlrles of learners and encourage them ro be
constructively occupled and \Vork:lng towards planned outcomes.
task orienratlon can be constde red as the key feamre of direct tnsm1ccton, because
it places an emphasis on clear goal .seltl:ng, active teaching, close monitoring of
learner progress. and reacher responslblliry for smd:ent learning. These are all factors
that Rosenshlne (1995) emphasised as tmporranr for learner achievement. Tusk
orlenracton ils also essential for 1lle engagement, learner self-regulation, ·htgher­
order thinking and deep undersrdndlng elements of Quality Teaching that were
described In Chapter 3.
Engagement in teaming
Although rask orienratio n by die teacher provides the opportunity for sntdents to
lean1, It does nor guarantee that the srudencs will be engaged in learning. To be
eng.aged. leameirs musttbe actively rhttnklng about, working with or using rhe Ideas
and. infom1at1on rhat the reacher has presented- they must be crying ro understand.
The Importance of learner engagement In learning is Ulustrated well In die review
of research on teacher behaviour and learner achievement by Brophy and Good
(20 07). They claimed ·that overrCdlng all findings in their review was the tact that
acaden1Ic teaming ts: influenced by the amount of time reamers spend engaged In
appropriate academl1: tasks. This engagement Is somelllmes referred ro as acaden1lc
lean11ng time (Huitt, 2005). Harne (2009) also round that engagement, and the
related factors of concenrracion and perstsrence, have a strong Influence on student
leanilng. Whilst earlier researchers observed the Importance of engagement, tr was
not until recently that ·1v-r1rers such as \VCIUs (2006) have provided a neurolog;lcal
explanation for why engagement Is necessary for learning and how ·engaging in
die process of learning acmally Increases one·s capactry ro, learn· (WIiiis, 2006:8).
 One way to maximise lean1ing engagement Is to have a system of class rules
t11ar allows learners ro attend to personal and procedural matters 1vllhour the need
to seek the teacher's permission, thus encouraging learners to remain engaged In
lea:rning for the maximum possible time. For example, learners should lkno1v what
to do If they finish an exercise before the rest ofrhe class. To maintain engagement ,.
It ls Important for you to monitor the seatwork of learners who are l\'Orkl!llg
Independently, and to communicate to tl1em that you are aware ofrhelr progress.
Onceyou have created an envlronmentthatwlll encourage learners to be engaged,
you d1en have to use Instructional strategies thaf wU:I enhance thls engagement.
Your basic rask Is ro engage smdents In learning activities that challen. ge them to
construct understanding. 1111s can be achieved through:
• problem solving;
A enc-0uraglng lean1ers to make choices and take the Initiative In their lean1lng;
A chaJJengJng learners to search for underlyl!llg causes, explain their thinking and
Justify a position; and
"' making all leamlng relevant.

11n lo (2009) suggests that three aspects of academic engagement should be

encouraged - behav1oural, emotlonal and cognil1ve.
I. 'rhe behavioural aspect of engagement wttl be demonstrated by learnets·
concentrdtlon. at:ten.cton. persistence .and contr1but1on to class discussions.
2. TI1e emotional aspect wUI b e deanonstrared by the learners' relationships \\1th
teachers and peers, and bythe extentto which they care aooucschool and leamlng.
3. The cognitive aspect ivlll I.le demonstrated by the effort learners put Into
learning and by their self-motivation.
There ts a simple, basic rule: If you want lean1ers to engage In learning, you must
rell them what you expect. them to do and you must make It easy and: Interesting
for them to do It. When learners kn01v what the goals are. and when d1ey see these
goals as attainable and useful, they \viii want to engage In lean1lng. If the learners
do not know what they are supposed to be !earning or why It Is Important, or If
d1ey see the goals as unattainable or unimportant, you should not expect them to
be enthusiastic and engaged.
Leamer success
Wilen students engage In learning tasks, d1ey may experience high success
(understand the co11tent and make only occasional careless errors), moderate
success (partlally understand the content and inake some substantive errors) or low
success (not understand the task at all). several studies (Hunr. \A/Iseman & Towzel.
2009) nave shown that Instructional techniques lhat allow learners to experience
moderate to high success In class acrtvld.es produce greater levels of achievement.
In later tests than lnsm1ctlon that results In low learner success on class acttvldes.
This ls really Just com1non sense: If learners are unsuccessful at some classroom
. ' ' ' ' ..
learning acrJvlty, most wlll not go away and oy ro master It In their own ttn1e.
' .
 Instruction that produces high success rares: can be a powerful motivational force
and can leact ro high levels of self-esteem (Huitt. 2 o 1·1). and to posltlve amrudes to
school. As Ebara (2008) explains. there ts a strong lln k betWeen learners· succe:,s,
their feeling of satisfaction \\1th rhelr learning and their rr,odvatlon to pursue new
lean1lng goals. Even mojerare levels: of success e ncourdge further engagement In
leanilng and persistence with difficult tasks. When sl:iuderuts belleve that they can
learn (because of earller learning sucre5Ses) It allows teachers ro challenge them
wltth higher-level rdsks, one of the key Indicators of effective teaching Identified by
Hattie (2009).
As well as producing mastery of the lesson content, moderate ,ro high success
rares on teaming tasks provide opportunities for teamer.; to apply their acquired
knowledge In orher ciassroom activities, such. as answering questions and solving
problems. In this way, success encourages further engagement In lean1lng. These
Ideas are consistent with the basic principles of outcomes-based education.
according oo which success leads ro furrher success (Spady, 1994!). However. as
die Quality Teaching Model emphasises, lt Is difficult for learners ro be successful If
the criteria for success are not expllclt.
\.Yhen students are su:cessful In their learning. It Is helpful to use that success
as a guide for funher leamln:g. You can do this by helping learners rro reflect on the
processes that led to- thel1 success. If sl\lctents umctersrand why they were successfi1I
In learning, they wlill be '!lore llkely to be successful In furure. even If they choose
to use a different approach to learning.
Belhaviours that support the key aspects of effective teaching
The above summary suggests d1at to be an effective reacher you need the knowledge
and skills to present Information dearly, using a varllety of strategies that allow
yotu to remaln task orienred and that engage the students In leamlng processes In
which they can experience reasonably high levels of success. From this, It should
be appaient rha,. effecrtve teaching ts the result. of patterns of teacher behaviours
ratlter dian Isolated behaviours, :and diat the aspects of effective teaching brielly
described above do not provide a rotai picture of reacher effectiveness. The
llteramre contains evidence of many other teacher behaviours that, In various
circumstances, have been shown ro oont:rtbure to lean1er achievement (and hen.ce
teacher effecdveness). 111:ey are sometimes referred to as enabli.Olg bebaviou.rs
(or supporting behaviours), becaillse they enable reacbers to lncorpordte effective
reaching prdctlces lnro their lessons. Some enabling behaviours with strong research
support. are omllned .In rite sections that follow.
Using leamers· ideas
One of t'.he oesr ways to mainrain learners· Interest Is to Involve them acovely In die
lesson. You can do t'.hls during direct lnsmtct1on l>y using the learners' Ideas as an
r
Integal part of your lesson. This can be done In fi.ve simple ways, namely:
1. acknowledging {repeating leame rs· main srdt,eme:nrs):
2. modifying (rephrasing a learner's Idea In you:rown w<Jrds):
3. applyln;g (using the lean1ers: Idea to rake the next seer In ·solv.lng a problem};
4. comparilng (showing slmllarllies and differences Ir. the Ideas of several
learners); and
5. summartslng (using what was said by learners to revise key points}.
Although there does nor appear to be any strong research evidence that using these
strategies wtU dtrecdy enhance teamer achievement, they do appear to promote
leanllng lncllrecdy by Increasing learners· engagement ttn the learning process
(Borich, 2013). Your personal experience probably cells you chat learners are
encouraged when their Ideas are valued.
You \\1U ffind that the Ideas learners bring ro each learning situation are personal
(because Individuals Internalise their experiences In different ways), stable (not
easily changed� and possibly Incoherent (because learners nnay nor have a set
of uni fying ideas as a basis for Interpreting what they observe) . However, the
most Important reason for using learners· Ideas Is that It enables you ro build
expllcitly on their prior kno-wledge (an Important element of Quality Teaching).
The process of soliciting Ideas fr o m lean1ers can give you Insight Into the attitudes,
understandings and. mls:conceptlons that : they bring to the learning episode. and
this Is vital lnfom1at1on mat you need ro llelp them learn.
Structuting
You should :not expect learners to be able to make sense of new Information. unless
It ls organised and presented in ways that make it easy for tihem to understand.
Imagine how cllfficult it ,vould be 10 understand the informat1on in this book If It
was not divided Into chapters and If there were no headings or subheadings! This
organisation of rnatertal ils referred to as structurEng.
Good. lesson structuring starts \Vlth a we11-p1ann.ed tnrroducdon -something that
wlll grab the learners· attention and spark their curiosity. Five common ways of
doing d1ls a r e th:e following,
1. Start the lesson with a question (to p:rompt learne;rs ro think abour a particular
Issue).
2. Provide a briefoverview of where the lesson will rake learners (to help them
develop a frameworl\ for the lesoon).
3. Use an advance organiser (to create a general context Into
: which more specific
Information can be l:nreg:rated).
4. Tull the learners what outcomes they wUI be achieving ln the lesson (so that
they have clear goals for their learning).
5. Show learners something they are not expecdng tto see (to create some
cognitive dissonance).
The vartous: fom1s of sm1crui!lng that you can use at the beginning of your lessons
are sometimes called pre-instructional strategies (because t11ey come before the
main Instruction ). TI1ese-cechnlqueshave been researched and reviewed extensively.
and you should refer to some of that llrerarure for more derailed guidelines on how
to use them (see Ausubel, 1 960: Coffey & canas. 2 003; Kang, 1996; Mesmer­
Magnus & Vlswesvardn, 20 I OJ.
 If your lesson. Introduction shows tthe learners where the lesson will rake them,
they will then b,e ready to see how chey ·will get there. With young children, you
might simply tell them what they wlill be doing la the lesson. Wtt:h older learners
you mtghc.be able to use a flowcharr, or slm1ply 11st rhe matn points chat you wUJ be
discussing In the lt'.5Son. If this map Is displayed (perhaps on a chalkboard) you can
refer to Jt as you move from each mann point to the next, tihus helping the learners
to understand the struc11t1re and sequence of your lesson and to :see lhow au rhe
mat.n Ideas are related.
To help learners foUow your explanations, you ,can provide srrucrure by making
conm1ents such as: 'There are three main points r.o consider when selecting a tool
for this Job. They are ... • or 'Before you try to calcul.are ... It Is necessaiy co ...'
or ·we wlll be looking at the Issue from two perspectives. Plrst we wlll consider
.. .'. Statements such as these prepare the learners for what ls to follow. 111Is ts
sometimes referred to as giving the learners a mental set.
You can also use comments to link parrs. of your lesson, for example: The
main problems tthat our discussion has identified so far are ... , so now we need
to .. .' or ·so far we have con.sldered .... so now we need to consider several other
perspecltlves· or simply 'The next step In d1Js process ts .. .'.
Atapproprtare points In die lesson, you should surnn1arise tmporranttnformatlon.
In order for learners ro know exactly whac you are doing, yotu should make
star,ements such as: ·111e five sreps In this. process were ...• or 'The most lmporrant.
rhlngs you have learned In this lesson are ...'.
Perhaps the most tmporramt thing ro keep In mind ts thlat the strucntre of your
lesson must make s.ense to your students. If they cannot make sense of dhe
new Information you present. tl1ey are umllkely to le.am muc·h from your lesson
(Wl11Js, 2006). You wlll make learning easter for your srudemts lf you highlight.
mat n points, proceed In small steps at an appropriate pace and give them
opporrunlt:les ro check that they understand what you are talking about -Careful
smicnutng of each lesson Is essentlal If you want students to engage In high.er­
order rhtnkling, and If you want to deUberately guide them ro deep levels of
understanding.
Without appropnare structuring, effect!Ve reacl1lng Is difficult - It Is hard for
the reacher to remain rasl\ onenr,ect, and :smctenrs are unlikely ro be appropriately
engaged In learning. There may wern be variety In an unsrrucmrect lesson. but It
probably will not be purposeful. Consequendy, It ls unlikely that d1.e lesson w!U be
cleairty presented or thar the nmended learning w!II occur.
One of d1.e benefits of careful structuring of your lessons ts that tr helps you to
manage rime effectlvely. TI1ls ts sometMng that you have to consider carefully
when plannlng each lesson.
Im a more general consideration of s.tmcturtng chat goes beyond lnd]vlduat
lessons, Rosenshtne and. Stevens (l 986) ldentlfied six Instructional activities that
they claJm robe essential ro well-structured teachlng, namely:
I . regular reviews of pasr learn Ing;
2. well-organised presentation of each lesson;
3. guided praclice for lean1ers on new tasks;
4. feedback to learners on their learning;
5. Independent prctctlce for learners once basics have been mastered; and!
6. sysremadc weekly reviews of course conrenr.
All of these reacher activities place a clear focus on wh!ar we want srudents to lean1
- and that Is one of the basic prlDciples of outcomes-based education.
Questioning
Doenau ( t 987) clatms t:hat classroom srudtes of questioning were raking place as
early as 1912. Early research fooused prt1nartly on describing when or how teacliers
asked questions. Around 1970, the research Into ,question.Ing started to place more
emphasis on the iypes of questions that teachers asked. The major reviews In this
area (Gall, 1970, I 984; Rosenshlne, I 971; Dunkin & Biddle, I 974; Redfield &
Rousseau. 1981: Brophy & Good, 1986: cazcten & Mehan, 1989) indicate rhat
the aspects of questioning that have been Investigated most frequendy are the
cogntelve levels ofquestions. the difficulty levels ofquesC!ons, and teachers· patterns
of questioning. The research findings have been quite mixed. However, questioning
Is stlll regarded as an tnnpo11t.ant part of reaching because It can stimulate sructent
thinking and provide the teacher with valuable lnfom1atlon about srudenr learning.
canon·s ( t 988) summary of rhe research on quesllontng suggested that teachers
could use questions for a number of purposes, all of which are relevant to dnrect
tnsl!mctlon, namely:
"' to develop Interest and motivate learners to become actively Involved;
.t. ro evaluate learners· preparation and i:heck on homework or searwork:
"' to develop crttlcal thinking skills and Inqutrtng atr:111ldes;
"' to revaew and summarise previous lessons:
"' to nunure Insights by exposing new relationships;
"- to assess achtev.ement of tnstruct1onal goals and ob)ecdves: and/or
"' to stimulate learners to pursue knowledge on their own.

Questioning forms an lntegrdl part of most srraregles for effective tteachlng. It Is an

Important component of reacher clar!ty, because Ir ls a means by whlch teachers
caru gain feedback on lean1er understanding. Questilontng can be used to keep
the learners on task and to encourage thenn to engage In meanlngful learning.
Questioning can be a vehicle for lnrroduclng vartery Into lessons, and a means of
enabling even slow learners to expertence some success in theEr learning. However,
questioning has lltde effect on smdenrs· learning unless It requires them ro use
Ideas rather than Just repeat something they have remembered.
Although there ts some research support for the Idea that questions can, and. should
be used to .stimulate leamers to think at die higher devels of Bloom's taxonomy
(Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). cotton {1988) cautions that rl1e research ls not
conclusive. Cotton's summary of this research suggests tl1e following:
"' Higher-order questions are not caregortcally better than Jo,wer-order questions
In ellc.ltlng h!lgher-level responses or In promoting learning galns.
"' Lower-level cognitive questions are more effective than higher-level questions
wld1 young (prtmary level) children, (Particularly die disadvantaged.
.._ In most classes above rile pmmary grades. a cornblnatton of hJgher and lower
cognlctve questions Is superior ro exduslv,e use of one or the ocher.
.t. Lower cognitive questions are more etrecllve when the reacher's purpose is to
Impart factual knowledge and assist l earners ttn committing th[s knowledge to
memory.
 • 'In settings where a high Incidence of lower-level questions Is approprtace,
_greater frequency of questlorus Is positively related ro learner achievement.
.._ Increasing rhe use of higher cognitive questlons (to considerably above the 20%
.Incidence noted In most classes) [Procttuces superior learning gains for srnctenrs
above rhe primary grddes and particularly for seco ndacy students.
A For older learners, Increases In the use of higher cognlrlve questions. (ro SO'X> or
·more) are positively related to Increases In:
• on-task behaviour;
• the length of learner responses;
• the number of relevant contrtbudons volunteered oy leame;rs;
• the 111umber of student-to-student Interactions;
• learner use of complete sentences;
• speculative rhlnklng on tile part of learners; and
• relevant questlons posed by learners.
Whether you are using direct ln.sttuctlon or any of the other teaching strategies
described in. later chapters. you should not expecr that simply askJng high.er-level
questions wlll guarantee tl1at learners wRI use more complex cog111t1ve processes
or produce higher cognitive responses. Your questions must always be [Pitched at a
level that ls appropriate for the learners and th.e content, For example, learners who
are unable ro draw lruferences or make predlctlons wlll not be Induced to do so simply
because you ask them a question that requires tl1ese cognllttve processes. However,
!'drgetln_g speclfi,;; questions co specific smdenr:s can be a useful way co ctltferenttare
lnsm1ctton. You can pose hlgher-leveJ or more open questions to students who are
able to deal wlrll them. and ifJOSe lower-level or more closed questions ro s111dents
who are struggling with the concept being raughr.
It Is wort11 keeping In mind that srudents wlll not neces5arlly see the purpose of
your questioning or believe rhar It Is helping them ro leam (Adedoyln. 2010). As
with other reachlng techniques, you may have ro help students to see d1e relevance
of d1e approaches you are using.
Pro.bing
Probing: Is tJ1e process of seeklng clac1ficaillon or more Information when a learner
artemp� to answer a quest!on. Por example, you could ask learners to .explain
or Justify their answers. or to elaborate on their answers or to be more preclse.
The main reason for probing Is to enable you ro get a clearer picture of learners·
understanding, which may not be obvious from their answers to your Initial
questlon. An equally Important reason Is d1ar probing questions can prompt learners
ro think: more deeply about the !&sue betng discussed.
You do nor have to restrtct your probing ro, the leamer who first answered your
question. Sometimes It Is useful to seek clarlfical!lon or e:labo:ratlon from anol'.l:ler
learner. This Is usually called 'redlrecl!lon·.
Zahortk (1987) suggests that probing has the greatest effect on learner
achievement when Ur is part. of a cycle of attempting ro clarify an answer, asking for
additional lnfom1aeto11 and r.edtrect1ng the question to another srudent success In
tills activity ts li!kely to be greatest whern the purpose of the probing ts to lead the
discussion co higher levels of c.omplextty. ln tlhls respect, probing can l:le seen as an
Important catalyst for rhe effective teaching behaviours of task ortentatlon, srudlent
engagement 1n ffearning, and clarity.
 Probing and redlreccion ,viii be most effective when the learners can see why
the reacher Is using these technlques. This usually means that the reacher muse
be :seeklng mor:e specific Information rather than probing or redirecting In some
general way, For ex.ample, a reacher response such as: 'There Is one cmc!al point
missing from Kgabo's answer; It has to do 1vlth die assumpttons we make about
che problem. can yo:u explain this point, Duma?' Is more llkely to encourage learner
thinking than a generdl response such as:: ·can anyone add to Kgabo's answer?'
Desl)'lte the posslble !benefits of probing, some caution Is necesscrry. l .t Is nor
approprtare for problng to become a game of ·guess what's In rile teacher's head'.
Nor ls It appropriate If probing leads to learners becoming embarrassed !because
they cannot answer the questions.
Enthusiasm
An enthusiastic teacher conveys to learners a feeling of Involvement, exclrement
and Interest. Tills message Is transmitted In a vartezy of ways. lncludlng facial
expressions, gestures, body movements, eye movements and vocal characrerlsr1cs.
Many writers (for example Borich, 2013) consider enthusiasm ro be part of a
larger group of behaviours referred to as teacher affect (behaviours rhac derlive
from attitudes, values and emotions). However, enthusiasm Is die parrlcular
affective reacher behaviour that appears to have rile greatest resear<eh s!Upport (see
Rosenshlne, 1970; Bettencourt, Gillett, Gall & Hull, 1983; Brigham, Scruggs &
Mastroplerl, 1992). Faull (2009) claims that enthusiasm Is one of the Important
dispositions that.distinguish exceptional teachers from con1perent teachers.
While It seems logical that enthuslasrtc teachers wlU motlvate their lean1ers more
than unenthusiastic teachers, It Is difficult to obtain research evidence tbar teacher
entliuslasm makes any direct difference to learner achievement. On.e reason Is that
enttiuslasm may be displayed in many different, often quite subde, ways - making
It difficult to measure. However, Umber and Mester (200 7) cite a wide range of
research to support their claim that te<1cher enthusiasm 1s an Import.ant quality
associated with effective reaching across all disciplines, all grade levels and all
categories of sn1denrs. There Is also evidence that when learners th Ink a reacher Is
ent11us1ast1c., this Influences their perceptions of other ·reacher behavlou.rs (such as
clarttyJ. and this In run1 Influences their learning (Killen, 1991 J, There Is also some
evidence chat t11e enthusiasm of teachers Is inBuenced by the enthusiasm of d1.elr
learners (Srenlund, 1995).
Leaniers usu.ally see enthusiastic teachers as better communicators (Coulson,
2006), and tliese teachers are more successful than unenrlnuslastlc teachers at
engaging learners In learning. !'or thls reason, there seems 11ttle doubt that
enthusiasm Is an Important, If not essendal, aspect of effective reaching. If you are
going to be enthusiastic about the rl1lngs that you teach, yolil must firsr be clear
about what you want leame:rs to learn and about why those things are lmporranr,
You musr also have a genuine interest in your subject. and In helping learners to
understand your sub)ect. If you ever tell learners: 'This topic is boring and dlfficult,
but you have to team It for the exam: you should nor expect learners to be any
more enthusiastic about it th.an you are.
tnsumma,y
There Is conslderable research support foruslngleamer ldeas, smucrur1ng, questioning
and probing as Important support mechanisms for rhe teacher behaviours that are
more dlrecr lndl.carors of reacher effecrlveness. These support. behaviours are llkely
to be parttCtJlarly he:lpfun when usro by an enthus;lasttc and well-organlsro reacl1er.
There are many other reacher behaviours that have some research support as
elements of elfectlve reaclllng (for example partlrular classroom managemenc.
strategies. praise ofleamers, use of small :group activities, and so on). These aspects
of teaching wlll not 'be dealt wlthi here, but a good starting point for a more derailed
coverage of this llterature Is Hattie (2009).

y Activity: Looklrng more closely at research literature

A lot (but not all) ol the research cried in this chapter has been conducted in
developed CO\Jntries where the classroom environment is different from what
you will find in many Soulti African schools.
1. In whal ways do you think effeclive ·teaching in South Africarn schools
might be different from effective teaching in other countries? (Hint: Think
about the ways in which South African society and South African schools
are different from societies and schools in places such as Australia and the
USA. For example. even though Auslrolia is a multicultural country, there is
only one official la nguage.)
2. Find some research literal\.ne about effe,ctive teaching in South African
schools (in journals such as Perspectives in Education) and com pare it
with the ideas presented in this chapter.
3_ What evidence con you fillCI that teachers can be enthusiastic. clear. well
organised ancl use vaniety in their teaching when they are working in OVeJ­
crowded and under-resourced schools?

PLANNING
: AND IMPLEMENTING DIRECT INSTRUCTION
Chapter 4 outlined rile main choices you have to make when planning; here, tlwse
Ideas will b,e ex.panded as we co ns!der some of tine specific thlngs you need to do
wh.en planning to use direct Instruction.
Recall that at the start of thls chapter ! emphasised that, when 11.1Slng direct
lnsrructton. t11e things you want srudent:s oo leam are made very explicit. 'l11e
lean1ers are no t le� to explore Ideas on their own and leam somed1lng - they
are guided by the teacher to learn somed1lng spedfic. As a consequence, direct
lnsm,ccton lessons requlre very careful planning and preparatlon. The following
planning steps are particularly Important.
Writing lesson outcomes
As we saw In Chapter 4, all planning should start w!d1 a clear staremenr about
the outcomes tJ1at you want learners to achieve, and for each lesson these
outcomes sh:ould be derived directly from the longer-tenn outcomes described In the
curriculum. O�en when planning a lesson In which you will use direct lnstn1cdon.
there Is a rempratlon to think about outcomes as something you wUI achieve (for
example, ·1 wlll explain t11e principles of effective communlcatlon·}. Avoid this
mistake. Always think of the outcomes In terms of what learners will boe able ro do
as a result of your dflrect lnstn1ct1.on (for example, 'Learners wHII be able rouse the
principles of effective communtcatlon In an ordl presenradon of the res.ulrs of their
science lnvestlgatloru'}.
 Be realistic about tthe lesson outcomes. There Is a finite limit to what srudents can
learn In. each lesson. so the outcomes should be specific enough (O be attainable
In that lesson. l11e things that sructents learn In each lesson are Uke pieces of a
Jigsaw puzzle that you will help them to construct over rime. TI1erefore, you need to
delll>erately build on their pr1or knowledge and delll>erately lay the foundations for
their further learning. You have to help learners r.o see how the outcomes of each
lesson are linked.

y Activity: Wrttlng lessorn outcomes

1. Selecl five items from the ·contenl o:nd concepts· secliQn of lhe CAPS in
your specialist teaching area. (For example. There are many different kinds
of living things, including plants. animals. microorganisms is one ilem in the
Grade 7 Na!Ural Sciences CAPS.)
2. For each i1em you select, develop o less,oo outcome that learners should
demonstrate to convince you they have learned wha1 you wanted them to
loom.

Selecting lesson content

The content of each lesson Is a vehicle to help srndenrs achieve tthe lesson outcomes,
so It must be dlrecd.y related to the outcomes and be at an approprtare cognlttive
level. In Chapter 2 you saw the Importance of focusing your lessons on significant
knowledge rather than t:rlvial details. This should be the prime derenninan.t of the
content you use.
When you are selecting content, you should always try ro use examples that
will make it easy for learners ro understand rh.e concepts and principles you present
to them. Do not assume that learners wm always understand. why you are using
palltiallar examples. Toke the tlme to explain the purpose of each example l>efore.
or Immediately .after. you give It (for Instance. 'This example wlll help you to see
why .. : or 'This example Is sllghn:ly different from the prev ious one, because I want
you ro see whac.ha!}pens when we change .. :). Make sure that you dunk careli.llly
about your example .s when plan.nlng: your lessons: don't watt till you get Into the
classroom.
Organising lesson content
One of rile maJn reasons for using direct :Instruction Is that lt allows you to
organise the lesson content and present it to learners In .a manner and sequence
that wlll make Ht easy for them to understand. Therefore. a lot of your p!ann.lng
will Involve srrucrurtng, org:ants1ng and sequencing the coment ;SO that learners
are systematlca!lly exposed ro new Jcteas and encouraged ro thlnk about them In
pardcul:ar ways.
Learners asslmllare materlal more easily when they can see a clear stmcmre
and log:lcal sequence In It - that Is. when they can see how the Ideas are linked
and related and why you are presenting ri1e Ideas ro them In a pama1lar sCQuence.
The srrucmre and sequence of your lesson will, of course. l>e determined p1imarlly
by the narnre of the subject. matter, but thls does not mean there Is only one way
(or necessartly a best way) of presendng some specific content, You will have to
consider the learners· prtor knowledge, their learning styles. the resources you have
available, a:nd s.o on. However, there are some generdl ptinclples -chat you should
rry ro follow,
.,. Make sure learners understand the purpose of each lesson and lrs generdU scope.
If they have little Idea of what rhey will be learning, or why they are learning
It, your .:arefully planned! lesson structure and sequence may be lost on them.
• 1ly to start by explaining Ideas that are relatively easy to u ndersrand, and
progre55 to the more difficult Ideas.
.1,. Help the learners to make connections between what they already know

and what you want them ro lear11, and between the various p arts of the new
lnfonnatton tihat you present.
.,. Break tl1e material Into mean.lngfill chunks - sections d1ar are small enough ro
be assimilated easily and. then pulled togetl1er to make a cohesive whole .
.., Emphas:lse the things that are Important and help learners to see the logical
connections between these Important Ideas.
• Use analogies and examples to help the learners understand .
.1,. Give learners time ro think about what they are teaming and ro ask questions.

.1,. Provide summariles at appropriate points 1!11 your lesson .

.1,. \lihenever possible, use visual means to support your presentation, for example

a plctllre, ch art. dlag;ram or mod6l .

.., Organise your material in a way that will make sense to your learners (not
Just to you). Toke the tlme ro explain ro learners why you have sequenced t11e
material. In a ·pa111:Jcular way.
.1,. Organ.lse your lesson In such a way tl i lat It challenges learners rto think :beyond

their current level of understanding.

You wlnl make learning easier for your learners If you organise die lesson content
In a way that makes Jr easy r.o remember. This Idea Is the basis of a !earning theory
calfed schema theory. A schema ls an organlsarronan framework for Information.
Schemata (rhe plural of schema) are complex knowledge structures that learners
develop through experience, In rum, these become the basis of a learner's pctor
knowledge In new leamlng slt1Uatlons. When a learner encounters some new
Information. It Is processed according to how It marches the learner's existing
sch:emata - If It seems ro fit, Ir Is accepted and understood. If t11e new lnfom1atton
appears not to rat t11e learner's schemata, several things might happen, the learner
may be confused. and reject the new lmfonnatlon, t'.he learner might be confused but
accept the new Information Without much thought, or t11e !eamer may dellberaeely
11y ro revtseexlstlng schemara to accommodate the new 1nrormal1011.1r Is this latter
our.come that you should try co encourage - tlms helping learners to dellberarely
buUd on their pctor knowledge.
' ' . . ' ' .
l:n schema theory, the knowledge that learners build ls meanting-drlven; It ls
nor simply the accumulation of Isolated pieces of lnfonnatton. For example. If a
photography reacher Is explaining how r.o manually set the exposure controls on
a camera, learners need to develop .a schema of the basic principles of how the
Image Is formed. and recorded before die Individual steps In adjusting the aperwre
and shutter speed wlll make sense. In thils case. the teacl1er 111111 probably need to
go beyond mereJy activating students' existing schemata - she/he \\'111 have to ltelp
them develop approprtare new schema. As you can s-ee from this example. many
schemata wlll be context-specific. Heiplng learners develop these ways of rhlnk:lng
fits well with die suggestion i n Chapter 2 fhat teachers should help Seamers develop
deep understanding rather than Just memorising derails.
 Because schemata are !mporcant for !nterprettng and decoding !nformatton, tc
Is Import.int. ro present !earners with lnfom1at1011 In ways that make lt easy for
them ro develop and use schemata. By carefully structuring your lessons, dtrecr
Instruction can be a very effective rechntgue for helping learners to develop
schemata and to acdvare these reference frameworks as the ·basis for developing
new understanding.
Preparing lesson notes
In Chapter 4 I suggested a lesson plan fom1at rhat oonralned a 'Lesson content'
secttlon. In your early years of reaching, you will probably need to prepare derailed
notes ro help you organise thls conrenr, decide on how much derail you wUI need
to present to students and develop suitable examples, When prepartng notes, you
need to consider the Issues discussed In the following sections.
Verbatim notes
This Is a word-by-word scr1pr of the content you want ro present. Writing lesson
notes In this much deraU has the attraction ([Partlcula:rly for new teachers) that It
reassures you that you have d1ought about everything you need to say and how
you wUI say It. This reduces the: number of things that you need to think about
durtng me lesson pre.sentatlon and It may help you ro overcome some of your
nervousness. However. there are some problems with this approach. such as tthe
followlng:
.A If you slmply read your notes, the presentation will probably appear very formal
anct uninspiring to tile learners.
A If you read your notes, you may not use .appropriate Intonations, pauses, and
w un, arnl this call maKt: your pre;enrdtlun suuml false.
A Senrences that 'read' very well do nor necessartly • sound' 111atural - pan:tcula.rly
long. complex sentences.
A It Is easy co Jose your place If something distracts you, and this can make you
more nervo\ilS than If you had no notes at all!
A This type of presenradon ctlscourdges learners from asklng quesdons or ma:kHng
comments, because lt gives learners the Impression fltat all you want to do Is
·get through· the lesson.
A Jc can give learners rhe Impression that you lack confidence and, perhaps,
knowledge.
A Jc can give learners the impression that ail they need to do Is listen, nor think.

For the above reasons, I srrongly caution against preparing your less:ons as verbatim
notes.
outline notes
Jc Is very useful to prepare a summary of the lnfom1at1on on which you wtll base
your presenrarton. expressed In point fom1 rarJ1er rhan complete senteno:es. As you
become more experienced and confident, you should start to feel more comfortable
using this appro·ach. The main advantage of tilts fonn of notes Is that Hr forces you
co construct sefftences ·on die run·. so your presentation becomes less formal and
appears robe based more soundly on your own knowledge and experl'ence. It also
helps ro ensure that your delivery (voice) matches your message. If you work from
a summary, it Is much easier to keep track of your progress and it allows you to
easily omit or embelllsh points co suir the time rennalnlng ln the lesson.
Helping leanners to master the language of your subject
Each subject or dlsclpllne has Its O\Vll special language r.o describe the concepts
and relationships rliac are unique to that area of ·srudy. For example, ,vords such
as 'integration' and 'equallty' have quite different meanings tin Mathematics and
In Social science. Tills Is a chaUenge for all learners. partlcularly chose who.se first
language ls nor the language of tnstrucrton.
You cannot avoid the fact that every subject has Its Jargon, and you also cannot
expect. learners to understand the Ideas you are presenting If die dilngs you say
confuse them. Therefore. you must help the leruneifS to master the language of your
subject at the same dme as they strive to understand Hts content. This 1nlght seem
robe staring the ob11tous, but. unless learners master t11e language of your subject,
diey \1'!11 nor be able to understand it.
ln dlrect Instruction. a simple liirst srep Is ro explain ro lean1ers that they will be
!earning some new words during the lesson, and to cell them why It Is necessary
for rhe.m to understand and use these words. When you do have to Introduce new
terminology, make sure you write It on the board so that the learners will see the
correct spelllng of the words. If you do nor do thls, learners rnay think that rlley
know tile word you are using, but actually be confusing le with some other word. You
mlghr tllen have leaniers saying thin.gs such as ·water can be purified by passing
It through a litter and dien forcing It througJi an air rdter' (rather than an aerator).
Don.' ·t expect learners ro understand words fust because you use !11em frequently.
And do not assume chat berause learners. use words, rhey know what they mean.
People oftem use words when they have only a vague Idea of what they mean
(for example ·cctterlon', ·paradigm', '·problemartc'J, and people often use Incorrect
words (for example, alternate' rather rhan. ·aJcemattlve·). Both of these practices can
Interfere with learners· u nderscandlng.
You \VIII help learners ro undersran:d your subject If you rake t11e ttrne to e,cplaln
why technical terms are necessary and why pantcular words .are used ro descdbe
die concepts yoi1 are presenting. Often, It wtnl help to tell learners the derivations
of \Vords. For example, If you explain r.o leaniers that die prefix ·orr,ho-• means
·straight, rectangular, right or correct', lt wtll h;elp them to see why the term
'orthogonal' Is used to descdbe a drawing containing mainly right angles. It \VIII
also help them ro understand why an orthodontlsr has that tltle, and It might even
make them curious enough ro Investigate the meanings of other words diey ,co me
across 111 their sn1dles.
Sometimes you may find Ir useful to base your summaiy notes around dlagran1s,
charts, plcmres, mind maps or other pictorial representations, and you might find It
useful to put these on overhead transparencies: or build them Into a computer-based
presentation.
Keey llll mind that sumrn,uy notes have some dls.advanrag.es:
• If you lack confidence, you may become nervous and forger what you wanted
to say all>out each point
• If your sum1111aiy ls too brief, you may forget to discuss the ways In which rhe
main points are connected or Interrelated.
 TI1ere are four particular traps to avoid when you are attempting to explain new
tennlnology to leamers.
1. The first trap Is ro confuse leam.ers by ustng a definition that contains even
more terms that they do not understand.
2. The second rrap ts to use the same words In the definition as rhe concept
you are rrylng to define. Both the first and second trdp are mustrared In the
followtng definition of a polar robotic am1, •A polar ro"!Xlllc ann uses polar co­
ordinates to spt'.(:!fy positions In tem1s of rotation at Ille base combined with an
elevation angle and linear extension of the arm·. This definition will nor make
sense ro anyone who does not al.ready know what a polar robotic am1 Is!
3. A third trap Is to, provide a non-definldon - a long explanation rhar never really
defines the renn. Many authors fall Into mis nap when they cry ro define fhe
term ·curriculum·. (Look ar any rexrbook on curriculum to see how clearly fhe
rem1 Is defined.)
4. A fourth trap Is to use words rhar have both an everyday meaning and a
meanln_g specific to the $\lbJect. without e.xplarnlng the special meaning. There
are many examples of thts tn the field of lnfomiati!on technology (for exam[Ple
·ooor, 'bus·, ·monitor").

Y Activity: Jargon
1 . A1 !he start of the next le-sson you le-ach_ ask le-arners to keep ore-cord of
all the- words yoo u;se in that lesson -which they do not understand. Collect
these lists of !111e end ot the lesson and see-what surprises they hold.How
could you make- !his exercise an ongoing port of your students' learning
strategies?
2. Le arners are olten reluctan1 lo admit that they do no1 understand some of
the words they hear during a lesson. How can you encourage le-a rners to
overcome this reluctance?

Helping learners to take notes

If you present Interesting and stimulating lessons, It ls easy for you (and hopefully
your learners) liO get so Involved In the excitement of the lesson that no time Is
allowed for the !earners ro rake any nores. This can be a problem. because Ir ts dtftku!r
for learners to remember details of things they have merely listened to or discussed.
Srudents need some record of what they were learning so that d1ey can revise It,
follow up Ideas In their own time and prepare for furure lessons. However, merely
copying nores from the chalkboard does not necessarily help studen rs to learn.
Don't assume thait your learners will have approprtate note-rdklng skills. Make
It easy for them by em phaslslng main points, by making the smtcture of your
lesson clear and by giving lean1.ers time to record notes. Simple staremerurs such
as ·111ere are drree Important. reasons for .. .' alert lea□ 1ers to rhe face t:hat. you are
making a point mar ts worth. recording. But don't go overboard - dlcrattng notes ls
rarely a product:Jve use of time. Chapter 14 o:Utltnes some rechntques you can use
to Increase tlie accuracy and usefulness of learners· notes, Make a habit of reading
sonne of the notes that your learners take - you might be smrprlsed ar what they
dunk you satd.
 Y Acllvtl)': Note-taking
1 . Are you a good note-taker'.? Why?
2. WtY,/ is it irrnponant for learners to be able to take useful notes in class?
3. How con you find out how good or poor your learners· note-taking skills
are?
4. Make a list of ways in which you can make it easy fa, learners fa take
adequate notes in your lessons. Discuss your list with a colleague.
5. Choose a, universiiy lecture in which you believe you look good notes
and a lee lure Where you louncll it difficult to fake notes. Identify what the
lecturer /s did that made your note-toking task easy or dtfficutt.
6. Locale at least three journal ar ticles that report research into the
retationsh ip be�n students· note-takfng Sckills and their performance in
ei<aminat�oos. How can you use tnis reseorch?

Checking learner understanding

During any tns1nIcoon. It Is very Important that you know whether or not students
are learning (Hattie, 2009). Somertmes, you might be able to Judge rhts Informally
from the looks on their faces, from the questions they ask and from the answers
d1ey give to your questions. However. rllere are advantages In checking learners·
understandtng 111 a more formal way by giving them a short test cturtng, or at tthe
end of, your lesson. 111Is can be an Integral part of the learntng process, provided
the questions are carefully chosen to address che key concepts In the :lesson. You
should explain r.a learners that th.e resrs are designed ro help them lean1, nor Just to
rest their learning.
BRINGING IT ALL TOGETHER
If you follow rhe guidelines on direct Instruction In tlbts chapter, your lessons will
have d1e following basic srrucrure:
1. All introductiott/o•verview In whtci1 you do me followtng,
a. Get. learners· arnentlon and spark the.Ir curtoslty,
b. Help learners to review what they have already l.ean1ed. to prepare chem
for the current lesson.
c. ren lea.-n1ers whar rhey will learn In the current lesson and why they will
Ile learning It.
d. ToJ:l lea:mers how their learning vv!U be applled and assessed.
2. A presentation/learning pha� In which you do the foJ:lowlng:
a. Give le:ame:rs clear explanations -0flhe l111ngs you want them to learn.
b. Provide opporrunttles for learners ro think about tihe things they are
learnln:g.
c. Give learners oppommlties for guided practice.
d. Manito r learners' progress.
e. Encourage learners ro self-evaluate thetr learning and ask questions ro
Improve their understanding.
f. Provide feooback and encouragement to leamers.
3. A structur,ed conclusion In which you do the following:
a. Make a fonnatlve evaluaoon of what learners achieved In the lesson.
b. Briefly expUaln what will happen In the next smge of leamlng.
c. Give slll.ldents learning tasks ro be completed before the next lesson.
Ir might be difficult r.o do all these things Hn every lesson, but the al.Jove polnts are
a useful guide for plann Ing your Instruction. You should also keep the followlng
points in mind:
• Alv,ays communicate clearly, andl avoid u�lng unnecessary or repetldve words
such as 'OK·, 'rtght' .and ·you know· .
.t. Vary your speech rare, volume and pitch to match. die message you are
dellverlng and ro hel!Jl maintain learners' Interest.
• Don't go too fast. Learners need time to thtnk, and even good note-takers
cannot wr1re ar more than about 20% of the rare at which you can speak.
• Al\vays direct. your presenrarton ar die learners, nor ar. the chalkboard, the
overhead screen or the floor.
.t. Don't try to be a comedian .
.t. Maf<e eye contact with as many learners as possible.
• Use approprtare gestures and physical movements. Do not wander at.mfessly
around the room, and avoid distracting manner1sms or gestures such as
scratching your head or pulllng your ear.
1o. 'lzy to minimise the barriers between you and the learners.
REFLECTING ON THE SUCCESS OF YOUR DIRECT INSifRIJCTION
lf you \Yant to evaluate your reaching, It Is necessary to gather some evidence upon
which ·ro base your value Judgements. Some of this evidence wlll come from the
products that learners produ-ce, the outcomes they can demonstrate. their scores
on quizzes, their answers to questions In class, pro)ecrs they complete, and so on.
0th.er evidence wUI Ile less ranglllle, since .tr will rel.are r-0 rile learnIng process rather
than ro the produces of that lean1lng. Here you will be reflecting on such tilllngs
as the level of learner engagement and their enjoyment of learning. You have ro
gather as much evidence as possible in order ro decide wh:erher or not you should
be sactsfied with the results of your lnsm1ccton, and to decide what changes you
will make the next time you ·reach that class or use that reaching strategy.
Evaluating your lessons Involves reflecting on what you did. as well as on what
your learners did and what they achieved. Remember, whatever happens In your
classroom Is your responsibility, and ff you don't take ,the time to think about your
teaching, It wlll probably never Improve. When you u.se direct lnscruccton as your
ma!n reaching strategy, you should also ask questions such as the ones In the
followlng lists.
Thinking about what you <lid:
..t. Did I rell the learners what I was expecting them ro learn and h.ow they would
be able to use their new knowledge?
• Did I rel! learners what crlter1a I would use ro Judge the quality of their !earning?
.t. What did I .do ro help the lean1ers relate their new kuowledge r.o things rhat rhey
already understood?
.t. Did I emphasise the main points and link them to the significant knowledge of
the sub)ecr?
• Did I do everything In this lesson rhat I had planned to do? If not, why not?
.t. Did anything (positive or negative) happen In this lesson that I had nor
expected?
.t. Did I use any rennlnology that the lea:ners did not understand? How can I. be
sure that they understood all the words I assumed they understood?
.t. How much ·time did I Sl)end talkJng, and how much time did learners s�nd
rhhlklng?
.t. Did my organisation and sequencing of the content work effectively ro ltelp
srudenrs learn?
"' \.Vhat oppommltiles did I give the lean1ers to ask questions?
.t. How often dld I checl< co ,see whetther learners understood the lesson content?
.t. Was I confident and enthusiastic In my presentation?
.t. \Vhar did I d-o to help lean1ers see the relevance of the lesson?
"' What happened l.n thls lesson ro confirm or contrddfct my beliefs about.teaching
and leamlng?
"' Was I successful In using all the Quallty Teaching approaches that I had planned
co use?
.t. What di:lngs would I change nfl had to teach this lesson again tomorrow?
Thinking about the learners:
.t. What evidence d.o I have that the learners .achieved the outcomes?
.A Did 111l le11111e1s achieve chese UUU:Ullle-6, 01 only SOLiie lt:!111111:!IS? \Vliy?
.t. Did t.he learners react to tihe lesson In the way that I anticipated they would?
"' Did the lesson contain an appropriate amount of Information, and was tl1at
lnlorrnatlon organised In a sequence that seemed logical to the learners?
• Were the lean1ers engaging With Important Ideas and nylng to develop deep
und.erstandlng?
.t. \Vhat evidence d.o I have tl1at the learners enjoyed this lesson?
.t. Ar the end of the lesson, were learners curious and enthusiastic .about (earning
more?
• In what ways did this lesson Influence die beliefs and/or values of my learners?
Hc,w can I Justify this ouocome?
.t. Was direct Instruction the best cl1olce for this lesson, or would learners have
ndtleveLI 11101e If I had u:;eu a dlffe1e11t:maitegy?
REVIEW ANO REFLECT ON YOUR LEARNING
Develop answers ro each of these questions and discuss your answers with another
srudent or with an experienced teacher:
I. Wlhy do Kirschner. Sweller and Clark (2006) argue that dtirect lnsbuciilon Is
strongly supported by i:urrent t11eortes of memory and oognidon?
!
2. W hlch aspecrs of direct Instruction best support the 'braln-based' approa:hes
co teaching advocated by Zull (2002) and WIiiis (2006)?
3. Wihat are the main steps In planning a direct instruction lesson?
4. W!hat Is the difference between Ja:gon and metalanguage? Why ls !111s
d!stlnctlon Important when you are ming direct Instruction?
r;, Describe duee different ways of helping learners to focus on t11e most.Important
Ideas In a topic.
6. W!hat are the main things ro wnslder when giving lean1ers feed.back on the.Ir
learning?
7. How might you need to vazy the struc11ure of your lessons If you are teaching
high- or lo-w-ablllty learners?
8. What are the maJn dllTorences you \VOtild expect. ro see In a direct instruction
lesson for very young ch!Jdren (Grade I) and for senior students (Grade 9 or 1 O)?
9. Arrange ro observe an expenenced teacher who ls using direct lnsm1cdon.
a . Compare what she/he does with the suggestions En tills chapter.
b. After the lesson, discuss your observacions \I/Ith her/him, with a view· ro
understanc!Jng why that reacher readies the way she/he does.
10. Being able to give learners clear, concise explanations ls an important part of
reacher clarity. Develop a template rihat you can use as a guJcte ro preparing
explanations In your speclallstreaching area.How wlll your explanations differ
If they are focused on what, why or how?
11 . from your specialist reaching area, select a topic that Is frequently dlflkult for
learners ro understand.
a. Plan a lesson in wl1lch you could teach this roplc using direct lnsm1caon.
b. Ask an experienced reacher ro revle,v your l.esson plan and help you ro
Improve I t .
12. Some critics argue ahat direct lnsrrucdon is not sultaible for helping learners
achieve the hlg]ler-leve! outcomes described by Bloom's raxonoruy. Develop
arguments for and against tills point of view.
13. Develop an argument ro support (or refute) the point of view that direct
instruction Is compatible with constructlvilsr rheorles of lean1lng.
14. If you are a seoondary teacher ectucat1on s111de11t,
a . Prepare two lesson plans that wouldi enable you ro use direct lnsm1ctton
with a Grade 8 dass and a Grade 12 class In your speclalts.t reaching area.
b. VJhar Important differences are rihere bef\veen rllese f\vo lesson plans?
15. If you are a Prtmary reacher educado n srudenr:
a . Prepare two lesson plans that would! enable you ro use dlrecr 1nsm1ctton
with a Grade 4 class, with one lesson focused on Ureracy and the other
lesson focused on numeracy.
b. \.Yhar Important differences are rihere between these f\1•0 lesson plans?
USEFUL WEBSITES
• For lnfom1at1on on the srruc11ured! approach to Direct lnsrructlon ad.vocared by
Engelmann refer to http://ww,v.nlfdl.org.
• Hartle (2009) synthesises over 800 meta-analyses of factors Influencing
achievement of school-aged srudenrs.
• A summary of Hattie's findings ls available at http://\\l\,V\V.nurhaUtru1sr.org.
nz/Nurhall.ppr.
• A s1unmaiy and critique of Hattle (2009) is avallable at http ://\V\1•w.
learnlnganctueachlng.1nfo/reac hing/wha t \vorks.
_ htm.
• For an overview of how the !Pad can be used In education, visit hlttp://apple.
com/educat1on/1Pad.
Using discussion as a
teaching strategy

This chapter defines the key ch.ardcterlsctcs of effecrJve whole-class dlsClllsslon,

suggests some situations In which discussion Is an approprtare reaching strategy.
hlghllghts Its advantages and limitations, suggests techniques you can use to
organise and control dassroom discussions, I-0ent1Bes some of the reaching skllls
you will need w·hen conducting dlscusslons. and suggests ways of evaluating the
success of <tlscusslon-based l.essons. Later chapters explore the use of small-group
discussions.
Many beginning teachers hold two comrnoru. but mlsgulctect, beUets abom
discussions. TI1e first mlsconcepdon ls that discussions cannot be planned, as
they rely on sponrdnoouis anct unpredictable lnte.rdctlons wrween leamers. The
second misconception Is d1ar llttle tlime and effort are required to prepare for a
discussion lesson. After reading this chapter. you should be convinced that both
of tihese assumptions are Incorrect an.d that you need to plan discussions carefully
and preiJ)are Just as theroughly as you do when using any other reaching strategy.
Much of what ls wrtrren about using discussion as a teaching strategy Is based
on teachers· expertences and craft knowledge, rad1er than on research evidence. Of
course, chls lnfonnatlon is still valuable, and d1roughout this cllapter you wUI !ind
references to botJ1 researd1-based and experience-based ln.fom1at1on on the use or
discussions. These references are drawn from a wtde range of subject areas, and
you are encouraged to adapt their suggesrlons to your own teaching speclallsatlon.
When you have mastered the Ideas h1 this chapter you wtrn be able to:
.t. decide when. a wlwie..cfass discussion Is a suitable strategy for helping leamers
to achieve partioular learning outcomes:
.._ prepare thoroughly and tlloughtfully for reach:lng through dtscusslon:
.._ plan and Implement your whole-class ct]scusslom lessoI1s In ways that are
consistent with the principles of effectilve teaching outlined ln chapters 2 and! 3:
.t. manage a whole-dass dlscussion and keep lr focused on the outcomes you
want sruden.ts co achileve, while catelilng for the culmr.al. erhnlc, language and
other differences of rlle leamers:
.t. lntegrare classroom discussions with other reaching strategies; and
.t. evaluate the success of your discussion lessons.
SOME IMPOIRTANT FEATURES OF WHOLE-CLASS DISCUSSION
A weU-nm whole..cfa.<s discussion Is an ord.erly process of group lnterdctlon ln
which !earners are exchanging Ideas, ILsten.lng to a variety of points of view,
exp ·s!ng and cxplortng thc:lr own view:,, applying dii'I· Ii" I (pp and ,c�ccdi�
on their att . . urpose o the class:room dtscusston mlg rbeto
solve a protileill 01 m,�11t1aquesaon. but often It Is stmply ro deepen the learners·
knowledge or unders:andlng. Discussion ls a versatile teaching and leamting
strategy that can be adapted to suit any s!llb)ect ac any level of education.
 Dlscusslo ns can be used In many different ways - as part of a lesson, as a
whole lesson, or carefully Integrate<! with one or more od1er reaching strategies.
When tihe discussion Involves the whole class, rhe lesson wlll have some of tl1e
characrerlstfcs of both direct lnsrructtoru and learner-centred! strategies. I r \VIII
resemble direct lnstructlon because ril1e reacher \\'lll determine the desired lesson
ouocomes, control learner activities and malnt.aln the focus of the lesson on some
form of academic outcome. However. because lea1mers are expected to share their
!110\tghts, discussion Is lx>th active and leamer--encred.
Various forms: of discussion differ In their purpose, their .sm1crure, the pattern of
Interaction among learners, and the level of learner thinking that can be stimulated.
Ho\vever, all discussions have some conunon characterl.sl'lcs. and 1J1ese are explor.ed
In dlls chapter.
Bridges ( 1990) suggests that In order for an exchange of Ideas ro be called an
academ.lc discussion (one dellberdtely Intended ro help students learn}, It should
satisfy these logical conditions:
• Learners must talk, llsren and respond to one another.
.t. Lean1ers musr collecfilvely put forward more than one point of view_
.t. Lean1ers must have the Intention of developing their knowledge. understanding
or Judgement of the Issue under dlscusslon.
.t. Lean1ers must be willing ro llsren ro reason.
.t. Learners must be wllllng to abide by rules rhar faclllrate !11e exc11ange ofIdeas .
.t. Learners musr try to express their Ideas clearly.
.t. Learners must be open-m inded and wllllng ro consider a variety of perspecdves.

One of rhe dlffia1lt1es you \VIII face when using this strategy Is that learners may
not be accustomed to discussions that meet these criteria.
All fom1s ofdlscu�lon Involve a high level of vetbal Cnre@ctton among learners. so
the success ,of d1e discussion -depends veiy much on the commumlcatlon skills of the
learners. You have to'help thenn understand thatrhey will not learn unless cite dl=ss.1on
Is a purpo5eful. systernattc exchange of facls, Ideas and opinions. Classroom discussions
should not lnvolve argmnent or propaganda. Tile partldpan1S should roncentrate on
helping one another to reach a better understancl!ng of the Issues ilnvolved. rdther tllan
nylng to convince one anolfler mar their personal view Is somehow the correct view.
Lr Is very Important that the teacher does nor dominate the discussion: learners
should be t.alklmg for the maJortty of rhe time. \Vllen the reacher does -rdll<, It
should not always be ro ask questeons. Question-and-answer sessions are not
discussions. Thacher quesdons during a discussion should 'be used to help learners
gain knowledge, rather than to allow rl1em ro Just demonstrate their knowl edge. As
a consequence. when learners talk, they wlll nor always be answering a quescton
from rile reacher: they may be ans,-vertng another learners question. making a
comment or agreeing wlrh a statement. During a proctucllve classroom ,ctJSCU1sslon,
lean1ers will be thinking, offering opinions, developing reasons and providing
Justlficatlons - all this takes time, and tl1e lnr.eractlons wllJ be unpredlcrable, so It
may be dlffi.cult to progress as rapidly as you might wld1 dlrecr lnstrucdon.
 \'/hole-class dtscusstons should not seek fo find the ·correct' answer oo any
question. Rather, tl1ey should lead to Informed and! rational consensus. As a
consequence of this, all conrctbmtons to a discussion should be valued, and Judged
only on die extent to which they help the dass acltleve the desired outcomes of the
discussion. On dits point, Brookfield (2006) cautions against guiding a discussion
In such a way that It leads learners to a predetermined understanding of the tssue
being explored. However, you need to be careful about how you Interpret. this point
of view. It does not mean chat you cannot wnte outcome sraremenrs for discussion
lessons. It does mean that your lesson outcomes will be of rhe form LeanIers J-vi/l be
if
able co evaluate the views others 011 the issue efbilingualism in Soath A.fiica,
rather than Lean1ers will agree that all S0111h AJn"cans should 'be bilingual.
Of course, It could be argued rhar !t is not.always approprlare for a teactlerro allow
a dloc11sston ro progress without some proconc:etved idea of where It might lead. In
a Science lesson, for example, a discussion might canvass a varlecy of views but
still require learners to understand (and accept) certatn scientific principles. If the
teacher can see that a discussion is simply reinfordng a learner's misconceptlons,
rhe ceacher should Intervene and, If necessary, point out !he problems with the
learner's thinking. In ch.ese clrcumsrances, the reacher might alcemare between
class discussion and direct tnstmctton several times In a lesson.
Discussion can be viewed as a br.tdge between direct lnsm1cdon and leamer­
centred ttnsr.mctlon. The previous chapter on direct lnsnuctlon suggests that,
among other things, you need to ask a larg.e number of questions, check for iearner
understanding and obtain respon�s from all lean1ers; all of these can be achieved
through a well-stmctured classroom dtscusston. Later chapters on group work and
problem solving suggest that, among odier things. you need to enoourage leamers
to listen actively, to accept and value the opinions of odiers, to base their academic
arguments on reasoning rather than emotion, and to consider a wide range of
opdons before reaching a conclusion, Whole-class discussions provide an Ideal way
for you to help learners develop these skUJs before becoming Involved In small­
group work.
REASONS FOR USING WHOLE-CLASS DISCIIJSSIONS
Before deciding to use discussion as .a reaching strategy, you "111 .first have to be
very clear about what you want your lean1ers to leam and. why you want them to
leani these things. You wlll tlien be a·ble to ex.plain to learners why they are being
asked to engage In 11! discussion - If they rJ1lnk It ts unnecessal)' they will not learn
much from die exercise. for example, there ts little point In having !ean1ers discuss
a question unless It Is Important for tthem to explore possUble answers and unless
they need and want to find answers to the questlon.
From. a series of exrenslve reviews of research on discussion. Gall and Gall
( 19 90) conclude char there ts clear evidence that discussion Is an effective merl\oct
of factllttattng five types of learning ourrontes, namely,
1. general subJect matter mastezy;
2. problem-solving ablllty;
3. moral d.evelopment;
4. attlvude change and development; and
5. communication skills.
Brookfield (2006) reflects a stmllar view when lile suggests that there are tnrellecmal,
emotional and soclai purposes for using discussions.
Toe most common reasons for using a discussion are to help learners solve a
problem or to encourage them to explore an open-ended Issue. Some of the spectfic
advantages of whole-class discussions and reasons for using them Include:
• Discussions can provide learners with an oppornmlcy to grapple with new Ideas
and uy to understand them. rather than simply having a s111per:ficlal. encounter
wtd1 the lesson content, This helps learners to understand that some Issues are
complex rather than simple, and that exploration of the issue may raise more
questions than It answers (Brookfield, 2006).
Jo. Discussions can help learners discover that different approaches to a problem
can be equally legitimate, theorettcally sound and pracfilcal.
• Discussions encourage learners to develop their understanding by drawing on
rhetr prior kmowledge and experience, thinking critically about the subject a11d
developing their skllls of analysts, synthesis and evaluation.
.A. Dlscusslons promote reaming by helping leamer-.s r.o explore a diversity of
perspectives and ro see that there are many dlfferen-t ways ro Interpret tl1e
same, apparently objective, facts. Often this Involves Jolting learners out of
thelr comfortable world views (Brookfield, 2006). Sometimes the discussion
can generate new Ideas or produce orlglnal solutions r.o problems by sdmuladng
divergent or lateral thinking.
• Discussions require learners to practise generating tl1el.r own Ideas, seeing the
exrent oo wlhlcll their Ideas and understandings are slmUar co those of odler
learners and defending their Ideas against the questlons and possible cr1tlctsms
of others. This helps them to speak and act in ways d1at are appropriate to the
subject they are smdylng.
• Organising and articulating rhelr unctersttandlng can help ro boost learners·
self-esteem by showing them thait their Ideas are valuable and wonh shartng
(Brookfield, 2006). Act1ve Involvement In r.hls cype of learning motlvattes
learners, especially when they can see that others value their contributions and
respect d1elr points of view.
• Discussions can help learners develop their metacognitlve skJlls by making
dlem conscious of their own thinking processes an.d he lping them monitor and
evaluate their approaches r.o I.earning.
• Discussions can be a usef1Ul way to encourage learners to questlon thelr attitudes
and preconceived Ideas, particularly about Issues that Involve value Judgemen ts.
• Discussions enable learners to work together, share their ideas and reach group
consens!lls on an Issue. This encourages learners r.o think and act democracically
by allowtng freedom of express;lon, having respect for minority opinions.
tolerating diversity and p:artlclpaling openly (Brookfield, 2006).
A Discussions help develop learners' communication skllls and awareness of
acceptable means of social lnteractlon. such as l!stentng, speaking polltely,
sratlng their Ideas clearly, respectlng tile views of others and responding
approprt.arely to others.
• Discussions help learners to develop a sense of group Identity and to support
one another In their learning (Brookfield, 2006). This helps learners develop a
sense of ownership over d1elr new knowledge and a sense of responslb[llty for
thei r teaming, both lndiv1duailly and as a group. This Is useful preparatilon for
Involvement In co-operative learnJng groups.
 . .
• Discussions can show learners that tthe teacher Is also Interested In learning
through. sharing Ideas and discovering new k!llowDedge, particularly when the
new infonnat1on comes from them.
• Discussions can simulraneously help leamers to learn and teachers to see that
rhls learning ts occurring. TI1ey provide opporumltles for Informal assessmenc
(see Chapter 15).
• Discussions can give the teacher Insight lnro t11e learners· ways of thinking.

ISSUES TO CONSIDER BEFORE USING WHOLE-CLASS

DISCUSSIIONS
Even though a discussion can be :an effective way tto help students leam 111 a variety
of i::lrcumstances. It would be wrong to .assume that a whole-<:lass discussion Is
always an appropriate teaching scrat.egy. Before deciding co engage students In a
whole-dass discussion. you should consider the Issues summarised below.
• Discussions are unlikely to help smdenrs learn unless tile studerurs are well
prepared, and fhls usually requires th.em to do some prior reading, research or

thinking about the dlscussloru toptc. You will have liO convince learners that this
preparatlon Is worthwhile.
• It Is eas-y for raJkaove srudents ro domlnare the discussion and either influence
die group ro accept their Ideas or merely annoy the orher learners. lnltlarny,
you might have ro minimise this problem by Intervening ro control taOkartve
srudenrs. However, your aim should be co have all students learn how to
contrtbure effecttvely without dominating the discussion.
• The peer group leaders In the dass can dominate dlliaJssions of conrroverslal
Issues, particularly discussions related. co values or social Issues. You can reduce
mis problem by establishing clear mies before the discussion. srans.
• In most: discussions there will be many opportunities for leameirs to stray from
rhe topic, and this can waste lime. You nllght need ro lmervene ro remind learners
of rhe purpose of the dlscusslon and to suggest oll1er ways and times In which
these additional ttssues might be explored. However. you should be careful not to
ny ro guide die discussion roo narrowly towards some prederennlned conduslon
tllat you think ls Important. if you do, you wlll be gulley of conducting what
Pare.rson ( t 970:4 7) desctibes as ·coun.rerfett discussions·, rather than preserving
rile ·genuine open-endedness • that Brookfi:eld (200 6) sees as paramount.
• Some learners may I.le reluctant to partici.pate In discussions for fear of being
ridlculed for their ideas or opinions. Clearly, one of your most Important roles Is
ro encourage learners ro value everyone's contrlbution .and ro help one another
to evaluate all Ideas.
• Unless you keep the learners foousecl on the [Purpose of the discussion.. some
learners may become more Involved 111 the discussfon process fhan ln learning.
one of the most useful ways of refocusing a discussion Is ro make a statement
such as: 'Let's :pause for a minute and consider the d!recrlon In which the
discussion Is now heading.'
• Sollile learners may not have sufficient command of the language of die subject,
understanding of the key concepts ofthe subject, or critical ll1lnklng skills to engage
In detailed discussion. These leamers should be encouraged to parndpate as mud1
as tl1ey are able to, and ll1ey shouCd be helped to learn through the discussion.
• Because you have less control over rhe conterut of a discussion than you have
over the content of a teacher-directed lesson. you must try to anticipate all the
possible directions that the discussion might take. Because of thls, a discussion
may require more preparat10111 t1rne than direct tnstruct1on.
A :Self-esteem plays an Important role In lean1ers· part1ciparJon In a discussion.
Lean1ers: generally ,vant to make frequent and confident contributions, and If
they are prevented from contctbutlng, or If their contrlbutlorus do not seem to be
valued, their self-esteem may suffer.
A Because discussions are Intended to involve srudenl!S In an exploration of Ideas,
you have to be prepared to spend more time on a topic than you might :need If
using d!recr Instruction. Even well-strncrured dlscusslons can be tlme-consumlng.
Ho\vever, don't forget d1at the Important thing ls to have students learn -If , the
discussion achieves this end, It w!U have been time well spent.

Al a glance
_..
�����
i:._"'"""'•:1. ..:�=r...., "�"" _ ,i;_
_ , , •.... .:-·....... �
......
-..- , ¥ ,
-
-. ..

• You want earners k> explore a broad • 1.,aamers hav<> not prepared for loo
l
ro:nge of perspectives on on issue. discussion..
• You want to help IGomoo. deve.lop tlhair • LGOJ11ing requ res tGachar input
i
communi ocslion skills . !hot is b<l&t· providoo through dir.act
• You want to h81p loomers see ttlot the r
i instruct ion�
idGas OI<> valuocl. • Them is nsuffic ent t me for earners to
i i i l
• You want to prepare 1-eorn.ers for ITIOd'G gxplore a 10ng9 of idoos.
collaborotive ways of loorning (such • I.Ga:rning requ res susta ned individual
i i
os sma[l.group woil<). E>lfort (such as writing).
• You want to monilor stud<>nts- IGarn ng
i
as rt occurs.

PREPARING FOR A WHOLE-ell.ASS DISCUSSIOIN

It ls easy to be complacent about using discussion as a teaching srraregy. After all,
mo.sc learners and re.ichers are quire capable of stating rheir points of view on a
roplc, so there I s no need ro plan your discussion, right? Wrong! Even though a
stlrnulatlng discussion might have spontaneous and unpredictable elements, your
success or failure In helping students to lean1 through discussion wlll depend very
heavily upon the thoroughness of your preparation.
A discussion should not consist simply of your sitting down to have a char with
die learners; le should be a carefully planned activity \vlrh predefined goals and a
clear structure. Nor should dl�usslon simply be a matter ofthe teacher presenting
some lnfom1at1on ro learners .and n:heru asking guesnons. cerraJnly, questions are an
Important part of a discussion, but t!Jey should not all come from rhe reacher. and
answerl.ng questions from the reacher or from other learners should nor be the only
form of srudent Involvement. Remember, a classroom discussion ls nor a goal ln
Itself: It Is merely anorller means of helping srudernts to learn. If you: are to achieve
this goal, you wlll need ro plan care.fully.
 Whether you Intend to use a discussion as a small part of a lesson or as ll1e major
foC1Us for a lesson, the key ro success ls organisation, both before and during the
lesson. It ls your careful preparation and guidance that wlll allow the dlscus.slon ro
incorporate the flexlblllty and spontaneity that dlstlngulsh snmulatlng, productlve
discussions from bortng or chaortc acrtvlrtes wlth little purpose. The planning seeps
In the following sections should Increase the likelihood that the dlsousslon wm be a
useful leamnng expeJtence for the srudenr.s.
Step 1: Decide on the purpose of the discussion
Do not fall Into the trap of tlllnklng that l11e purpose of your lesson Is ro have a
dlscusslon. A dlscus:slot� ls simply a means by whlcil1 you are helping students
to learn; tr l.5 a rool. not an end In itself. Learners must be left ln no doubt about
what they are ro discuss. or why they are discussing It You have oo decide on :an
approprtare way to help learners understand the focus and purpose of rhe discussion.
You will maximise your chances of a:onductlng a successful discussion If you base
tr on an appropdare focus questlon. preferably one that wiU encourage leamers to
pur forward .a number of different !J)Olnts of \1ew. Specific questlons wlll prompt more
fruitful discussion than abstract questions or vague statements. For example, there Is
lln:le polnt in asking learners ro dlsatss :a vague concept such as ·soutlll Afrfcan foreign
policy' or to discuss the question 'Is South Anica's foreign po:llcy appropriate?' It
would be much berrerr to ask chem ro discuss a question such as: '\Vhar changes could
be made ro South Africa's forelgn policy In order ro boost our domestic economy?"
Apart from developing a clear focus question, you should also ·prepare a structured
series of subsldl.ary questions and/or d1ought-provoklng statements ro a[Jo.w you
ro gulde rlie c!Jscusslon towards r:he major Issues that you think learners need ro
explore. However, do not srrucmre these questions In a dellbernte .attempt to lead
learners to your own predetermined conclusions about the topic. As you guide the
discussion, you should provide opportunities for learners to explore Ideas and test
hypotheses, any contrtbudons you make should help ro expand these oppormnltles.
Tb help you understand how carefully chosen questions can lnlluence rile way
students prepare for and participate In a discussion, work d1rough the following
actlvlcy.
Activity: Dlscussl0111 for a teacher education class

II you, os a student were as�ed to prepare for a discussion on a lopic such

as 'classroom management', you may not be very clear about how you
could contlibute to the discussion. You might even think that. instead of a
discussion. you would prefer !he lecturer to !ell you whatever you needed
to know about classroom managemen1. Yau may be a little more interested
and willing ta contribute to the discussion It the leclurer posed the question:
'How do teoe11ers· clossroom management strategies inOuence behaviour
and learning in lhe ctassroom?"The discussion would be e11en more focused
if the lecturer posed the question: 'Is !here any evidence from neuroscience lo
supporl tile claim 1l1al a le achel's approach to .classroom management will
influence student t eaming?'This question would almost certainty require ( and
encourage) learners to do some re.search in preparation, for the discussion.
Make a list of supplementary questions or st:atements that you think could be
used to prompt a discussion on the fallowing question: 'Haw do fhe classroom
management strotegies used by teochers influence behaviour and learning in
the classroom?'
Step 2: Res.earch the background info{IT)ation
To prepare ror ai discussion, you will need co research die topic as thoroughly as
time and clr,cumstances permit. You must have a comprehensive knowledge of the
subject matter, even though you wlll not be presenting this Information to learners
directly. You nee(! this knowlooge In order ro contribute to the discussion {on an
equal footing with the learners) and In order to guide learners cowards the learning
outcomes that are the focus of the lesson. This does not mean that you wm be
leading the lean1ers ,ro discover the ·correct' answers co the dlsoosslon questions; It
does mean that you ,vlll be assist! ng learners to bring the discussion ro some logical
conclusion. and you cannot do that. unless you know a lot about. the topic,
Guiding learners Us relacively simple In. a teacher-centred presenratlon, such as
described In Chapter 6. However, when you use discussion, you need ro be able ·to
provide direction In a supportive but non-lrurrusnve \vay. which wfll allow the niaJortcy
of rhe Input ro rome from learners. You also have ro keep the learners on task,
wlllch ls not easy when you are aylng ro get them ro make ortglnal and personal
contributions to the discussion. You t11erefore need ro be able to recognise when a
learner's contribution Is relevant and when It Is nor. You have co !be able to take
obscure contributions and he1p learners to develop d1ese inro m.eaningful additloms
to rhe discussion. l11rou.gh all of this, you have to ensure that the learners feel
satisfied wtt11 their learning expertence and ensure that any non-academic purposes
of the dlscusslon (such as developing t11e learners· social slcllls) are being achieved.
You cannot do this \\'lthout a thorough understanding of the subject. matter.
Of course, It is always deslrabl,e for you to understand fully the content you aire
aylng to get learners to understand, no maaer \Vhat reaching srrategy you are
ustng, However. In a teacher-dlroo:oo lesson, such as a lecture, you are more llkely
to be able to limit consideration c o those aspects of the content "1d1 which you are
totally comfortable. Since this ls not possible In a di scussion., you must prepare very
d1oroughly. A good rule ofthumb when planning a discussion Is to try to anticipate
all the questions. that learners: might ask, and make sure that you are able co answer
diem. As wlth od1er teaching strategies, being able ro anticipate how srudenrs \1•111
think and being able ro react appropriately to whatever l1appens \l'lll d istinguish
you from less capable teache.rs.
When oonsldertng all these points., you mt.ghr. be tempted r,o ask, 'If I 11ee<1 ro
know so much about the subject matter, ,vhy don·t I Just rel! die learners Instead
of wasting time with a discussion?' 111e answer Is simple: a fruitful discussion
Is not a waste of tlme; nt has die potential ro be a much more valuable learning
experi ence than direct lnsrructlon. because It can engage die srudents more actively
In learnlng and proVilde several forms of braln srtmularlon that specifically enhance
understanding and memoiy (lud.y \\'lllis, 201 O), However, neither the academic
nor the non-academic purposes of rile discussion will be achieved If you a!lld the
learners are nor well prepared.
step 3: Help the learners to prepare to, the discussion
As well as prep·artng yourself for a ciasi;room discussion,, you have to help the
learners to prepare. Depending on the age, prtor expertences and leamlng
preferences of your students, you may 6nd that they require considerable time to
become accustomed ;to leamlng through dlscusslorus. Your leamers will p-robably not.
have any trouble parrtclpatlng In discussions, because even vel}' young children
ran be encourdged ro exchange ldea;s and offer opinions. However, the fact that
lean1eis are parulclpadng In a discussion does nor auromarlcally mean d1ar they are
learning anything. You have to help learners to think about rh.e Ideas being raised
In the discussion an d to use these Ideas to construct a deeper understanding by
deliberately building on their prtor knowle:lge.
A discussion wlll quickly degenerate Into a teacher�ueslilon/srudent...answer
session If the leamers are unable or unwllltng to contribute. '111ey wlll be unable to
contrlbure If they know little about the ropoc, and th.ey wlll be unwilling to comrtbute
If the question or Issue ro be discussed IE nor relevant or lmpormnt to them. The
most Important part of the leamers· preparation Is for them to understand exacdy
what they will be dlscus:slng and why: It ls not enough to tell them Just d1.e topic
of the discussion.
A U[:,\;U��IVII cl!al ki �1111vly a JX.K.>lillg vf lgrn.>lltll!X I� IIVI Ill!Kil u�e IV auyvne.
The more leamers know about the topic being discussed, and the more they have
t11oughr about It before the dUscusslon starts, tihe more they wlll be able to help one
another to understand tl1e lssl!les Involved. To make lnfonned contributions, leamers
wlll need ro have Identified some of the key Issues. gathered facts, formulated
questions and fanned tentative opinions before the discussion smrts. You wUI have
to help learners ro do these things. You can do this In various ways:
"' At a minimum, you need to give them the discussion topic well In advance and
explain to rhem llow you expect them ro prepare for rhe discussion .
.11. sometimes you will ffind It useful to give learners a question to Investigate.
"' Altemadvely, you may ask learners to come prepared to ask their own quesdons
about the discussion topic.
It Is often useful to provide learners with preparatory reading materials so that
t11ey all have some common understanding of the conoepts and faots that wlll
lnfonn their discussion. It ls preferable fur these materials co prompt learners to
explore some open-ended Issues where they can have different opinions. rather
than simply providing chem all wld1 the same view of a closed coplc. You are more
likely to promote lively and productive dlfl::llsslon If the preparatol)' marerlal:s cause
lea:mers ro quesdon some of their beliefs than If rl:ley simply reinforce fixoo views.
If learners have time co formulate some opinions before the discussion smrts, they
wltl be more Interested In the discussion, because they will probably be looking for
confim1atlon of their opinions or extra facts to back them up.
You should illOt assume, when leamers read macertals in preparntlon for a
discussion. rllar they w111 unders'talld everything they read. You should encourage
le,u11e1!> to wu1k actively tuwaHb u11c.le1stamliug, l.,y usl11g tecl111Jque:; :such as:
"' highlighting unfamlllar words and trying to find definitions for rhem:
"' wrtctng a brief summal}' of th:e main �olnts that they think the author ls trying
to make: and
"' wrtctng a list of guesrtons that they w,Juld like to ask as a result of reading the
material.
If you want to snucture the pre-reading further, you could give learners a set of
prompts to help them think and make nores. These prompts can be thtngs such as:
• I wonder why ...
.._ Wharcausect ... ?
• This ts similar ro ...
• Tilts seems tmporrant because ...
• What do they mean by ... ?
.a. What l lind confusing Is ...
• I can relare ro th!ts because ...
.._ The Interesting point here Is .. ,
• I did not expect ...
• Thls would be easier to understand lf ...
One effective way to encourage learners to tihlnk. about the pre-reading ls to ask
them ro make 'Post-It' note annotatlons on the reading. During the dlrousslon, you
can then ask learners ro share what they have written on their nores for a parrtcular
part of the readlng. Learners should no:t feel under pressure, because they can
simply read whatever they have written. Thls ls lmporrant, because high l evels of
stress Inhibit [earning (Judy Willis, 2010).
An Important part of helping learners ro prepare for discussions Is ro help them
understand thetr own thinking processes. Effective discussions Involve learners In
objective, in,fonned and reflective thinking.
• Objective thinkers realise that rile s.ubJect being discussed has many :aspects
and they are therefore prepared ro present Ideas and ro llsren ro the Ideas of
others. Objective thinkers examine ti:he substance and !ogle of the ldeas pur.
forward by od1ers, and they are able co use logic In their own reasoning.
• Informed thinkers know what they know and do not know, and they are
prepared ro admit the llmltat1ons of lllelr knowledge.
.._ Reflective thinkers are able ro think aoout rile processes and outcomesof a
dlscusston and to thJnk about d1.elr own thln.klng - In other words, they are
metacognlrlve.
Before ustng dtscusston as a reaching strategy, tt ls lmponant to make the above
points clear to learners so cl1ar rhey understand the Importance of listennng and
shartng Ideas. Ir Is also ·useful co give learners some gutded pracdce at objective,
Informed and rellect1ve tl1lnl<Jng. One useful a pproach to thls 1s through Edward de
Bono·s ·stx Thlnklng Hats' (De Bono, 1985).

Helping le<1mers to un<:lerstand the,lr own thlnklng

To help learners develop objective. informed and renectiveways of thinking.
you con give lflem practice with ex:ercises such os lhe following:
1. Pose a question for discussion, such os: "How could poveny be reduced in
lhirct Wol!cl counlries?' {Or use any o1her suitable question relevant to your
specialisolion.)
2. Ask learners lo write down three points that they would like lo make in o
discussion of this issue.
3. Tllen ask learners to make brief notes abouf wily fhey think the points
they hove written clown would be logical points to m ake in the proposed
discussion.
4. Ask learners to classify eoch of their points os o fact (something they
know to be true),on opinion (something that fhey believe fo be 1rue) or o
conjecture (something, tha1 they think might be true).
 5. lhen ask learners lo make brief nole, about what lheywauld like to learn
from the discussion.
6. Finally, ask learners to ietlect on rthe thinking processe$ that they went
thraug h in each of ·the above steps. n particular, get them to consider
whether their thinking was emoNve Cf logical, infom,ed or ilHnfo,med,
objective or subjective, ope.nor closoo.
7. lhen help learners 1o understand how their preconceived ideas about the
subject and about the purpose of a discussion - and thetr undefs1anding
of h0\11 thev think - o.ie likely to influe'1ce the way they contlibute to a
di.3cus3ion.

The teo.rners should then be ready tor a productive discussion.

Step 4: Prepare the discussion plan

A plan for a dlsc.usslon-based lesson should contain, at least:
1. a cl.ear statement of the learning ourOJmes that you want learners to achieve:
2. an outline of the subject co be discussed and: the :reason for dtocuss.lng It (ro renllnd
you of how t'.he dlscusslon firs lnto your overall reach.Ing programme for the term);
3, a note about, how you wlll open the dlscusslom:
4. a clear question ro provide the main focus for rhe discussion;
5. a list of supplementary q;uestlons ro guide the discussion: and
6. a note about how you w1II close the dlscu.sslon.
Questioning plays a very lmporram part In arny discussion.. You can us,e questions
to start a discussion and, at various tlnias throughout. the discussion. to steer Ir
from one point to another. It Is Irnportdnt to ask questtons that srlmulate students
to think and explore Ideas. A question such as, ·can anyone suggest why ... ?' Is
much more likely ro encourage thinklng than a question that requtres a simple
'yes/no' answer. SO-ealled loaded quesllons sl1ould be avoided, because they give
le.imers the Ide.1 that the ctlocusslon Is s.1mply a means of getting them ro adopt
your point of view.
Do not rely too heavily on your ablllty to generate questions as the lesson
progresses; make sure that you !Prep-are ,1uest1011s on Important polnrs as pan:: of
t11e dlsc.usslon plan. You wlll almost always find that the discussion wlll prompc you
to ask addll11onal questions, bur If you do not prepare adequately it wat be dtfficulr
ro ensure that the stmdents learn all t11at you want them to learn.
You should plan ways to encournge learners to ask qlilestlons cturtng ll1e
discussion. Remember vhat. ·the purpose of the d]scusslon Is to l1elp sntdenrs to
team. They need ro construct theIr own m:derstandlng of the tssues betng discussed
and they cannot do this unless tthey have oppommldes to clarify points that are
unclear.
Your discussion plan should Indicate approximately how much time you think
learners will need ro explore each, of the main aspects of rhe discussion. In general,
It Is better to llmlt the time and keep the discussion focused, rather than altownng
excessive time that will encourage learner:; 10 stray from the topic. If you encourage
learners to re.ach consensus or a conclusion In a relat1vely shorr time, they should
remain Interested, active and. productive. Learners very quickly lose tnrerest 1f they
d1lnk a discussion Is being drawn out unnecessartly, or that It Is being used Just
to fill In time. Sometimes learners will become so engaged In t11e discussion that It
caninot be completed In one lesson. Antlcipate this !,X)SSIDlllcy and plan what you
wlll do about Ir.
Help learners undefstand the discussion purpose and process
There Is little value ln having a discussion unless learner:; know llli purpose and
have a clear ldea of what they shoukl be lean1Jng, A:. mendoned previously, you
should ,explain d1ese d1lngs when you ask leamers ro prepare for the discussion,
bur It Is also helpful to remind them Immediately before the dlscuss:lon starts.
When students are nor accustomed to learning through srrucnirect dlscusslons, you
will need to explain to them how the discussion wlll be conducted and what you
. . . . .
expect.of them. As a minimum, you should expect. learners to do rhe following:
' " ' .
Step 5: Prepare the discussion environment
An essentlaC step 1n preparing for a discussion Is to establish an effeccive dlscussl.on
climate. An Important part of this Is getdng learners to feel that their views and
feelings WIii be respected by you and by the other learners. (!Recall that this was
an Jmpormnt element of the Quatlry Teachln!l approach dexrtbed In Chapter 3).
Lea.mers who feel their ideas are not valued are llkely to feel stressed during
classroom discussions. Consequently, they may be reluorant to participate, and
their leamln.g from the lnpurs of od1ers wUl be lnh:lblted (Judy \'11111s, 20l0).
Because lt ls necessary for lean1ers to feel secure ln order tc, be willing to express
Ideas that may n1gger disagreement and crltlclsm, discussion group members
need to be sensitive to the thoughts and feelings of others. D:m·t assume rhat t111s
sensltlv.lry wlll exist; be a role model and encourage your learners ro value and
respect the Ideas of others through all the reaching strategies that you use.
Toe seat1ng arran:gement can have a marked effect on leamers· conllrlbutlons ro
a discussion. AS far as possible, ny ,ro take the focus off yourself and! encourage
everyone to participate. The most desirable slruat1011 Is to have .au r:he leamers
sitting ln a circle facing one another, so that there ls face-to-face communfcatlon.
Because of the large number of learners In typlcal class:es. this ls ofu!n not possible.
Try to find a compromise ll1at will enable lean1ers to hear one another easily and to
feel comfortable contrtbtrtlng. You want d1e cl1scusslon Io How freely, so lt ls usually
not: a good Idea to as.k leamers to :stand up or to move to the fnnt of the class before
they speak. If possible, arrdnge the classroom before the learners arrive so that you
do not waste va]uable dl:scus:slon time.
IMPLEIMENTING A WHOLE-CLASS DISCUSSION
�Vhen you are using a discussion, you have ro get !earners ready for It, start Ir, keep
It going and conclude It. The techniques you use for these stages of the discussion
will be similar ro the basic techniques you use with other reaching straregles, but
ll1ere wlll also be some Important differences. The maJn point to keep In mlnd Is that
ll1e discussion should have an academic purpose - usually to provide leamers wlrh
opportunlt1es ro develop thelrconcepmal understanding of the subject. It might also
have social and emotional purposes, such as providing oppommltles for linguistic
development, or the development of learners' confidence and Interpersonal skills.
However. these are UJSlally a bon!lls rather than the main purpose of the discussion.
By maintaining a focus on d1e academic purpose of rhe dlsalsslon, you w111 help the
lean1ers to see what Is lmponant and how they can gain some control over their
own learning.
A Speak clearly. Leaniers wlll soon become frustrared w1ch die discussion If you
have to keep asking :speakers to repeat what they ·have said.
A Listen attentively. Unless learners listen attentively to the conlllbutlons of
others, rhey can not build on or query those contrtbutions. This can lead to a
lot of time being wasted on the unnecessa'ly repetition of ld.eas. When students
are lean1lng how to lllsten attentively, you cal1J suggest that they w!rlte down a
few words ro summarise the conllrlbuttton of the speaker before they offer their
own opinions. Learners who become skilled ac this can develop d1elr own mlind
maps as the discussion progresses - a strategy that will gready Increase their
learning (\Vlll!s, 2006).
A Remain objective. Learners should be encouraged oo ex:press o(Jlnlons that
are based on. rational considerations of the Issues and evidence being discussed.
You should encourage learners to use objective (rather than emotive) crlterta
to Judge their own contttbutlons as well as those of other learners. Since
obJecrtv11y Involves searching for !facroal Information, yo\! need ro help learners
to Judge what they know anct; what they need (O know In order to reach a valid
conclusion. You also need to encourage them to be open-minded about �he
possible �utcomes of the dlsC\lsslon. ro be recepllve ro the Ideas and opinions
offered by o�hers, to ,express themselves calmly and thoughtfully, and to avoid
being dogmatic or argumentative.
A Mal,e concise, relevant contributions. All learners should be encouraged
to conmlbute, but no learner should be allowed to domlnaie the discussion.
If learners are not skated at making chelr po ints concisely and s111cclnccly, It
might De necessary oo place a ttme unur on eacli conrn1bucton - most learners
should be able to make their point In less rhan one minute. Learner.; should be
encourdi;ed to speak clearly, expressively and, If necessary, emphatlca:ily, but
not In a manner that will offend or annoy others. If learners rry to raise Issues
that are not related to llhe point being discussed, you wlll need ro tactfully
redirect rhem.
A Be reflective. You need to encourage the learners (and give them time) co
reflect on what and how d1.ey are learning and how their understanding Is
developing. You can do this by pausing the discussion occasHonally ro have
learners consider questions such as:
• \Vhat are the most Important points raised so far?
• How ha:s the discussion so far changed your opinion of ... ?
• How has the discussion dartlled your understanding of ...?
• \Vhlch Jssue.s have not been explored enough?
• \VhEre Is the discussion leading?

In :sunumuy: �fu1e tile lllst:ussluJI sc;ut:s, each le;u 11e1 :shuulll l<.uuw 1l1<1t you eX(JllCt
all learners to contrtbure, to discover others' viewpoints and to shape their own
views as a result of die discussion. aassroom discussions can qulci<ly become
chaotic or r<1qulre too much teaciler Interference, unless all participants agree to
some basic procedural rules. You might like to devise a set of rules In consultation
With your learners (perhaps on the basis of good and poor discussions In which
they have participated previously), or you might like t:o suggest a set of mies such
as the following:
 some simple rules for classroom ctlscusslons
• Everyone must have o reasonab e opportunity to participate.
l
• On y one person may speok at a time.
l
• learners may ask questions o f one another and of the teacher. or they may
provide factual slalemenls or olfer opinions.
• Learners may· poss· f they do not wish to respond t o a quest on or
i i
comment al fhol lime.
• All con1ribut ons will be valued and none w ll be rid culed.
i i i
• All con1r but ons should be r e evant to the topic.
i i l
• N o conc usions should be reached unti everyone wno wants to contr bute
l l i
has hod an opportunity 10 do s o .
• Each contribut on must be s.horler than one m nute (or some other ogreed-
i i
upoo ti me).

Opening the discussion

It ls lmportant for you to provide strucrure and dlreccton to the dlscuss lon so that
lt remains focus,ect. The way you sran the discussion wlll depend to a large extent
on what prior preparation you have asked learners to do. Por example, Hf you have
asked them ·to prepare for the discussion by reading a newspaper article or by llndlng
lnformatlon on the lntemet. they should already have a reasonable Idea of tne
purpose of the discussion. Even then. you still need to opetl the discussi on l n a way
d1at wl[1 pro more lnrerestor controversy. There ls lltde polnt ln staning a dlscusslon
by saying, 'Today we a re going to discuss ..: Ir Is better ro pos,e an Intriguing
questlon, relate a short personal experience thar wlll arouse learners· curtc,slty or
outline a problem char ls inherently lnterest1ng. 11'hese approaches can bring the
class to order. provtdlng ·modvadon and focusing aa:endon on the dlscusslon topic.
You should also remind tihe learners of the purpose of the discussion. explain brtefly
how the lesson w!ll proceed and. when necessary, remind lean1ers of any rules or
procedures �hat you expect them ro follow.
Once you have set the scene for the <llscusslon, lt ls often useful ro ask k.ey
questions to encourdge learner lnvolvemenc. Your opening question ls very
lmporrainr. because It Is your best: chance to engage leamer-s. Ir .ls usually beneficial
ro ask a questlon about whtch most learners would be wllllng ro offer an opinion.
because some lean1ers may be shy about making a conl!rlbutlon. This does not
mean d1at you have to ask a slmple quest1on. Somedrn1es you wlll fmd It useful co
give learners this questlon In advance (p·artlcularly If you want them to do some
preliminary reading).
The questions d1at you ask wlll have a strong lnHuence on how learners think
and what !11ey lean1. If you ask very baste questions, they wlll probably give
slmple anS\vers and nor thlnk much about the lssues. lf you ask questions that are
too complex, learners will probably feel frustrated or unlnrere:srect. To avotd th.ese
problems. you should decide ln .advance what level of thlnking you expect. from
lea111ers. You ca:n then ask questlons that wlll encourage !liar cype of thinking.
 'E\vo useful fr.ameworl<s that can help you select questl'ons that will encourage
learners to use approprtate cognmve processes are the revised version of Bloom's
fdxonomy (Anderson & Krathwohl, 200 I) that was Introduced In Chapter 4 and
t11e SOLO taxonomy (Biggs & Collis, 1982). If you become familiar with these
raxonomles (classification systems) you wlll be able ro snucrure your quesaons to
encourage discussion and ro guide learners to an approprtate level of understanding.
In general, lf you ask clo.sed questions (such as, • Are the CAPS useful guldellnes for
teachers In South Afrtca .?') you wlll ellclt only l o w l-evel responses from learners.
II' you ask open quesdons (such as: 'How could the CAPS be Improved?') there ls
more chance that learners wUI engage ln t.lgl1er levels of thinking.

y Acllvlly: Learner thinking

What level ot learner thinking woulel be promoted by each of the following

questions? (Hint: In order to answer these questions, would learners hove to
simply recall informalion. synthesise a number of different ideas. form opinions.
ewluale a range of data. or do something else?)
1 _ Whal are the important differences oo1ween metals ond plastics?
2. Whal are the principal causes of cor,osion in motorwhicles?
3_ Why are some people in SoulhAlrtca poor and some people rich?

Alternative ways to start a discussion

Questions are not always the most approprtare way to open a discussion, because
d1ey tend to foe.us attention on what the reacher sees as lmponant rather than on
wl1at the learners see as Important The followlng are some altemar.lves:
• Ask IP.amP.rs to makP a list of ,11,,, main polnrs from thP matP.rla1s thP.y rP.ad In
preparatlon for rhe discussion. These can provide Input for a brainstorming
session. They can be written on the board as reminders of points that should be
addressed during the discussion.
• Ask learners to express their oplnlor.s and feelings about die matertals you
asked them ro read In preparallorl! for the dlscusslon.
• BrleBy outline the problem t'hat the group will be try!lng to solve, to remind
learners of some of the key Issues rai>£d In their pre-reading.
• Ask learners to brteBy desertbe an evem from 111.elr own exper1ence that ls related
to the discussion topic. After several learners have shared ll1elr experiences. ask
the group to Identify commonallttes and differences In the.se srortes and llnk
them to the theme of the dlscusslon.
• Make a controversial �atement relarlng to die toptc to be dlscussed. For
example, you could start a discusslo11 on government budget srraregles wlth
a sttarement such as: 'If the government was sertous about reducing the cost
of healt'.h care In South Afrtca, It would totalty ban smoktng. • If you use llils
technique. make sure learners undersrand that yo:u are trying to prompt them
to vhlnk. not oytng r.o persuade them that your statement ls mte.

y Activity: starting a Cla$$room discussion

Consult the CAPS for a subject you will te�ch.

1. Selec1 one, content topic for which ;,cu think a classroom discussioo would
be an appropriate leaching strategy,
2. Develop three different ways of inlroduci ng a discussion-based lesson
based on Iha! topic.
Engaging learners in discussion
Ideally, your input will l>e minimal, l>ecause most of the discussion wlll consist of
lean1ers exchanging Ideas, questioning one another andl seeking ro reach a common
understandtng of th:e Issues. However, until your learners become proficient. at
using discussion as a means of leao1tng, you will need to guide and prompt them.
The nature and amount of guidance wut depend on what you wanr students to
lean1 from rhe dtscusslon, how profi.clent they are at leamlng in this way, how
endmslasdc they are about rhe topic, and so on. Some of the rechnlques th.at you
might use to engage learners are outlined below. consider wh.at rype of thinking
eac'h mlght encourage.
..,. Ask learners to define terms and concepts. A discussion will be unproductive
if the learners do nor have a common undersrandang of the concepts char are
central to rh:e question rhey are t:rytng ro answer. You might need ro prompt
learillers ro clartly their unde.rsrandlng.
Example, 'What ls meant by the term "ubunru"? Does its meaning change In
different contexts?'
A Provide learners \Yith additional information. If learners do not have
suffident background knowledge to develop a solution ro the problem they are
discussing, you mlght have to pause the discussion and provide appropriate
Input Rather than simply rel!Jng learners what rhey need ro know, you could
have them lnves:tlgare appropriate resource materials.
Example: ·our discussion seems to have reached a dead end. Ir would help If
we had wme more lnformadon about .... I wlill hand out copies of two article&
that look at fhls problem from different perspecrt1•es. After you have read them.
we will cry ro Jdenrlfy some principles d1ar wut help us to solve thls problem.'
• Prompt learnerrs to integrate the material be.ing discussed with other
knowledge. If the discussion appears to be too narrowly focused. you can
prompt learners to broaden thelr outlook and consider Issues covered In other
subjects and discussions.
Example, ·our dJ.scusslon. of the causes of pollutlon has led us ro some Jmporrant
conclusions. Let's now thlnk about how these conclusions support, contradict or
ampllfy the conclusions we reached In our earlier discussion on conservation.•
• Ask learners to apply their kno\vledge. You can help learners ro see the
relevance of what they are learning by engaging them In a discussion that has
some practical appllcadon.
Example, 'Yesterday we identified a number of basic principles of ctothlng
design. We will now discuss how these Ideas can be applled r.o the design of
a new school uniform. so tllat we can persuade t'.he principal that we need a
change.·
• Ask learners to judge. appraise or evaluate materials. Learners should
be encouraged to question and challenge Ideas and .sources of lnfonnatlon,
Including Inputs from you, ratller than accept eveiythlng ar face value.
£X(ll/lple: 'In rile last lesson. I gave you a copy of a newspaper report on tourism
In the Eastern cape. �Ve will now dlsalss the accuracy, content coverage and
bias: of that report.·
Eadl of these techniques Is one way In which you can gt:lde a discussion so that
your learners comslder Issues or points of view thac you had previously decided were
Important. The technique: allow you to guide the discussion wld1out lmposlng your
views on the learners, since In each case you have slmp(y dlrectted che learners·
attenrton co partilcular Issues and left the toncluslons open.
Encouraging learn€f's to think during a discussion
To encourage learners to think deeply about one anorl1er's contributions to a
discussion, you can use techniques such as the fol.lowlng:
.t. Insist on 1 o seconds' ·chinking time' after each learner's Input.
.t. Ask quesrtons such as:
• How Is Salos hna ·s Idea di lferent from the Idea that Tom suggested?
• Why Is Prenltha's suggestion a very lmport'dnt one?
.t. Before learners give their Input, encourdge chem co ask themselves questions
such as:
• Do I agree wnth the last comment?
• \Vhat new l11fom1arton can I contribute?
• What don·r I und.ersrand about rhe last comment?
,._ Suggest that learners: start their conrrtbunon with a sraremenc such as,
• I agree with that point bocause ...
• I want to add sornetll:lng to rhe point ...
• I don't undersranct ...
• I am not convinced char ...
.t. Encourage le.am.ers to ask one another questions sucl: as: 'Why did you reach
rhat conclusion?'
You should aim CiO have the learners regulate d1elr 0\\11 parddpacton In the discussion
so that you do not have to keep lnte.rvenlng. One way to do this ls to encourage
learners to fbllow a ser of principles similar to the following fdeas. adapted from
Deemer ( 1986) .and 11beaius (1990):
l
• I wl l make my contributions clear and to the point.
.t. I will keep an open rr.lnd and nor let my prevlous Ideas or preJudloes Interfere
With my !Tee thlt1klll1].
• I wUI present my Ideas with conviction and support them with sound, logical
reasoning eve.n If I think that od1ers may nor agree wld1 them.
.t. I wUI llstten to everyone·s Ideas even If I do not agree with tthem.
..,. V.�1en I don.or under.stand something. I will ask for clarlficadon.
,._ I wrn think carefully abour the Ideas of others ibefore responding ro diem.
• I Will try 10 find opportunities r.o build on rhe conrrlbutlons of orJ1ers and
acknowledge d1e!r value.
.t. I wUI be critical of Ideas, but nor of people.
.t. I may challenge or rry co refute arguments. bur I will nor reject them for personal
reasons .
.t. I wlll not disrupt the discussion by Introducing Irrelevant Ideas.
.t. I wlll try to give oppommltles to others who have !llOt yet contctbuted as much
co the discussion as I have.
.t. I wlll help the gIoup 1v <llsilugul�h lieuwee.n fdt.t� and t•plnlon�.
• I will focus on helping the group reac'h the best decision or conclusion. nor on
persuading r.he group to aocept my views .
.t. I wlll uy to understand all sld.es of the Issue before reaching a conclusion. and
.t. I wm change my mind when die evidence clearly Indicates that I should. do so.
Perhaps the greatest difficulty you will have Is getting your learners to listen to
one another and to think carefully al>out what other learners say before reaccing
ro it. Ir ls namral for all learners to want ro offer their opinions, or simply have
their say, bur unless they deUberately rry to learn from one another. the discussion
wUI Involve a lot of talkmg and not much learning. one of the best ways ro h:elp
srudents to learn from a discussion Is for you to Introduce learner.; to discussions
gradually, conducting a 111umber of short discussions before planning a discusslon
that might take up the malor part of a lesson. In these preliminary discussions, you
can help the learners to develop their listening. thlnklng and speak.Ing skills.
Keeping a discussion moving anid on the right track
Learners wlU qulckly lose Interest �1 a discussion If d1ey s:ee no point to tr. If you
want to maintain a useful discussion, there mu.st be some issue at stake that
Is relevant and impottanr to the leaniers. They need to feel that: they are able,
entitled and expected to Join In tile discussion and that they have some chance of
influencing lhe outcome. It ts preferable d1.ar the learners have different opinions on
die issue beb1g discussed. so that the discussion prompts them ro think. Of course.
the learners need to be wllllng to ey co-operatively to reach ronsensus on the Issue
or to search for a solution to the problem.
If the dlsOlsslon has been carefully planned, if the leamers are Interested in the
roplc and if you maintain control, there should be little difficulty In keeping the
discussion focused on the outcomes that you want learners to achieve. You wlll
need to anticipate a number of dlrecl1ons chat the discussion might take, and work
our in advance a series of questions or prompts that you can use to refocus the
discussion. If necessary. However, do not ti)' tto dominate the learners· d1inl<lng or
force them to reach �he same roncluslons that you might have reached.
If some learners are making Irrelevant conrr1butlons or are s1cterracklil1g the
discussion, you must refocus Jc. For example, you might say something like: 'Thar
Is an lnreres:lng point. Zanele. but since it ts nor dlrectly related to rhe problem we
are trying co solve, we w!U discuss le In a later lesson.·
At the end of each phase of the discussion (before moving on to die next Issue).
It wm help the learners If you develop a summary of the comments given or
agreement r.eached ro that point. For example, you might. say something like: ·we
have Identified four major causes of rhe [Problem. They are .... Now we need to
find ways of eliminating rhese causes so !hat the problem can be avoided in future.·
One of the most effective ways of k .eeplng a discussion on track ls to ask
approprtate questions (Finley, 2013). 1111s can hel.p you to:
A. direct the learners· attention to Important Issues:
A. prompdeamers when th:e discussion falters;
• P.11!],ll)P. .:i rP.lur.ranr fp.;imer;
• help learners clartfy an Important point;
A. encourage lean1ers to consider different perspecdves;
A. get the learners to think more carefuUly about Issues: and
A. give yow lnfom1at1011 alx.lut how well the smdents are learning.

Ifyou encourage all leamers to pause and organise their thoughrs after each question
has been asked (by you or by a lear11er). their contrlbudons to the discussion are
llkely to be more valuable.
 Whlle Ir ls quire legldrnate for you to ask questions for tile reasons ;given above,
you must be careful that the dtscusslon ctoes not degenerate Into a questlon-anct­
answer session In which. you ask mosr of the questions. It Is particularly Important.
that you do not ask leading quesdons such as: 'Don't you think·--'· or quesdons
that will simply lead to learners wasting time guessing about matters of fact_ DIiion
(1981 a, 1981 b) goes so far as �o recommend that rl1e only time you should ask
a quescion <lurtng a discuss.ton is when you are genuinely perplexed an<I need
lnformadon. His seven alternatives 10 questions are Incorporated Into rhe follownng
ways of facmrattng discussion,
• Listen actively. You can use eye contact. and non-verbal support to
communlcar.e Interest In what learners are say.Ing. Your active !lsrenlng should
provide a model for the learners so that d1ey are encouraged ro pay careful
anendon ro the conmbudons of others.
"' Give praise. You should make commen.rs chatlndlcaresupportand.enco\llagemenc
ro learners who pardclpate In t11e discussion. for example: That was a good point
d1ac no one else seems to have considered; let's explore Ir fmthe;r. •
"' Make declarative statements. You cen:alnly should not try to dominate the
discussion. but you can be an ·equal partner' and lmtlr.are your views on the
dlscusslom roplc or on a learner's conlrtbu-don. For example, ·1 can understand
why Josla feels that way, because ·her reaction ls similar to my reaction when .. .'
"' Reflect and restate. 'lb show learners the Importance of listening; and ttyHng
to build tbelr understanding, you can summanse what you 1mdersrand by a
prevtous speaker's comments, for example: 'Zola has Just. suggested thar. d1ere
were u.vo ways of solving the problem. The second nnethod ls different from
anyrhlng else that we have considered. because .. .'
• Paraphrase. YOll may save ltme and avol<I some confusion for other learners If
yow restate a learner's tdea In your own words.. for example, 'Tinere was a Joe of
Information In Thelma's comment. Basically, she seemed to be saying that ... •
"' Repeat statements. Sometimes all you need to do Is ask the learner co repeat.
a statement so tllar everyone Is clear about what was said. For example, 'Il'm
not sure I fully understand what you :said. Please explain the point again.·
..t. lnviite learners to elaborate. If you want co hear more alx>ut learners· vtews,
or If you think the other leamers need to hear more In order 10 a[l)preclare the
point, Invite the speakers to elaborate. to Justify their comments or to supply
evidence to support their ponnr of view. For example, 'Tum!. your comments
suggest that you disagree wtth Kgor.so·s view. can you explain why you have
taken that approach?'
"' Encourage student-stude11t interchange. You should encoura_ge learners
to comment consnuctlvely on one another's Ideas. Thts will promote accive
Ustenlng and encourage learners: to value the Ideas of others. For example,
'Gheran, can you ask Quinton a question mar wun hel[P you co understand hls
main poln t of view?'
..t. Ask for examples. If there ls any posslblllty of a misunderstanding, you should
l
ask leamers to provide examples to Ilustrate points that they put forward. For
example: ·Kgabo, can you gtve us an example ofwhat you mean by teciilnology
that ls dangerous to the environment?'
..t. tnviite questions. You can encourage dtscusslon by lnvlrl11g leanners ro asl a
question about. t:he last point that was made or about the general Issue betng
discussed. for example, 'Before we progress to vhe next point. does anyone
wanr 10 ask Doreen a quesdon about the solution she suggested?'
.i. Involve hesitant learners. You should deliberately seek rl1e vttews of learners
who have failed to connibute to the discussion. but do t:hls In a non-threatening
way. For ex.ample: ·:sandy, you seenn to have been listening carefully to all
tl1ese comments. V.�th which point of view do you agree?'
.i. Invite tibe s-peaker Ito ask a question. If die learner who ls rrylng to make a
point seems ,ro be conli.tsed or hav1ng dlfficuh:y getting his/her point across, you
can ask that learner ro pose a question for t11e da:ss ro consider. For example:
'You seem to have a useful Idea there, Saki. Can you put that Idea Into a question
that we could all ny ,ro answe(?'
.i. Remain silent. When a learner reaches the end of Ms/her contrlimtlon,
conll'!nue to pay rhought:littl attention and remain sllent for about five soo,nds.
This 11111 encourage rihe learner to continue wlrh the point a�d It wlll encourage
other learners to continue thinking about the last comrlbutlon.
.i. Define words and phrases. If learners are using termlnology that you think
may be confusing other ·teamers, you can ask them to define the key words
or phrases [hey used. You should also do this If you suspect that t11e learner
making the ·statement doesn ·t really understand some of 1he cerms he/she ls
using. or If he/she ls. using slang expresslons. For example: ·1u1meleng. could
you explain to others what a ·nm.ltlmedla computer" ls, and what you acmally
mean by ·t11e results wer:e unreal"?'
• cam for consensus. It Is not neressary for every discussion ro result In geneml
agreement. However, If the discussion Is not progressing sa!lsfactorlly, you
may have to make a statement ro break a deadlock. For example: 'It seems
that. there are two) po'lnts ,of view on thls Issue. and eac'h one has a lot of merit.
Let's make a list of the consequences of each v.lew. This might help us to decide
which solution to use.'
.i. Admit confusion. If you are perplexed by what a learner says, tilien say so.
For example: Tm a bit confused by WIillam's last point, because It :seems to be
exactly opposite to what Jack said a few minutes ago.'

The above points al:! all parn of your being very conscious of llow you respond ro
leaniers· contributions. You must work hard at making each learner feel thar. all
genuine contributions are valued , even when they represent. oonEIJctlng points of
view. Tlie learners must also be willing to accept one another·; contrlbudons. 11'he
first step In achieving this acceptance Is to have the learners develop their listen.Ing
skills so that they are sensldve to what the other person Is saying and to what die
odier person ls ny1ng to say. Few learners will be w111lng to partldpace In a dlscuss:lon
If d1ey feel that dielrcontrlbutlons wlll be ridiculed or misunderstood, either by you
or by the otther learners. The neurologlcal reasons for this are explained by \V111ls
(2006).
Ln order co use the dlscusslon strategy effectively, you might first have to spend
some nme developing Clle 1ea·mers· usrentng and social :tnreracnon sKllls. (111 aiapter
9 you wlll see how these skllls can be developed through co-operative learning.)
Ir ls also Important ::or you to encourage learners to respond appropriately to one
another's contributions to the discussion. Ideally, you want learriers ro deveJop
dielr discussion skll15 to rhe point where you do nor need to Intrude In order to keep
die discussion moving or focused.
 Your maln function Is to guide the discussion dlscreedy so that rihe learners
achieve the desired learning outcomes. You should tty not it:O answer learners'
questlons dlrecd.y, because tills rends ro place you In rile posltlon of ·expen·. which
may stifle discussion. You should resist [he rempratlon of simply celling learners
what you think are 11he correct answers to their questions. and rry to get the learners
to �vork our the answers.
One of your major roles In a snucrured discussion Is to help the 1ean1ers look at
one another's Ideas from different points of view. Ofren, this "'Ill place lean1ers. In
ap()llfent conflict. Your role, then, Is to rum this conflict Into a productive exthange
of Ideas: In which learners question their assumptions and beliefs and oy to b-roaden
their knowledge. As new facts and new Interpretations arise, you shouldl encourage
learners to consider whether or nor they :should modify t11elr previous attitudes or
values. Ho,vever, you have a responsibility to protect the learners· self.-esreem and
not allow learners to ridicule or chastise one another.
tf you encourage learners. and genulnely value their contributions. they ,viii
enjoy the learning experience and be encouraged to think and contribute further.
Ho\vever, If you show a tendency to penalise leamers for Ideas t11ey present -
perhaps because those Ideas appear unusual - they wlill get the mistaken Idea ttlat
die purpose of the dlscucSSlon Is for t'.hern ro confirm your convictions rather than
develop d1elr own. If a learner presenrs any new Ideas. you should ti)' to link them
with Ideas discussed previously, bur do not spend too much tlme going over the
topics t11ar have already been dls-cusS€d. occaslonally, discussion can be pennltted
to digress In order to allow enthusiastic partlclpal1on before rerumlng to the or1glnal
topic. However, you must keep control so tihat ·tiJne Is not wasted and so that
lean1ers do 111ot lose trdck of the purpose of the discussion.
Helpirng studen1is to learn through discussion
Ma11y leamers wUI nor be accustomed to the dlsctpllned thinking that Is necessary
for producdve discussion. In t11elr everyday discussions with fr1ends and famlly,
d1ey are probably more Interested In ex.pressing their opinions t11an In reaching
consensus or solving a problem . To help sn1denrs learn through discussion, you
have ro help rhem ro become aware of their own thoughts and acrlons dur1ng a
discussion. one way ro do rhls Is ro ask rhem co do c-he follo1v1ng things during a
discussion:
1. Listen care fully ro die conrrlbutlons of other learners and each time ask
yourself:
a. Do I agree with what Is being said? \Vhy?
ll. Do I think t11at this person ·s contrl.lludon Is based on fact or opinion?
\'lhy?
c. Do I really need to make a comment at this point? \'/11y?
2. Aft.er you have made a conrrlbucion (O true discussion, ask yourself:
a. Did die 0!11.er learners undersrdnd rlle point I was rrytng ro make?
b. Did my contribution make a real dlfference ro this discussion? \¥11.y?
3. After the discussion, ask yourse:lf: How could I have made a more productive
contribution co this discussion?
Motlvadon plays a crucial role In deternnlnlng how effecdvely learners will pal!tlclpate
In classroom discussions and learn from rhem. If you want learners ro view dlocuss.Jon
as an Integral pan of rhelr !earning- and, rberefore. participate wholehean:edl:y- you
must convince diem that there are benefi.ts (for them). 'When dlscuss.1on !Is well­
mottvared, s:rudents engage noc only because the reacher re(l\llres It, but also because
they see dl.scus:slon as beneficial to their o-wn learning" (McGraw, 2002: 131 ),
Allgnment tbetween Instruction and assessment ls a critical component of learner
motivation �KJ!len. 2005). If learners view discussion as an attempt ro engage them
In hlgher-oroer thinking and then find rhat formal assessments focus on lower-order
processes. tEley will quickly lose Interest In funire clJscussloms.
Recor •ding the progress and outcomes of a discussion
Duling a dilscusslon, you want learners to llste:n, think and share tJielr Ideas.
All this wJIJ heip them to learn. but only If they have oppommlrtes to process
and consolidate the Ideas that are being explored through the dtscus:slon. If the
discussion ts short, the consollctatton can happen at rile end of the discussion.
However. for t11e longer dlsCtJsslons tllat are the malru focus of this chapter. It will
be difficult for learners ro retain a[l the Information and! consolidate ithelr learning at
die end of tl'le dlscusslollJ. For this rea.son, there needs to be a progressive record of
die discussion as Jc develops. There are three !basic ways of doing this:
I. TI1e reacher can make notes on :a blackboard, whiteboard OI overhead
transparency.
2. A designated learner can make notes that will later be shared with all learners.
3. Each leamer can make notes.
There are several advantages to the teacher making the no res:
• The ceacher':s prior knowledge wlll enable him/her to smtcrure or organise the
notes as the discussion progresse&, so that t11e end result ls not Just a board full
of Isolated word.s or dot points.
• The reacher can probably make useful notes wlthout las.Ing l!rack of the ongoing
discussion.
.A. The teacher·s note rd king: can. provide a model for leamers.

If you make rhe notes, there Is nor much point In expectlllJg learners to copy your
notes during the discussion; this will probably Just distract tl1em. It ls better to allow
the learners to engage freely In che discussion and make nores at the end (using
your notes .as a guide). AS learners become more skUled at dlscusslon, they can
start co take thel.r own notes using some of the techniques ·d1at you have modell.ed
(sm:h as concept. maps).
However the notes are recorded, It Is useful co allow a few m.lnures ac die end
of r:he dJscusslon for leamers to reffect on what they have lean1ed :and make their
own notes about how rhls learning bu lids on their prtor knowledge. Willis (200'6)
and Zttll (2002) explain how this triggers ll!eurologlcal proc-esses that help srudents
to consolidate their learning.
What might go wrong ,during a discussion?
If you prepare thoroughly, and try to us.e the techniques suggested earlier In this
chapter, your stmctured discussions should be successful. However, you rnay
encounter some of the problems discussed ln the followlng paragraphs.
 Yon might dominate the discussion and tum it into a direct instruction
lesson. Even though you have to control and direct the discussion.. you m.ust
nor domlnace It. You can easlly fall Into the trap or daJmlnatlng the discussion by
rdlklng too muC:h or by giving learners the Impression d1ar your views are more
Important. !11an theirs. MIiier ( L 990) makes the point. that when learners are
led to see tlhat the subject being discussed Is open to aJr,ematlve lnrerpre<tat1o ns,
learner questions about the subject will be the major spur for discussion and cr1tlcal
chinking. However, If the teacJ1er considers his/her lnrerpretatlon of th.e stfbJect co
be author!ra:llve. srudents soon learn that their Interpretative responses and. cr!t1r.al
thlnklng have no place !n the lesson.. Perrott (l 988) also explores this Issue and
suggests that, In. order to achieve ·genuine discussion·, you will have to stop taking
a didactic stance and avoid having a parrlcular response In mind as die correct
answer to any quest:tons that you pose during the discussion.
The learners may not u.nderstand your role in the discussion. They may
see you as the authorlry on tl:le subject and expect you to teach tllem di reedy. In
this slruat1on, they are unlikely to part1clpate freely In a meaningful discussion.
Ideally, the learners should see you as a full group memiber who will Join In the
discussion on an equal basis witb them, so that your Inputs are seen as equal ro
those of the learners. If they do not, you mighr have to temporartly adopt. tl1e role of
external consultant, answering dlrecr quesdons from rhe leamers, but not otherwise
Intervening 1n the discussion. This wlll show leamers that you really do want (hem
to think an<I contribute. Alremattvely, you couldl adopr tthe role of chairperson,
keeping order but not otherwise taking part In the discussion. As learners gain
ronfidlence In their own ablllcy 10 contribute ro the discussion and move It rowards
a collective understanding of ·tile Issue, they will be more wllllng ro accept you as
an equal contrlbutor. rather than an auchorlry figure.
One or more learners may be reluctant to participate in the discussion.
Before trying to solve this problem. you need ro ask yourself why they are reluctant.
Perhaps they feel that they do not have sufficient knowledge of die subject ro
contribute anything useful to the discussion. Perhaps they have been offended
because their previous contrlbutlons were not appreciatted. Perhaps they do not like
leamiJ1g In this way. Perhaps. they are simply nor Interested In the discussion topic.
Perhaps they did not do the preparation that you asked diem to do. In generdl, the
following approaches might help you to solve the problem of reluctant individuals:
• Remind all learners that tthelr conttlbutlons are welcome and valued.
.a. Seek the views of reamers who have not participated. Invite them to part1ctpate
by asking n.on-t'.hrearenlng questions that do nor require facniaJ answers, for
example: ·�\'hat are you tlhinklng, Michael?'
• Ask reluctant learners whether they agree with a comment that someone else
has made on an Issue that Is fairly straightforward. For example: 'James, you
seem ro hav,e been Usrenlng c:areliully ro all these p,olm:. of \'lew; which opinion
do you agree With?'
• Refrdln from making evaluative comments on leamers· responses. Instead,
encourage learners to comment. on one anorher·s responses. For example:
'Thank you for rthat oplnion. can anyone else thlnk of a situation when rhat
approach mHght be successful.?'
Sometimes the whole class may be slow or passively reluctant to participate In
the discussion. In ohesa cases, you may need to ask provocative questions. oy
to build on what they already know. and &how lots of enthusiasm yourself. If
tl1e whole group ls resistant or anl'dgonistlc, you must try to find out why and
correct the strua.t1on before attempting to !J)roceed wltll the discussion. The problem
may be that you have noc establishei:I the social context that will lead ro sntdenrs·
emotional engagement ln the lesson (Immordino-Yang&. Faeth. 201 O).
One or more learners may dominate the discussion, either because they
are very knowledgeable on t11e subject or because they simply like ro rdlk. You can
minimise this ll'.. before the discussion stares, you remind leamers that discussion
Is a process of sharing Ideas, and that eveiyone should have a11 opponunlcy ro
contribute. The knowledgeable learner can be asked to wat-t u11tll others have
contributed and d1en to ment1on an.y important points that seem to have been
overlooked. You need :o do this mctfully or It might alienate or:her learners. A
simple technique to oy when one leamer Is dominating the discussion Is to make
a comment such as: 'I think you have made that point well, David. Now let's see
whether anyone else has a different. !()Olnt ofvtew.' Sometimes all you need ro do
Is s:ay, 'Let's hear from someone who hasn't told us what they think_· If .all else
falls, talkative learners can be asked to resmct their comments to questions of
clactficatlon or to summarise what others have saJ,d.
Some learners may raise irrelevant issues . \'ihen d1is occurs, It Is always
Important to consider why. Perhaps the learners are getting bored. Perhaps they
don't know enough al>out the subJecr. to make productive rommenrs. Perhaps
d1ey are confused and don't realise that thelr points are lnrelevant. To resolve t11ls
pro'.blern you might try the following:
A Sutnmartse the discussion and bring It ro a close (If many of the l .eam.ers are
bored or If llley clearly do not know enough about. the subject to allow tthe
discussion to be productive).
A Ask learners to think more carefitlly about vhe relevance of their comments
before they speak.
A BneHy explain that the side Issue can be taken up In a later lesson.
A Restate the purpose and desired outcomes of the discussion and ask learners to
oy (O focus on t11ose ob)ecdves.
'v\lhen planning your discussion lesson, you should try to anticipate the kinds of
digressions that are mostt likely to occur and ohink about how you might deal with
them. Zull (2002) suggests that there may be neurological reasons why some
students remain very passive during discuss.tons (or other lessons), while other
students may be veiy vocal but make essentially superf.cial contributions. He
speculates t'.hat Ir may be due to an Imbalance between their use of their 'back
Integrative cortex· (for receiving, remem'bel1ng and tntegTadng tn.fom1at1on} and
their 'from tntegrad.ve cortex· (for generntlll!g Ideas and actions}. H!s proposed
:;u[utlun J,; r.u helµ clle� �wc.lem;s (µ1lvately) w u11lle:c:;ca11� h.uw l11elL IJ1al11� ,ue
proi:esslng lnfonnatlon and what they can do to change it.
'li\vo or more iearners may be in conflict as a re5Uit of the discussion.
Ideally, this will not ocatr, because the learners wll!I be objective, rational and
sensitive to one another's opinions. But, In practice. learners' fee:llngs w111 sornetlnnes
be so strong thatt emotions take over. To resolve this, you might respond as foUows:
"" Remind all learners that a discussion shou.ld be a free s·hartng of ideas In wl1lch
It Is not essentlal for everyone to agree.
_. Remind all learners of che purpose of the d:lscusslon and Indicate, If appropriate.
that. this purpose can scun be achieved without resolving the conftlct.
"" Summart.se the two opposing points of view and lndlcate that the Issue might
be resolved later, after other l:ssues have l>een explored .
.it. Suggest that the leaniers refer to their textbook. or other suitable source of
Information. ro find evidence chat might resolve the disagreement
• Make a statement to break a deadlock. for example: 'It seems rhar rhere are nvo
points of view on this Issue, .and each one has a lot of merit. Let's make a list
of the consequences of each view and then move on.·
"" Introduce some humour to reileve die tension.
"" Suggest diat an experiment or Investigation be conducted to oblaln an :answer
ro the point of disagreement.
Closing a discussion
It Is always Important to bring the discussion to a definite conclusron, rather than
simply stopping because you have run out of time or Ideas. If the discussion has
gone srnool11ly and a wrttten
: record of key points has been kept, the ooncluslon
might r,equlre little more chan summartslng the main points and emphasising the
leanilng outcomes achieved. However, there will be tlmes when you wUI have to
conclude a dlsrusslon with a statement. such as: 'We have not managed to agree on
how this problem should be ,solved, but we have ldent:lfied several key Issues t:lhar
we can continue to explore.· Whether the dl5cusslon reaches a roglcaf conclusion or
simply Identifies tile need for filrther discussion, you must help the :earners to reel
diat It has l>een a valuable learning experience.
As with any other teaching strategy, lit Is Important to Indicate to learners how
the discussion :arms part of some overall plan, so do mot forger to ·rell the learners
what. wlll happen In the next lesson. If lm.portant points were not dealt with durl!ng
die discussion, you might mention them 11.Jrtellly In your concluding comments and
Indicate that they wlll be dealt with In a later lesson. Three common ways of dosting
a discussion are summar1slng, foreshadowing and evaluatling:
"" Sum1marising. It Is often useful to record Important points at various smges
during the discussion. This can provtcte a sl'.lmul.us for further contributions
by group members, and It can be useful In later lessons thar butld on what
srudenrs learned through the dls.cusslon. lbwards the end of the discussion.
yotu can ure these records ro develop a brtef but clear summaiy of the main
points of the discussion. This: might take the fonn of statements of consensus,
suggested soludons, or Insights achieved In relation to tile Issues explored or
problem Investigated. For exa mple: ·our dlscus:slon has raised three main points
(Which are tmelly elaoorarect) and we have agreoo rllar 111e moH practical amt
approprlatesolurlon �o rile problem would be .. .'
.t. Foreshadowing. Vllth rihls technique, you bring rhe discussion to a close by
linking It roa subsequent activity and suggesting that leamers oondnue to think
about the Issues. for example: 'Since we have reaclled the conclus:lon tthat ...,
we are now faced \\1di the problem of . .. . I want you to think about this
over the next few days and on Friday we w!Ol discuss how thlls new problem
can be solved.'
"' Reflecting and evaluating. It ls Important. for leam.ers ro think about their
experiences during a discussion and to evaluate the ouocomes of the discussion.
If they do rhts, futu�e discussions 1111J be more valuable learning experiences.
You could prompt. reflection by asking learners co complete statements such as:
·our discussion was frulliul l)ecause we were able ro reach the conclusion that
.... However, we seem to have wasted some tilme discussing .... Next Clme we
have a discussion It might be appropriate to ....'

y Activity: Open ,and closed dls.cus:slons

A closed discussion is one in which the teacher hos decided in CJdvonce what
conclusions learners should reach and 1hen proceeds lo ·guide' t,earners 10
those conclusions. An open-ended discussion is one in which the teacher
does not delibe rolely try to guide learners loo preclelermined conclusion bu1
instead allows them to explore a range ct ideas 1hat lead to a conclusion
thal the learners consider reasonable - which might be a conclusion that the
teocher has nol consiclered.
Atlhough open discussions do not nave predetermined conclusions. they
can result in prede.fermined le arning. Fofexamp 'le. in a Malhemalics unit
on probabili1)1. the teacher might organise a discussion on l he topic How do
misco.nceplions about probability impact on our daily lives? lhere is no W<If
of knowing in advonce what conclusions learners might reach tram such
a discussion (so ii is open-ended). Howe,er, by helping le arners to prepare
appropriately for the discussion ond by guiding them through the discussion
process. !he teacher could be reasonably confident about what 1hey mighl
learn from lhe discussion. lhe teacher mght. for example. want learners to
learn how lo dislinguisn lletween a misconceplion and a maltlemolioCal
fact. how to lesl hYPOtheses or to deepen their understanding of concepts
such as a random event. The teacher coJld guide learners l o this learning
wiftloul necessarily leading them too porlicular cooclusion about how
misconceptions of probabilily impact on our doily lives.

Using tthe above example as o guide. explOin haw you could use on open­
ended discussion to guide learners to predetermined learning oUlcornes in
your specialist teaching area.

USING DISCUSSION IN CONJUNCTION! WITH OTHER TEACHING

STRATIEGIIES
Snucrured dassroom discussions caru be used In conjunction with almost all other
teaching strateg!es:
• Direct instruction. As pan of a direct Instruction lesson, a discussion could be
used ro explore an Issue for a short time (maybe ts minutes). Besides help:lng
lean1ers ro undersrand the Issue being discussed, the variety In reaching strategy
wlll help ro engage the students In mere active leamlng.
• Group work. Inceractlons among leamel\5 are an Integral part of small-group
learning, and d1ls process can often be enhanced by asl<Jng the learners to
follow a set of discussion ntles similar to those given earller In this chapter.
These Ideas are explored further In Chapter 8. A brief whole-class discussion ls
a useful way of summarising !he leamlng that occurs during group work.
• CO-operative learning. Some fo nns of co-opera!lve leamlng ( such as Jigsaw)
can be enhanced by strucrurect dtscusslons \\1dlln the learning groups. This
Issue ls explored further In Chapter 9. A brief whole-class discussion ls a useful
way of summarising the learning that occurs during co-operative learning.
.._ Pro'.blem sowing. \Vhen you are using problem so:lvtng as a reaching strategy.
discussions can be used to help learners understand the nanire of the problem.
ro help them generate possible s:olut1ons. and as a forum for rompartng !lie
relal!lve merits of va:rtous soluctons ro the problem. There Ideas are explored
further In Chapter Io.
.._ Learner inquiry. When learner researcll Is your prime reaching strategy,
discussions can be used to help learners cl.artfy d1e:lr research rdSk, w generdte
possible research merhocils, and as the means of shaI111g the research resulrs.
The;se Ideas .are explored further In Ch,apter 11 .
• case srudy. case srud:y relies heavlly on whole-class ollscusslon to ttnvesrtgate
the Issues and develop a possible solution. These Ideas are explored further In
Chapter 12.
& Role play. A whole-class discussion can be an effective way of debriefing
stucients after a role play. This Idea Is explored funiher tin Chapter 13.
E-DlSCUSSIONS
Discussion ,t:radltionally Involves learners Interacting with the teacher and with
one another face to face. However, technological developments in recent years
have made lt re.ladvely easy to transfonn this strategy In.to an e-dlscusslon (one
that uses various fonns of electronic media). Of course, these t:echnologles wlll not
be available In all south African schools for many years, but some of them are
available In some schools now.
Early research. such as that of Phillps and Santoro (1989) and McComb (1994),
quickly esrabllshed that computer-med!a,red communication could result In more
frequent reacher-sru.dent contact, high levels of course approval by srudenrs, and
student lean1lng that equaUed or exceeded that of trddlt1onally taught courses.
TokJng Ut a step further, Bump ( 1990) and Harrtngron fl992) found rhat.computter­
asslsted. classroom discussion resulred In grearer stud.em pantclpatlon and higher
levels of crtticaJ reflection. Rapid advances in technolo.gy have allowed reachers to
expand the oppommlties promised by th.ese early research findings. The various
approaches are collecttvely referred to as e-dlscussions.
The basic idea In all e-dlscusslon approaches ls that the studeirts lnterai:t w:lrh
one anorher via a computer or mobile devl.ce. The discussion framework may
be a fonnal one (wlthin the constraints of course management software such as
Blackboard} or It may be 1nronnal {pl!rlmps using a social media frnmework such
as 1\vltter). Either way, the teacher establishes the discussion topic .and parameters
in the usual way, but the students enrer their cont:rlbut1ons electrorulcally.
Establishing the framework for a, computer-based discussion. or a selies of
discussions rhat. are Integrated Into a course, can be quire rime-consuming. Before
embarlclng on this exercise. It ts worth considering what advanrages It might
provide as op(X>Sed to face-to-face discussions. The main advantages are generally
considered co be the following:
A Learners do not have 10 be in the same locatlon at the same dme. They can keep
track of the discussion and make their own contributions when It ls convenlenr.
Ji. Lean1ers have time t.o reflect on what Is being discussed and to compose and
revise their conl1l1but1ons to ahe discussion before they submit them. Because
they know that their peers Will re,1ew lhelr rontrtllutlons, srudenlS are me>tlvated
to produce carefully considered responses. They have time ro find the rlghr words.
develop reasoned arguments and find evidence to support t11elr point of view.
An e-dl;Scusston cou:ld be establls.hed and used as follows:
I . The e-dlscusslon webslr.e Is establlsh:ed by the reacher. The fom1ar will vary
according to the type of software being used.
2. The teacher places instructions and a seed for the discussion on die discussion
site. This could be a question, a probJlem or an issue d1at requires re.soiutlon.
3. Srudents access the discussion and ascertain what they are required to do,
wl1ac the rtrneframe ts, and any spectal criteria for the discussion.
4. sructents use their research and wrtt=lng sl<.ills co develop and. post an lnlrtal
response.
• Learners are encouraged. to explore Ideas (both their own contrtburtons and
rhe contr1butJons of others) and In so doing w!II be actively constructing and
reconstructing their knowledge and understanding. sn,denrs tend ro develop
their thoughts more fully than they might In face-to-face convers«ltlons, and
this promotes deeper levels of understanding.
• If used appropriately, e-dlscusslon activities can promote collaboration and
develop a sense of community wid1ln the group.
.a- Learners do not I.lave to wait their rum to make a contribution to the dlSCl!lsslon,
and their conrrtburton can be as short or long as chey like.
• Learners who ar;e not accustomed to contributing to academic discussions can
make a contribution without being intimidated by others. Learners can ra:tse
quesdons w.lthour being stressed, and even simple quesd'ons sucln as '\Vhat
does that word mean?" often help• other students to learn.
.a- No member of the elecrronlc discussion group -can monopollse It In such a way
that others do nor get a chance ro contribute.
• The mes:sage.s from alll contrtburors remain available, which means that learners
can think about them. come back to them and make multiple responses to them.
A Learners can revisit their earlier contrtbutlons. reconsider their po.slllons a11d
make new responses.
• Learners can respond ro whichever entries seem most lmpo rtant ro them rather
rllan ro only the latest one.
• All pantcipants are o n an equal footing.
..i. In some dlscusslon frameworks, l.ean1ers can start thenr own dt.scusslon thread
by asking a new quesuon or making a new comment. 1111s helps them ro see
rhatt their con trlbutlons a re valuable.
• Lean1ers are encouraged to improve t11elr wrttlng skllls .
.;. Learners can be exposed to Ideas from noted scholars (local, national and
lnremactonalJ If the teacher lnvlre.s them m contribute ro che discussion.
• Whllle moderdtlng th.e discussion. the reacher ts able co tdentll:y srudents who
need funher individualised help, or areas of the topic t11at need elaboration
during class time. In. some discussion frameworks the teacher can respond to
(or encourage) one student without the otther sructents being aware of this.
• E-dlscusstons suit the rlllnklng styles of ·otgiral Natives· (Prensky, 2001a and
2001 b), who like to parallel-process and multittask and who funccion best when
net\vorklng
.a- E-dlscusslons encourage learners r.o develop sean:h and research skills. to sort our
what is t:rUe and relevant, to use analysiis tools ro help make sense of tnforn1atlon.
to present. their Views In a vadecy of n1edia, ro nel\vorl< and to collaborate.
5. Srudenrs revisit the website to read the responses of other srudenrs and to
reconsider their position In light of these responses.
6. '111e teacher m<Jnltors t11e co1:1trtbut1011s and provides Input that will encourage
deeper exploratton of the Issues and elldc further responses.

For a less formal approach, you could set up a dlscussl-011 via 1\vltter or another
mlcrobloggl:ng platform. This might appeal to students, ·but It could be difficult to
guide In the direcdon of the academic learning outcomes you wanr snidenrs to
achieve. As a variation to this. you. colllld esrab·ltsh a wlkl ro allow students to
collaboratlvely develop a response to a questiontproolem or develop a discussion
on any relevant toplc. The wlkl fonnat has the advantage that the contem can be
continuously revised by any of the pa11tlclpants; It becomes a genuine collaborddon,
not Just a series of responses to previous Inputs (as In a l!Jlog).
REFLECTING ON THE SUCCESS OF YOUR DISCUSSION SlTRATEGY
If you want to use discussions effectively, be prepared to learn from your experiences.
C.et Into the llablr.of critically evaluadng your discussion lessons as soon as possible afrer
they have finished. l'hls rell'ection can !be guided by questlons such as the following,
.t. What af'C die one or two key ttdeas or ttnslghcs that learners should have gained
from this discussion? Did most learners achieve rhls? If not, why not?
.._ Were the learners enthus:lasttc about the discussion? 'Why?
• Did the discussion ach:leve anythlng useful that was not planned? How could
such poslave outcomes t,e encouraged In rumre discussions?
.._ Did the learners: challenge one anot.l:ler to provide reasons and exam.pies ro
support rhelr views? If nor, why not?
.._ What evtdeDce do you have that the learners believed rhey were dlscussnng
worrJ1whlle Issues?
.._ Did rile learners offer counrer-examples, counrer-lnsrances: and counter­
arguments? If not, why were they so much In agreement?
.._ Did the learners ldentiify the purpose of d1elr Inputs ro the dlscusslo n? For
example, did they say things such as, ·1 would like co comment on .. .': ·1 can
add ro .. .'; 'I disagree wlll1 .. .'? What does this suggest about their Involvement
ln the discussion?
.._ Did the 1eamers see that the tlilngs they were discussing were related to other
school s.ubJects and ro their outside experiences? Lf nor, why not?
.._ Were the learners al>le to relate the speclrac subject matter under discussion. ro
more general principles?
.._ Did the learners ask relevant and logical questions?
• Did the learners ask for Jusdrncatlon rather than raking ll1lngs for granted? For
example, did they make comments such as: 'It doesn ·c. seem right ro make rhac
claim without having some evidence ro support It'?
.._ Did rhe learners ask for clarUicatlon? For example, did they make comments
such as: 'Vlhat do you mean by ... ?'
• was the discussion lnOuenel!d by any culruml faerors. such as the way
discussions are traditionally conducted In ·the feanners· community?
.._ Were there any negative outcomes from rhe lesson? How could! these negative
outcomes be avoided In li.tnire?
.._ How could this strdtegy be better used In li.tnire lessons?
REVIEW AND REFLECT ON YOUR LEARNING
Develop answers ro each of t:l:lese questlons arud discuss your answers with another
learner <Jr w1th an experienced teacher,
1. \1J11ar aspoctil of your specialist teaching area are particularly suitable for
teaching by means of whole-class discussion? Why?
2. \¥hat aspects of your speclal1sr teaching area are nor well sulred for reaching
by means o.f whole-class discussion? Why?
3. DIii.on {1994:112) suggests that 'the available resear.:h Is neither strong ruor
clear In supporting the effectiveness of discussion·. Does the more recent work
of Hanie (2009) support this vle,v?
4. \IJl1en might It be appropriate to use a closed discussion rather tl1an. direct
lnsm1cclon?
5. \¥hat rechnlques co111ld you use to engage learners In a discussion that would
challenge rhen1 ro question rhelr knowledge and assumplilons about an
Important p:rtnclple In your specialist:Held?
6. Ho,v can the use of dllfereni types of questions enco1lfage different types of
thinking when learners are engaged In a discussion?
7 . Ho"' could you use learners· Interest I n onllne chat rooms and discussion
forums to Increase tl'lelr ,vllllngness to learn from who!e-elass discussions?
8 . RevJe,v rhe amcles by Prensky (2001a, 2001b, 2008). com.pare. his views
abour how 'Digital Natives· learn with your vEews about how students learn.
9. What are vhe rnosr Important lmpllcatlons of educational neuroscience for
teachers pla1111tng ro use a 1vhole-class discussion? Refer ro Zull (2002) and
\'l'lll!s (2006),
10. If you are preparing ro teach In rhe Senior Phase: Prepare t\vo lesson plans
that would enable you ro use wh.ole-class discussion with a Grade 7 class and
a Grade 9 class respecrtvely, In your specialist reaching area. V/har lmporraint
dllferen:ces are rhere beci.veen these two lesson plans?
11 . If you are preparing ro reach In rhe lntem1edlare Phase: Prepare two lesson
plans thar would enable you ro use whole-class discussion with a Grade 4
class, with one less:on focused on literacy and the other lesson focused on
numerdcy. What Important differences are there between these two lesson
plans?
USEFUL WEBSITES
• If you are considering using computer-based discussions, you will find a veiy
useful ser of resources for moderators of onllne discussions ar http: //\V\\'W.
emoderarors.com/moderarors/.
• Google Groups, at. hrtp://grou:ps.google.com, Is a free option for setting up w e b ­
based dlscussloru groups.
• Derailed guides r.o help teachers creace and use wl!kls are available on the Wik!
Walk-Through section of the Teacbers Plrs.t website at http://w1vw.reacl1ersfi.rsr.
com/conrent/wlkVlndex.cfm.
Using small-group work as
a teaching strategy

Using small-group work ls a major step In passing control of learning from rhe
teacher to the learners. For parts of the lesson, your principal role becon1es that of
monitor. rather than director. of smdent learning. By making t'hls change you can
enable srudenrs ro engage more deeply 11•lrh the Issues they are Investigating and
ro benefit from direct interact1ons with one another. You may use small-group work
for a whole resson or for Just part of a lesson. but ln either case It should be carefully
planned and closely supeivlsed.
This chapter highlights some factors d1at you should consider when using group
wort. and ldlentl fies some specific teacher behaviours that are frequently asroclated
with It. You will find that many of the Ideas expfored In me previous chapter on
discussions are also applicable to small-group teaching; these Ideas have been
repeated only where It Is necessary for clar1cy. Co-operative lean1lng, which can
be cJns.ldered as a fonnallsect extension of group work, Is dealt 1vlrh Jn the next
chafter.
When you have mastered the Ideas In d1ls chapter you will be able ro:
"" declde when group worl< Is an approprLate stra�egy for helping learners to
achieve partilcular learning outcomes:
A. prepare thoroughly and t'.houghrfully for teaching through group work;
"" create a !earning environment rllat. modvates lean1ers and encourages tbem to
worl< collaboratlvely to achieve the learning outcomes;
"" organise and manage group-work.lessons In ways ,that facU1rare (earning, while
catering for the atlntral, .etJ1111c. language, leanllng sryle and other differences
of rhe learners; and
"" evaluate the success of your group-work nessons.

SOME IMPORTANT FEATURES OF SMALL-GROUP WORK

Group work occurs when you ask two or more learners to \Vork together. There
are many var1alllons to this basic strategy and ea.ch has Its particular advantages,
alrhough few observational srudles can claim ro have ldendfied tile most effective
small-group teaching practices for pardcular su·bJects or lesson content (Good,
Grouws:, Mason. Slavlngs & Cran1er, 1 990). All approaches to grou[P work have the
distinguishing feature that learners ,vork together wlthour direct lnrerventton by
die teacher, for at least some of the rime. This does nor mean thar leamers are le� to
d1elr own devices to learn 1vhatever rlley like. It means t:11ar you have ro structure
the lerumlng environment so that learners am Interact prod.ucavely under your
Indirect guidance as they work towards achieving pan1cular leaml:ng outcomes.
For convenience, we can ,consider thatt there are t.vo basic cypes of small-group
work:
1. The first Is a direct modification of rhe whole-class discussion strategy
(explained ln Chapter 7). die main difference being that the discussion takes
place ln small groups. 1111s approach ro group work ls used ln the same general
situations In which you might use whole-ciass discussion. 'J)'plcally, this will
be In curriculum areas (or for topics) where dlsciUSSlon of different points of
view wm assist leamers to develop deep understanding. In an English language
lesson, for example, the teacher might want learners to explore different
lnrerpreratlons of a poem. By using small-group dtscusslon rather titian whole­
ciass dlscusslon In these slniatlons, there Is more opportillnlty for Individual
learners to voice their opinions (even though their opinions 1\111 be heard by
fewer learners). When small-group discussion Is used I n this way, It Is common
ro conclude the lesoon with some form of sharing or debriefing that Involves
the whole class.
2. A different approach to small-group work can be used In currlCJUlum areas
(or for topics) where learners can benefit from working together and sharling
ideas, but where they are not simply discussing d!fferenc [)Olnts of view about
somed1lng. For example, In a Science lesson, learners might work In small
groups to solve a problem or conduct an expertmem. This rype of group work
allows stud.ems to share the learning casks, observe the outcomes of one
another·s actions and Jointly arrive att conclus:lons.
These two app:roaches to sma!J-group worik obviously require some dlfferent
ap[)roaches to pUannHng, organisation and Implementation, but the success of either
approach often depends on man.y of the factors that help to make a whole-class
discussion successful. 111ese Include:
• a dear focus on learning:
• preparatlon of (and by) the learners:
• a dear set of guldelines for learners:
• careful management of the learning environment;
• direction. bur nor Intrusion, by the reacher:
• wllitng part11:lpar1on by au learners;
• monlrortng and feedback by the reacher:
• careful tlme management by the reacfler and rlle learners: and
• a teacher-directed conciuslon ro the lesson.
REASONS FOR USING SMALL-GROUP WORK
The principal reason for using this teaching strategy Is that, for some desired
outcomes, I t offers greater oppornmltles for srudernts ro learn tham would be
possible ln whole-class teachilng. This ts particularly m1e when achievement of the
outcomes depends on learner collaboratlon. The outcomes you want. studenr5 ro
acilieve through group work may be academic (related specifically to tl1e subject
matter) or social (related to the way students Interact with one another). There are
many slrnations ln which you ml_ghr choose to have srudems work coll.aboradvely;
however, there ls llttle point ln using group work unless lt ts U.kely ro :produce
some desired outcomes that cannot be achieved more easily d1rough whole-class
lnsm1ct1on. Likewise, there Is not much point engaging srndents In group work
when tliey could Just as readlly achieve the outcomes working by themselves.
As well as considering the -0urc.omes you want learners ro achieve, you m usr r.a.ke
lnro account the characrensrt� of the learners. their experience with Independent
learning, the ava!lable resources, and the academic content of your lesson. Some
advantages of group work and some particular reasons for using It are the followlng:
' ' . ' ' '
• Group work shifts the focus from learners being passive recipients of
lnfonnatton to them being active seekers of understanding. Til1s can enhance
learners· ach.levement an{! retentlon. partlculally when the group activities are
challenging .and acdvare multiple sensory systems and execulive fimcdons as
srudenrs snive to make sense of rihelr experiences (WIilis. 2006).
" Group work reaches learners robe less reliant on rJ1e teacher and more reliant
on their own ablllcy oo think and tto seek tnfom1at1on from other sources.
• Group worl< can be a usefitl way of acdv.atlng learners· prior knowledge and
helping diem to reconstruct their understanding of the su!bJecr maner - both
crltlcal elements of learning that can be explained by neuroscience (Sousa,
2010).
• Group work encourdges lean1ers to verbalise their Ideas and feelings, and dlls
can help them to understand the subject 1111atter.
.'
A Group work can Improve lean1ers oral communication skll.ls at the same time
as they leam the cumculum content.
• Encouraging learners to concentrate on communicating clearly with otlners In
d1etr group enhances their m.etaoognltlon: they learn to think bener an.ct with
more self-awareness.
• Group work can Improve l .eamers' ·problem-solving skills and help them discover
that there are multiple solutions ro problems. This helps to Increase learners·
depth of undersrandll!lg and Increases fhe posslblllty that chey wnu look at fumre
problems from several perspecrlves.
• Learners· explaruanons to one another are usually In language that they find
easy to understand. This can help both the explainer and rhe other group
members to master the conrenr.
• Group work can be a useful way of giving learners an. opporrunlty to worl< on
a re.allstlc task that Is too complex or too large to be undert.aken by lndlvlduals.
• Group work can encourage co-operaelon among learners. rn helps them ro learn
respect for one anorher"s strengths and limitations..
• Group work can be a fun way to learn, thus motlvadng learners and Increasing
their active parddpalrton :In learning .
.t. Group work gives all lean1ers an opportunity to c on!Tlbute Ideas and to ny co
master the c:onrenr In a non-threatening environment.
• Group work allows learners to experience roles as leaders, peers and subordinates
and to experience a range of social Interactions.
• \Vhen group tasks require leamers to solve complex problems, they !Provide l!'lch
opportunities for assessing learners· Initiative, creativity, Hex.lblllty, rolera!llce
and communlcalrton skl.1Is.
• Group work allows t11e reach.er to tempordrlly concentrate on a small group of
lear!llers, while orher learners remain acrlvely engaged In reaming within their
own groups.
• \Yhen equipment or facltldes are limited, roml!'lon of groups allows all learners
to use the equipment that Is avallable .
• Group work allows r.he reacher to vazy the le.amlng tasks for different groups
of learners, thus adapting to learners' I1eeds, Interests and abllltles with.out
making these differences too obvious to other learners.
• Group work ;gives rile reacher .a chance to circulate and check lndlvldual learners·
understanding, without placing the learners In a 'testlng· s.InIatlon.
Some ofthe posldve results that can be achieved from group work were also mentioned
as positive ourcome:s of whole-class discussion, and some 11<111 be mennoned as
!X)Sltlve outcomes of co-operdtlve learning (see Chapter 9). 111ere Is no contradiction
In 1111s - It just means that severdl tea'Chlng strategies share some common features
that make them suitable for achieving pardcular types of outcomes.
Youcannote:qiea:roachleveallt11eadvantagesofgroupwork underallctrrumstances,
so ltt ts Important to consider how ch:e narure of the reaming rask and the d1aracre11sctcs of
the Ieamers mlght lnreractro lnHuence fe.art11lng. For example, Hutier (200J) found t11at
sn1denrs who are comfortable exploring dllferent points of view ('tmcertalnty-orteneed'
srudenrs) benefit. more from relatively unstructured group work than do sructenrs who
prefer structured ·reaming situations that do not. evoke uncertainty_

y Activity: Your personal views or group work

1 . Think obool a lesson in which you were learning as a member of o group.

Which of the above actvon1oges seemed lo be achieved in Iha! lesson?
2. Do you enjoy learning os a member of a group? Why or Why not? How will
ttlis influence the way you use group work as a teaching strategy?

ISSUES TO CONSIDER BEFORE USING SMALL-GROUP WORK

It Is nor useful to try to engage learners In group work when they could Jusc as
readily achieve the outcomes working by themselves. A good rule of tfuumb ls to
use group work only when the learning task requires more d1an one person to work
on it slrnultaneously. If you are using smaU groups specifically for tihe purpose of
discussion (so that learners can share their views and offer different oplnffons), then
this ls obviously not an Issue. However, Ifthe task Involves problem solving, researth
or an expernment that could be done by one !eamer, you might 6nd It dlfficuk ro
prevent some learners wasting dme while one group member does an the work. 11,e
following are some other facrors that can limit the effecctveness of group work,
..t. Smdlenis have to learn how ro learn In tihls environment - something thlat may not
be easy for learners who are aocuscomedl to reacher-directed metilods of ilnstruction.
In paftlcular, learners who oome from culrures where learning Is lllSUally teacher­
cllrected may have dlfficulty In changing their expecrdttons and! oontept of teaming.
.t. Some learners find group work cllscornfitl1: 1g. This Is most likely to occur with
srudenrs wh.o have high levels of social anxiety, low levels of soclablllry and
low levels of meracognltive awareness (cant.weU & Andrews. I (}98}.
• some learners may tnltlally l!ind Jt dlflicult to be accepred as group members
(possibly because they are lllnpopular or different In some way from other
members of the grou[I)). n11s allenarto11 can Inhibit their learning.
.t. Some learners may not be able to contribute :productively to the group effort
(perhaps because they lack th:e necessary prior knowledge). Tuey mlght simply
copy In fomtatlon or answers from other group members an.ct. never reaUly
understand the concept or problem that they are working on.
.t. In order ro understand and team, some students need ,ro progress. slowly whlle
solving problems or doing group tasks (such as science experiments). If some
members of a group cry to progress coo qulckly for others, the work might gee.
clone without every I.earner In the group understanding what Is going on.
.t. Hlgh-ab.lllty learners may lose their Incentive ro learn when placed In mlxecl­
abll!ty groups (Cuny, 1997).
• Unless you monitor the leamer Interaction In each group, some learners may
waste tlme discussing Irrelevant Issues, and some students may be reluctant to
do t11elr fair sbare of the group work.
A Some teachers feel uneasy about passing control over to learners. Consequentily,
rhey may structure the group work so tightly that It restrtcrs the spontaneity
rhar should be a key fearure of group work.
..i. The physical arrangemerut of many classrooms Is not suitable for small-group
worl<. 1b be effective. the groups must be able to function without lmenertng
wlth one another.
A Some learners prefer dlrect Jnsnucl!lon and are not happy when the teacher asks
them to 'teach themselves·.
A If lt Is to be used effect1vely group work requires a lot of preparation, probably
more d1an an equivalent lesson d ellvered by direct lnstructilon.
• If group work Is a major pan of your lnsnucllon, formal assessmenr of student
leamlng can cause problems. It ls often dlllkult to assess Individual learners fairly,
and some SUildents may feel uneasy about being judged on the basls of group effon.

Y Activity: Rellect and predict

1 . When you were learning as a member of a group, did you experience, any
of the- above limttations? How d'id you !eel? What did you do about it?
2. Which of the ooove limttation$ ore f1110$I likelY to be important in the
learning area and phase ir, which you will teach? Why'?
.l. Before reading further, 1ry to think of one thing tho! you could do to
minimise the negatiw effects ol each of tile above limitations.

At a glance
z v'•.:-.:.".:.:;:-=-·��.:.p1..,...�-
, - - - - -�,I< ··?_;:,;x....;-1:•\.';'--:,.,w--��.;:;;-1......,,i- •
".�'"::.>G......,,.�-��� ,.;.. �- -- ..__ -' �q.......:.-i;,:,','-'""' ·�•·><---> ,,.,.�·-, ,. .'
-•
• You want to GnCOUrago loomgrs to • Loom'ing can occur moro gffgcfil/Qty
d<>\/81op tt,e,ir social skiDs while 1oom;ng through whole-class inst"-JCtion.
ocodermic content. • l,oomers do not ho\Ji8 sufficient
• You \\/Cini looroors lo shorG loor background kn�go to work
m...iltiple pGf.Specfives through producfillGiy on the group losk.
discuss.ion and debaie. • Them is insufficiGnt trme for learners to
• You wont to b9 abl9 lo \\/Ort with small inV9Stigalo. discuss and think about
groups of learners whiJe others ore ltle things you want !hem lo learn.
ocliv<lt,/ engogocl in !Garning.
• 1hG fQaming lasl:: is too big for
incfrvidual learne,s to undertake.

PREPARING 10 USE GROUP WORK

Your teaching functions and the acdvltles of your learners are d!lTerent In group
work from whac they are In dJrecr lnsITUctlon, and you :need to allow for dlls In your
planning, The followtng steps are necessary If you want rouse small-group lns1:ruction
effecrtvely, and If you want your learners to regard It as a positive learning experience.
step 1: Plan well ahead
The lessons In which you use small-group work must be part or a carefully planned
programme, Group work wlll not be a suitable strategy In all lessons, so you have
to use It at the times when It will be most effective. Although you may somedmes
spontaneously form groups co have learners dilscuss sometl1lng, group work. Will be
most effective If It Is planned wem ahead.
Step 2: Prep:ire your learners tor group work
Tell t11e learners why they wlll be working In groups. If they are not accustomed to
group work. Introduce them tto It ,gradually. Have learners work In pairs before you
expecr tthem ro work In larger groups, and keep the group actlv1tles short until you
are con fictent that learners can rake on more substantial group tasks. It Is a great
advantage ro establish the groups, select the leaders and establish the rules In the
lesson before the group work Is done. The srud.ents will then know what Is expected
of t:hem In the group--worlc lesson, and will be .able to ger down to business quickly.
Step 3: Prep:ire or gatner resource materials
You need to decfde what resources rhe learners wild need and gather these yourself,
or prepare guldellnes to help learners find the resources.
Step 4: DevelOp detailed guidelines tor leame.rs
Learners need to know:
A why they are do1ng tthe group work:
A what outcomes they are supposed to achieve;
A what they have to do:
A what decisions d1ey have to make:
A what product they have tto produce: ,md
A how they wlll be assessed.
It ls vel}' Important for the leamers to understand why rhey are working In groups,
particularly If this Is a strategy tliac you d(I not use very often. Hf you don't explain
why you are using this strategy, some learners may think tf1ar you are simply
nytng rll mi'lkP. llfP. P.asy for yourSP.lf hy havh12 thP. IPJtmP.rs cfo :ill rhP. work!
Step 5: Introduce the issue or problem
In the lesson prior to the group work, Introduce the issue or problem that learners will
be l1wesdgadng, and! explain why It Is Important. Revlse the Important. prerequisite
knowledge char learners wlll build Oil In their group work. Remind learners. of any
prtor reading they need ro do and of any equlpment or matertals that tl1ey need co
brtng ro, the group-work lesson.

y Activity: Some Important planning decisions

1 . WNf can't you use small.group work in every lesson?

2. Whal method of grouping (for exannple random. friendship, ability) do you
think would be best for the leainers '(OU will teach? Does this depend on
the outcomes you want learners to achiew?
3. How would you pick group leaders?
4. How would you make allowances fa learners with special needs?
5. Which lea mers are unlikely to benefil from group-learning ocliVities? Why?
IMPLEMEINTING GROUP WORK
If learners are nor aca1stomed ro working In groups, or If you want (O Improve their
group-work skills, you can srdrt by havUJg them work In pairs. This Is a useful
way to !help leamets develop their llstenlr.g skills and their ablllty to express their
Ideas clearly and concisely. It has the advantage tllat le Is less s.tressful for a leamer
who Is shy or who has poor language skills. Of course. pairing may limit the
number of Ideas that are generated and It Is easy for one pam1er to dominate die
discussion.
 After learners have developed some of the basic skl\ls that diey need for group
work, and after you have done ail the planning th.at was d.escrlbed earfler, a lesson
t11at Involves group worl< might proceed as ro·now,s,
I. At the starr. of lihe lesson. lnfonn learners of the outcomes: they are to achieve
and remind them !liar they will be working In rhelr previously arranged groups.
Remind diem of arrangements, such as "how much time ·they have and how
their learning will be assessed.
2. If necessary, revise briefly a!lly critical Information that che learners will need
for their group work.
3. Under your guidance. the learners form groups. collect any necessary macerJ1als
and start working. Do not rake too much time over lihls or your learners ·will
start to lose Interest and findi od1er ways to amuse themselves.
4. The first Job of die groups wlll be to elect their group leaders and record.ers;
alrematlvely, you may nominate diem. The main task of che leaders ls to
provide the dlrecrlons necessary to get rfielr _groups working and to keep rhe
members on task.
5. The learners then get on with their discussion, followlng any guldellnes that
you have given chem.
6. Move around the groups to maintain an appropriate degree of order. Actend
ro .any dtfllculetes that arise. gain feedback on teamer pr.:>gress and ltelp the
groups to keep on track. Encourage learners to think more deeply about the
things they are teaming. This ls also an opporrunlty for you to get ro know
Individual leam.ers becrer and ro reinforce the message diar you are there as a
resource ro help the students learn. You must oy to keep all svudents engaged
acctvely ln learning; this means that the group rasks must be tnrerestlng and
approprlateily difficult, and that provision must be made for the fact that groups
will wo-rk at different rates.
7. One of your Important funct101ts ls to monitor the _group work and garller
evaluatilve data about how your learners are rhlnl<lng and actl!llg. You need to
Cdemtify diose things that appear to be helping smctents ro learn and those thlt1gs
tthat appear to be creating b.arrters to teaming. You can use this lnformadon
Uater to modify die task or the materials. so that teaming can progress more
effecdvely next time the sntdents are Involved In group work.
8. As the end of dne lesson approaches. It ls important for you to brlmg activities
w a definite concluslon. One of the Important declslorus you w!II need r.o make
ns whether ro have me groups report back ac the end of the lesson. The 11taln
advantage of havln_g the groups report I.Jack ls that the whole class gets to
see the results of die dtscusslons or nnvestlgadons In each group. Howeve-r. If
each group has reached substantlally the same conclUJslons, the reporr.lng can
be IJorlng and unproductive. An alternative [s for you to check on the ntaln
conclus:tons that each group readies (as you move around the clas:sroom) and
tthen summarise these co ncluslons for the class- perhaps calling oru each group
tto add extra points thatt were nor covered In your summary. If you do not
want groups ro report to the class, you might conclude me lesson by mak.lng
some evaluative comments about the learners' efforts and achievement, and
lby tndtcactng what will happen In the next lesson. It ts. tmponant rhat the
con:clus:lon ts dynamic (nor boring), otherwise tt wm be of llttle Interest or
value to the learners.
What should you expect of learners during group work?
Yolilr expectadons of learners wtll vary according to the learning outcomes, tthe
cype of actlvltles you have planned and l!he marurtcy of the learners. If the major
actiV!ty ts a small-group dlscillsslon, your expectations w!ll be very slmllar to rl1ose
outlined In r.tte p revlous chapter on whole-dass discussions. lf leamers are engaged
In some form of group expertme nt or practical actlvity, then you 1\111 have other
expectadons; for example, you wUI expect learners to observe all necessary safety
precautions and not waste nnaterlals. It Is Important vhat r.he learners know what
you expect of them and! how the group work wlll help them to learn. You must
dierefore discuss these things with them before the group work stans.
Regardless of the nature of the group work, you should tell your learners thar.
you have at least die following expectations of them:
A. 1l1e learners should prepare for the :group work ltn whatever way you have
asked them. such as directed reading, fin.ding lnformarton. on the 'Internet, or
gathertng In fonnatlon from the comm.unity.
• Each learner should rake an active role In die group work by contributing Ideas,
responding to the Input firom other learners and sharing the workload.
• All srudencs should listen carefully and! respect the right of od1er group members
to offer opinions thatt might !)e differe11t from dielr own.
• The group should commit co decisions and plans of actlon and each learner
should remain focused on rhe acrnlevement of col!ecdve results_
.a. Inreracrlons should be llmlrect to things relevant ro the group's rask, and rhose
lnreracdons should be free and open - n-0 learner should feel that the group
does nor weJcollile her/his Ideas.
• Group members should hold one anoth.er accountable for the results of the group.
• Learners should co-operate with their group leader.
• Most Importantly, srudents should actively try to learn.

Recording and sharing lde<is

To heCp learners participale in group work and to make it easy for them to
record their ideas. you can, prepare a record sheet tor each group. The learner
who is the reoorder for !hat session will complete this sheet. It might look
some1hing like this:

Group-work recording sheet

1. Today our group was trying to find on answer to the question ... (The
teacher writes the discussion question in adVance on the record sheet
to save time.)
2. The members of our group were ... (The recorder writes the learners"
names. or the teacher may do this in advance.)
3. Our group agreed that ... (As the group discussion progresses. the
recorder makes a brief record of each of the things. that the group
agrees on.)
4. Our group could not agree on ... (As the discussion progresses. the
recorder maKes a brief record of any points on which ttne group could
not reach consensus_)
5. The main conclusions rea,ched by our group were ... : or: the answer
that we have come U:P with to this Question is ... (The recorder tries 10
summarise the group·s conclusions.)
 This can b e a single page with 1he above headings spread out to lea....e room
fDf wri1ing. At the conclusion of the group discussions. there ore several things
that you oon do with these record sheets, depending on your resources and
on how you intend to follow up this lesson. For example, you could copy the
sheets so that each learner has a reco!d of the discussion in his or her group,
or you could pin them rro the classroom wall so that all learners could see the
re-sutts ot the d'iscussions in all the groups.

What might go wro:ng •during group work?

If you prepare yourself and your learners. and If you rry to use the rechntques
suggested eartler In this chapter, you:r small-group activities should be successful.
However, you must be reallsdc and assume thar there might be problems from time to
lime. It Us common to, nm Imo difficulties associated. with the clartfica-tlon of the goals
of the groups, the lnteractlons within the groups, or the motlvatlons and emotions
of group members. The most common problem1s tliat you may encounter, and some
suggested remeclles that Incorporate die Ideas from llbertus ( 1990), are the following:
• Some learners may be more Interested In talking about other dilngs than
becoming Involved ln the group work. The best solution to this problem Is
ro p revent It. Plan carefu:□y to make sure diat the group work Is relevant and
lnrerestlng ro the learners and that they have been adequarely prepared for It
You wlll need to make your expecratJons clear to learners, and o,;:caslonally
speak quietly ro !ndlvldual learners ro brin_g them back on task.
A One learner may assume a dominant role In a group, either because sh.e/he wants
to lead. or because the other learners In the group are reluctant to ·participate.
This problen1 Is best avoided by raking the trouble, over an extended period of
time, ro help students learn how to learn from one another. By developlng die
learners· cornmunlca.tlon skllis. and by establlshlag clear guldellnes for how
groups are to operate, you wlfl encourage all lean1ers to participate as equals.
sometimes Jt wlll be useful to make the dominant learner the group leader. but
with very clear gutctellne.s about the leacters role. If one learner Is dominating
because che others simply don't want tto panlclpate, you must ask yourself why
they are not Interested. Quite possibly:, you have given the group a (ask that Is
not :Interesting to them, or one they perceive as being too difficult.
• Group members may :spend roo much lime discussing one point.and not consider
others. To avoid this, yoiI can encourage students to use techniques such as
brainstorming and prtorlctslng Ideas before dlscusstng them In depd1.
• On most occasions w·hen you use small-group work, you will want the learners
to come ro some conclusions or ro produce some product (which might be
simply a list of their .Ideas). Tills means group members will probably have to
reach some form of consensus, and d1ls may be difficult to ac:hJeve. You can
help learners by explaining tthat reaching consensus ls a process of making
compromises. and chat, without some consensus. there Is unlikely ro be any
progress. Thils does not mean that within each group the learners always have
to agree with one another: It -does mean that learners need. to understand that
consensus (even agreeing to disagree) Is an Important p,an of working together.
Many of the difficulties wlrh small-group work can be minimised If you rake a vel)'
systematic approach to planning and organising your classes. Always try to anticipate
possible problems and deal with them promptly and effectively lf they do arise.
If group work Is to result In meaningful learnlng, learners have ro be free to
talk, de:bare. dis.agre e and follow Ideas that nnay or may not be productive. Even
with mature learners, the freedom necessaiy for productive discussion provides the
opportunity. andl perhaps the tempratlon. ro wasre time. �Vandertng from the cask
may not always be delUberare, bur It ls very llkely ro happen. If you try fo keep
the groups on task through repeated lnteiventlons. you will probably annoy some
learners and distract those who are on task. It Is far better ro encm1rage groul}S ro
be self-regulatory.
One of th.e most common concerns rlla-t teachers have about group work ls how
co assess the learners. l11e conce·m usually focuses on whether it ls approprtar.e co
give all learners the same mark for a group task, particularly when It ls suspected
d1at learners have not made equal conrrtbutlons. There are several things to
consider wnen addressing t111s Issue. l'he most Important point to remember ls it'.hae
lean1eis are engaging In group work ro 'help them learn . It. Is their learning, not
d1elr parddpadon. that you should focus on when making assess:menr decisions.
Uld!rnarely, leamlng ls an individual endeavour, so assessment should focus on the
extent to which each lndlvldual learner has been able ro achieve the outcomes. vou
may not be able to determine r111s without assess111g each leamer dlrecrly.

y Activity: Solving group-work problems

De-velop a brief written explanation of how you would deal with each of the
fallowing situations in a class where you were using small-group learning.
Discuss your ideas with a colleague teacher or fellow studenl.
1. A learner has low abili1y and a read ing age far lower lhan olher class
members. She is molivaled to participale in group activilies.but she is so
slow that other learners do not wanff to work with her.
2. A learner who is highly motivated. a high achiever and a 1ast worker
becomes frustroted when other group members worl< slowly and want lo
chat aboul lheir weekend a ctivities.
3. A disruplive learner keeps wandering around and annoying learners in
other groups.
4. A learner refuses to c<r0perate wilh the group leader and wants to wOII(
a!one.
5. A dispule develops belween two learners because they disagree aboul
how the group lasK should be done.

TEACHER RESPONSIBILITIES WHEN USING GROUP WORK

To use group work effectively, you need the .same general teachtng comperenctes
d1ar are requlred for direct lnsrrucdon; however, in addldon you alro need skllls to
control the group dynamics, keep the students on rask and help stucrents consollctlate
their learning.
Controlling the group dynamics
You cannot ,expecc. Jeamers ro work effecltvely In groups If you Just sit l)ack amt 'let
d1lngs happen·. You must control several factors that Influence group dynamics so
d1at your learners can work productively. Some of the lm1Portanr �hlngs you have
ro do as part of this conllfol are discussed in the following sections.
Form groups of an appropriate siZe
If tile groups are too large, It will be dlffiQ!lt for the leader to keep group members
on task. and each learner wl\! have limited oppommll1es to contrtbute. If the groups
are too small, you may not gee. the diversity of opinion and rang,e of kno,wledge
that are necessaiy for producdve discussions (al though, as mentioned earlier In
this chapter, there are some special reason.s for having learners work In pairs). Four
or live seems to be an optimal number of learners for small-group discussion, as
long as the group members possess all the skills required ro accomplish the group
cask. When the group actlvl!;y Involves more than dlocusslon (for example. when
learners are working rogecher on a science experiment), you will sometimes !ind
that three ls a better group size.

Determine an effective gioup composition

Group work ls more effective lf you use le frequently, and you wtU save a lot of dme If
learners wor1< In the same group each time. For some of the reasons given below, you
may wanr ro change 11'.he groups at regular lmervals. perhaps at the start of each renn.
Tiie optlons for fanning the groups are to Jet the learners form tllelr own groups
or to dlvlde diem Imo groups yourself. The advantage of !erring learners form
d1elr own groups ls thar d1ey will probably want ro work with th.elr friends and,
therefor.e. they are more likely to co-operate With one another. Howe\ler, several
problems may occur with friendship groups: die leamers may be more Interested
In talking about personal matters than concentradng on leaming; group members
may be dominated by the leader of their friendship group; or members of the class
may fee:I left our, because they are nor. paJt of a particular frlendlshlp group. In most
cases yo11 will wane ro direct die smctents Into groups, because this gives you more
control over how the smdents wlll lnteract.
If you decide ro nomlnare the group members, you have two choices - to make
the groups as unlfom as possible or to mix them up as much as possible. If you
form homogeneous groups (learners of similar abllltles, knowledge, ethnlclt;y, etc).
d1Is may help the groups to be cohesive and co-operative. However, there ls some
evidence that mixing groups on the basis of abllltles and od1er characteristics may
result In more productive group work. This :Issue ls addressed In mo re derall In
Chapter 9. The Monressor1 approach ro education takes mixed grouping to another
level by having mixed-age clasres. Some of tile advanrdges and llmltaclons of tills
strategy are explored by Bourne (2009), and It ls Interesting ro consider how these
factors could Inform teachers· use of groups In regular clas:ses.

Encourage all learners to participate

It l:s es:sendal to use group tasks that explicitly require Input from all group
members. This reinforces the need for al:I learners to participate and places some
peer pressure on any group members who don't contdbure. When all members of
a group parfilclpam. It Is more likely t:llat the group will succeed. In Its task, and tills
reinforces the benefrts of part1dpatlon.
You might need to develop some formal ways of encouragJng participation and
reinforcing the value of each learner's contribution. For example, Michaelsen, Fl.nk
and Knight ('1997) suggest that when the group activity ls primarily a discussion,
It Is useful to hand our an Individual worksheet and ask participants to ta1'e a few
minutes to think through the Issues and wnte down t11elr Ideas pnor ro the start of
the grol1p d!sc11sslon. This reinforces the message that ea.:h learner's conrrtbutton
ls valuable.
 \'/hen you are helping sntdelllts to develop their group�work skills. It Is wo•rth
emphasising that they can contrtlmte In basically two ways - either task-related or
atmosphere-related:
1. 'J'ask-related conmbutlons can lnducte providing new Ideas, reqillestlng
Information from others, giving opinions, asking quest1ons. clarifying points
and summanslng the discussion.
2. Conmbudons d1at help to make the group am1osphere more productive can
Include encouraging others, helplng die group ro resolve differences of opinion
or reach compromises, and empha:slslng shared views.
Foster group cohesion
Cohesive groups are those In wl!Jch the learners feel they belong and wllllngly
work together to achieve rhe group goals. Most writers on the topic suggest thar
die greare: the cohesion of die group, the better r:he paltlc:lpatton. commun.lcatlon
and positive feelings of Its members - au things chat lead ro better learning. Group
cohesion also reduces stress, and rills atcts learning (Jmmoronu-Yang & Faeil'.11.
2010). Group cohesfon should be developed deliberately, rather than just being left
to happen. Cohesion Is more Ulkely If you estaMlsh clearexpectatlons about the way
In which learner s will Interact wlril1 one anod1er, esrablLsh clear goals for each group
and keep the group membership stable.
Somedmes you will 6nd that group cohesion Improves If there Is some form
of exremaf Incentive for the group to be successful. one approach Is to make the
group actlvllles competldve, so d1at rhe learners are encouraged to ser aside any
personal differences and work towards the common goal of learning more and/or
producing a better product. than other groups. Michaelsen. Fink. and Knight. ( 1997)
suggest that, for this approach ro be effective. the group members must be provided
w![h timely feedl>ack. on rhelr performance. If groups have no way of knowing how
well tl1ey are performing, learners are likely to become fn1srrated or stressed. and
this can easily destroy group cohesion. This can be a pardcular problem If ,he group
task ls to produce a complex product (such as a group research report) that requires
several weeks of work Inside and oucslde class.

Offer encouragement
If you prallie lean1ers for their (group) elfons, and agreewlth some of tl1econcluslons
t11ey a r e reaching, ahls wlll help them r.o see that. tllelr co-operative elfons are
worthwhile. How you do this wlll depend on the age of ll1e learners (as does any
ot11er form ofleamer feedback and encouragement). You might say something like,
'This group ls worklng well; you have developed ,two veiy Imaginative solutlons to
the problen.'

Mediate disputes and help learners reach compromises

It . Is lnevltallle �hat there will be some disagreements 1JeIween learners working
In groups. Even though you may have .spent considerable time developing their
communication sklll s and stressing the llllportance of their accepting all kleas and
opinions, some conflicts will arise. You may have ro Intervene ro help rhe learners
tum these con:fllccs Into constructive teaming experiences. 11J. help reconcile
differences among group members and get a group working productlvely, you
might nave ro say something llke; 'Kgabc>'s suggestion Is obviously a veIJ pracrJcaJ
one for solving this problem In the short cem1. but Piet seems ro !be loolJng for a
f 1 ,1 n ,t •I 1 I , I 1 I I I f • I ,,, I 11 I
 - . -
long-tem1 soludon. Rath.er than debate which approach ls. best. let's consider how
we can (ake the best features of these two suggesd.ons and solve both the long- and
sho rt-tenu problems..'
sometlmes you mlglu have ro help group members to reach agreement by
persuading one or more of them co modify their l)OSlllon, or admit to an error. For
example, It might be appropriate to say something like: 'It seems !'hat both Sal>lna
and Hanna have made valid points that are really not as dlfferenr as they first
appear. If you ignore those minor differe.uces for a while, and concentrate on the
points of agreement. your group should oe able to solve the problem.'
Encourage ac1ive listening
Leamers will somettmes forget that listening Is a very Important part of group work.
If they are to learn from one anod1er. t'.hey must listen carefully and not be concen1ed
Just 111111 offering their own suggestions. You may need til remind tl1e learners ci1at
most of their group-work rime should. be spent llstenln_g and thinking. To make fills
point, you mlgh-r say somethJng like: 'Let's stop for a minute. Everybody is talking
at once. If ,ve wanc to make any progress, we have to listen to each Idea and think
about it. TI1e group leader will decide who speaks next.'
Help group leaders to .be effective
Appropriate group leadership ls necessary lf r.he groups are to achieve tiheir goals
In a co-operative and productive way. Do not assume that leamers wlll have tthe
skills to be effecClve group leaders: help rhem to develop t11ese skllls. As a start, you
will need ro establish clear guidelines for group leaders. make sure d1at all group
members understand these, and monJtor the groups to ensure that the leaders are
able to ful!ll their roles. All learners must understand die leader's role and they
must be prepared ro accept the directions provided by the leader. As pan: of your
medium-term planning, you mlgnr have to engage learners ln short acl1vltles that
wlll develop chelr skills as group leaders.

y Activity: Gli'OUP leodershlp

1 . Wtr,f is necessary to have a group leader?
it
2. When you are working as a learner with o group of other learners, Clo you
like to be the group leoclef? Why?
3. What ore the advantages and disadvantages of having each group
select its own l'kladel'?
4. Whal things do you lhink a group leader should do to keep the gioup on
task?
5. Make a list of suggestions lha1 you could give learners to help 1hem be
effective group leaders

Keeping the groups on task

Many lean1ers fi ml ltt dlfficulr. to work In groups or ro keep their discussions focused
on the rhlngs rhey are trying ro learn. You may illave ro spend consldernble lilme
helping groups fo sray on task, ro concentrate on the issues to be resolved, or to
focus on th:e problem to be solved. You need oo be able to do this wlthour. lntrudlng
too much on the group activities. The following sections dLscus:s some of the things
yo1u can do ro help the learners.
Make the task clear and specific
You cannot expect the learners to scay on cask if they are unclear about what they
should be doing., what they should be learning, how muchi lime they have for the
task or lllo,v thelr performance wlll be assessed.

Help the group to define its position and refocus on the task
Learners who have not had much exposure to working In groups may tend to get lost
In t11e process and have d ifficulty seeing Just where they are In relation ro the goals of
the group work. You may need to help !11e group define lili position and refocus on lili
goals. For example, you might listen to the group discussion for a, while and then say
something like: 'You seem ro have explored die advantages of this des.lgn thoroughly.
However, I have heard only one disadvantage mentioned. Perhaps you should ny
ro Identify a few more disadvantages before you dlscuss how the protorype could be
produced.' Prom.pts such as this can encourage the learners to ask themselves the
question: 'Where are we In our discussion and where do we need ro go from here?'

Prompt learners to consider a new line of thought

If a group ls sillCk for Ideas. or some learners seem to be losing Interest. you can
present them with new challenges. For example, I f your learners were w·orklng In
groups co develop Ideas for solving Jo'hannesbi1rg·s traffic problems. you could add
a new dJmenslon by suggesting d1at d1ey imagine what would happen if rhere were
no taxis: or If businesses were open for only four hours a day. By consldertng these
extreme clrcums.tances, learners might. be: prompted ro think of new directions for
sol\1lng the or iginal problem. Keep prompting them wirh the questlon 'What would
r
happen If .. . If learners are famlllar w:irh the techniques. you could encourdge
them to use De Jl.ono's 'ThmkJng Hars· (De Bono. 1985) as a way of generating
different perspectives on a problem or Issue.

Give /earners information directty

If a group seems to be Bounderlng because they lack critical Information, you can
save considerable time and lean1er frustration by providing d1at Information to
them (parctcularly 1r they are not aware that rmey are mlssnng somerllln. g viral). At
first, this mJghc. seem to be d.efeallng rhe purpose of having die learners work co­
operatively and with less rellance on you. However. If you explain to lear111ers why
yow are giving them the 111formallon and how they could gee ltr for d1emse!ves 111
fumre. you will be helping th.em co learn r.o be Independent.

Ask a learner to proVide specific information

As you monitor the activities of lean1ers working In groups, you will often find
that d1eir learning would progress much fasrer If the group dlrecred Its attention
co s:ome crucial IJlOlnr. To help the group focu:s om this point, you can ask one or
more members to provide facts or examples, or give tltelr opinions about the issue
or problem being discussed. For example. If learners are trying to solve a problem.
bur clearly they have nor given :sufficient attention ro some of the causes of the
problem, you could say somed1lng lllce, '\>Vhac do you think could have b-een done
to prevent this problem occurring In the first place?' It Is Important. to keep the
lean1ers thlnkJng, and working towards a specific goal.
Give your opinion
You sh.ould encourage learners to form and sh.are oplnlons on the Jssues they are
dlscusslng, rhe appr0ach t11elr group ls ral<lng to rJ1e rask, and tne thln_gs they are
or
learning. one way sho,wlng them that Ir Is leg1t1mare -rohave an opinion Is to state
your o,vn oplnlon on the Jssue beJng dlscussed. You can also rake fhls opportunlty
to shO\\' learners how your own Ideas have developed or changed. For example, you
could say somed1Jng 11ke ·1 used to dunk that .... but after I read ... I could see that
there was anotller way of lool<1ng at the problem.· Of course, you must take care not
to creare die lmpre.sslon that you are Imposing your opinion on the learners.

Hefp learners to record the results of their learning efforts

Learners will often be able to concenuare better on leam1ng If they do nor have
ro worry al}our makJng notes. so It ls useful co appolnr one group member as l!he
recorder for each group-work session. This Is ,equally useful for a grour dlscusston
and for a group activity such as: a oclence expenmenr_ To make It easler for l!he
recorder, and to Improve the quallry of the Jnfom1at1on that Is recorded, you might
have to provlde some guldellnes:. Structured handou� (such as die example of a
recording sheet given earlier 111 this chapter} on which there are blank spaces for
specific Information ro be written can be a useful tool. Of' course, once the small­
group actlvltles have been completed, It Is necessary for you to have some way of
enabling all rhe smctents In each group ro• ger coples of the recorded Information.
It may also be worthwhile giving each learner a copy of the Information recorded
by other groups. TI1erefore, you have to plaa1 and prepare for the recording and
dlstrlbutlon of the our.comes of the group work.
Supervising group worlk
It Is the reacher's responsibility ro ensure d1at everything Is functlonlng smoothly,
with me leamers focused on lean1Jng and nor wasting time. To achieve t.hls, you
have ro provide learners with appropriate directions and monitor thelr actlvttles. If
lean1ers are given Insufficient guidance, groups can become dysfunctional and d1ls
can easily lead r.o student fmstratlon and conflict.
\.Yhll.e learners are worklng In groups. you should position yourself ln such a way
that you are aware of what each group Is doing. When you are helping a particular
group, you still need to remaJn aware of whatever else ls happenlng In the room_ To
mlnlmlse problems, move closer co any group that you antlclpaite will experience or
create problems. Once group acdvltles have starred, you may Ile required ro adopt
any one of the following roles to help a particular group:
.a. Tutor. Although small-group work Is Intended to be leame:r-centred, th.ere
will be tlmes when you have to Instruct a learner, or group of lean1ers, by
provldlng t11em wlth additional Information. explalnlng things ro them or
simply answering their quesfilons. You mlght. rake on d1ls role If rhe group ls
not maklng adequate progress.
"' Discussion leader. Sometlmes you need to lnrervene and temporarlly rake
over the leadership of a group, asking questions or making comments and
suggestions. so as to promote sruden.t leaimlng and thinking. You mlghr. need
to take on this role If the designated group leader Is temporarily unable to keep
the group focused or productive.
• Consultant. Sometimes tthe learners In a group will be unsure of the vaUdity of
the conclusions they are reaching, possibly because of thel r lack of knowledge
of the subject. You might then engage In supportive lnteracdon with the
leamers, actlng as a resource to provide Information orcommen.r on 1J1elr I1eas.
However. the learners should be encouraged tony to solve their own problems
and ro ask you questions only when they really need ro.
• Cownsellor. If a group is not functioning co-operatively, you may need to
he!p learners understtand the group dynamics and focus their attention on the
assigned task.
Bringing group work to a conclusion
Whether learners are erugaged In small-group discussions or some other form of
group work, you should! plan an effectl,e way of bringing the learning episode
to a logical conclusion - both within ea:h group and for the class as a whole.
Within each group, the goal w!II be that learners have reached consensus, &Jived
d1e problem or ,completed tl1e cask. llut you also have ro decide whed1er and in
what ,v-ay d1e groups wlll share the outcomes of their group learning. Tite main
reason !for havlmg the groups share Is that It provides an opportunity for further
learning. For example, If rhe group task 15 ro solve a problem, It wlll be beneficial
for the groups to share the different approaches that they took to solve the problem.
However, If the shartng Is not done effectively, It can be a botlng and demotivating
experience - exactly what you do not want.
The first step towards effective shartng Is to design grou:P tasks tihar require each
group to make a specific choice (for example, how to solve a problem). The g:oups
can then produotlvely share and defend two dilngs: rheir choice and! the reasons for
their choice. This rulows for natural comp.rtsons, bccausc different grottpG w!ll huve
made dlfferenr choices or the same ch.olces for dlfferentt reasons. 111Is can benefit all
learners. by provlctlng them with alreman,·e perspectives. on t11e other hand, If the
group task simply requires each group to produce essentially the same result b1 the
same way, there wlll be very lltde gained tom the groups sharlmg their results.
TI1e second step rowards effectlve sharing ls to be creative In tile way In which
you ask the groups to share the results of their learnt ng. One common merl'Kld of
shartng Is ro have one repre&entatlve of each group report lhe group's results to the
whole class (for example, descrtblng how ·me group went about solving the problem
. . .
and what conclusions they reach.ed). This approaclt has several drawbacks:
1. ream be quire tlme-consumlng ff there are four or f,ve groups reporclng.
2. It can become rather boring, parrilcularfy If there Is not much variation In what
Is oelng reporrect from each group.
3. It can result In lnfonnatlon ovecload, making It <tlflicult for learners tto keep
crack of what each group reported and to focus on Important. differences In rhe
approaches or results.
Michaelsen, Flnk and KnJght (1997) suggest rJ1at there are two keys to minimising
these problems. The first Is r.o keep the 'output' of the group activity as simple or
specific as possible. The second Is to minimise the time required for each groop ro
report Its results. Toe following exami(Jle Is based on these ptlnclples.
suppose a reacher of Technology wanrs learners ro unctersranct me key vartallles
that need to be considered when designing a product to be sold to the general
pubUc. The group task could be worded as follows: 'Select what you consider to be
the most Important design feamre In the commercial success o.f the Apple !Pal. Be
prepared to explain the rationale for your cholce. • Rather than simply having each
group make a five-minute presentation ro reveal and defend Its choice, the group
activtey could be organised as follows:
1. TI1e groups are prerenred with the tas'k and given an appropriate time (perhaps
five minutes) to make Its choice and record !t on a piece of paper such as a Post-It
note. (This ts a very specific outcome.)
2. Each group then sticks Its Post-It note on a large plcrure of an !Pad diat die teacher
has placed on the board. [This ts a very rapid presentation of rhe ourrome.)
3. The groups then have ten minutes to fommlate quesnons they would Uke to ask
the other groups about their choice of the most lmponant design fearure. These
questlons have co be more probing than simply 'Why did you ch005e ... ?' (This
forces die groups to think about the conclusions reached by other groups.)
4. The groups then ask and! answer these questions. [1111s probing brings our t11e
rational.es used by each group and allows them to be easily com[Pared.)
5. Tiie reacher takes a few minutes at the end of the lesson to summanse die main
outcomes of the group task.. (This. helps sn.1dents to consolldate their learning.)
SOME PHYSICAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR SMAL!l.-GROIUP WORK
The main reasons for using group work are to allow leamers to share Ideas. debate
Issues and come to a common understanding of content that wtill help them ro
achieve some parrtoular !earning outcomes. Therefore. It Is essential that groups
be arramged so that the learners can communicate with one another easlly and
concentrate on leanilng. How you do this wlll depend on the physical facilities that
are available, the number of learners, the mallllrlty of the leamers, their experience
with group work and the amount of control you wish to have over the groups. The
following suggest1ons wlll help you ro devise an appropliare arrangement for group
work In your reaching stmarton.

Group work in a classroom that is not overcrowded

If your learners are not very experienced with group work, you wlll want to have
diem working In groups for only short periods of tlnne. There are two reasons for this:
first, so that you do nor waste time If they cannot work productively: and second. so
tliat you can keep tight control until they learn ro take more responstb!Ury for their
leamlng. At rhJs stage, It Js useful to Integrate group work with cttrect lnsm1cnon. At,
an appropriate point In the lesson, you can form leam.ers tnto groups of cwo to six
ro discuss an Issue or a problem for a short pertod (no more than five minutes). and
possibly then to report back to the rest of the class_ Usually, you would get learners
ro Join with others sirring Immediately around ithem. rather than moving to a special
place In the dassroom. These temporary groups are sometlimes called buzz groups.
The groups would normally be expected ro work on their own (without. the reacher
contrlbutlng to any particular group). However. you should move around tlte room
and listen to some of the group discussions. As well as being a good way to Introduce
learners to group work, buzz groups can be an effective way to get t11em to focus on
Important. Issues, to dartl'y their thoughts about the Issues you have been presenting,
and ro actively cry to construct their own understanding of rJiese Issues.
\-vhen learners become more experienced In group work. you can extend the time
for these buzz groups to I O or ! 5 minutes. and eventually base whole lessons around
group work. 1'orwhole-lesso111 group work, you may want ro rearrange tile classroom
fumtmre (If this Is possible). Each group needs to be far enough from otlier groups
to minimise <llstractlons. The groups should also be arranged so rllar It Is easy for the
reacher to m.o nltor the learners and assist tihem If necessary. An Ideal slruadon would
be r.o have rJ1e groups ln. a large room where d1ey conld \1•ork without lntenuptlon
and. yon could easlly move from group to group whlle keeping die whole class under
observation. This ideal situation rdfely exists. so you have to compromise.
Group work in a room with fixed seating
Even when yon cannot rearrange the layout of tthe classroom. you can s:dll use
a fom1 of group work. You wlll need to lnfonn rhe learners ln advance that they
wlll be working 111 groups and ask tltem to sit In [!)airs. At the approplilare time In
the lesson. you ran ask them ro discuss Issues or questions with rltelr parmer. You
mtg.ht t11en ask .alternate ro\vs to tum around and face die learners behind !hem.
so that they can worl< In groups of four. Once che learners become accustomed co
these small-group discussions, they will be able r.o change from ilscenlng to you.
to discussion. ro llsrentng again. without any undue disruption of your lesson.
Of course, In these slmallons It ls llk.ety that you have large numbers of learners
In the class. so Ir w!ll probably not be possible to have pairs or groups report tthe
ouocomes of their discussions orally. However. you may want r.o devise techniques
that enable you ro get quick feedback from lean1ers.

Group work outside the classroom

If you have too many learners to allow you to use group work In your classroom.
and If c.here are no larger Indoor areas avallable, you could consider conducting
your group work outdoors. This creates some special dlfliculttes, but It may be
worth the effort. You could use the fo11ow"1ng procedure:
.-. Prepare your learners In :advance for the group work. so that tney kno\v what
they wlll be doing and why they are doing It.
• Make sure learners understand that they \Vlll be going outside ro learn, not Just
co g,er some fresh alr.
• Check the locatlon you wlll use. :so tl:lat you know In advance exacdy where
you want the dlfl'erenr groups of lean1ers to go. If you have. say, ten groups
of learners. then you need co sel.ect ten su1ra·b1e Cocations. Toke tnco account
aspects such a s rhe safety of the Iearners. ava!lable shade, ·possible dlsn1pctons
co other classes, and distractions such as passing pedestrians. Locate all groups
so d1ar you can see all the lean1ers all che dme. Do not spread them out too
much. or you wtll nor be able to move easily fro111 group ro group. It wlll help
If each location has a dlstlncdve fearure (you could make a set of numbered
signs). so that tlhe learners can move to their nomlnared locarton \Vlthout any
confusion. They must undersrandl chat they \VUI move to one of the nominated
locations and stay there for t11e duration of rhe group work.
Jt. Before you move the learners outside. divide them Into groups. nominate
the group leaders and r&orders, and remHnd them of what you want t11em co
achieve. Don't forget co tell them how long they will have for the group work
and that they are required co return to the classroom afterwards.
You, can d1en move the leamers ou rslde and get them sranect on d1elr group wark. You
wlll need ro move from group to group for the same reasons you would lf they were
wor:klng ln a classroom. However, you may have to pay special attentlon to keeping the
learners fixused on their task, because d1ere will probably be more dlsnact:1011s outside
than Inside. You should nor expect great success the first time you cry this approach
co group wo·f1<. It will seem novel to die learners a11d they might nox setille oown ro
wor:k very quickly. However, If you mal<e outdoor group work a regular fearure of your
teaching, It wlll cease ro be unusual and learn.ers will aocepc It as a normal part. of
their leam�1g. outrtoor group work Is exc:el1mt preparation for other outdoor learning
actlvltles, such as pro:blem solving {chapter I OJ and Inquiry (chaprer 'I 1).

y Activity: Planning tor outdoor group work

1 . Draw a simple plan of o schoOI where you have been a learner or a

student teacher. or where you currently leach. On the pion, show majcr
features such os classrooms. asseml:ly areas. file administration building.
spcrts and playing fields, and odjoinng slre,ets.
2. Now imagine that you ore a teacher al this sc hool and that you have a
class of 50 learners (you can decide what grade). Show on !he plan an
out.:Joor area thal you could use for group work Wifh lhese 50 learners.
Then answer the fallowing questions:
a. How many groups will you u se? Why?
b. HowdidyouelecideYh'lich outdoor areo10,use?
c. Could you use !his area in summer and Winter? Why?
d. What things might distract your learners as lfley worked outside?
t'!. Would yuu, ltx.Ju lt'!I S LJt" likt'!I y lo U:;ruµI l(:.'(.111 �s ii l un �I <..:lu:,s�?
f. How would you keep !rack of what your learners were doing?
g. What would you do to keep Ille loomers on task?
h. Howwould you bring the lesson to a dose?
3. Discuss your answers to these questions with a colleague learner or
teacher.

ONLINE GROUP WORK

If learners have ready .access to computers (either at school or at home), It ls
feasible to nnrroduce them to onllne group work. For many South Afrtcan tearners
d1ls ma;y never be a reality, bur where It Is possible this fom1 ofleam.lng can be very
rewarding. Basically, onllne group work consists of:
1. consrructtng a group task rhar requires learners ro engage with rhe content and
share melr developing ttdeas through onllne coUabor.atlon. This task should
emphasise the learning outcomes rather than the lean1lng process;
2. providing learners with a suitable onllne framework (email. discussion board.
blog sire, ere) for sharing thelr Ideas. This framework. should enoourdge
learners ro Interact In ways rhat suit the leamlng ·task and the srudems· stage
of development:
3. monitoring the worl< of the learners and, if ncc=ary, Jntc,rvcnlng ro de.11 with
ISSU'!S rhar 1l1e learners cannot resolve themselves (such as a non-contributing
group member) : and
4. assessing me learners· work (either thenr ongoing contributions or the final
product they produce, or both).
Online smal i -grl}up work ls an extension of rile e c!Jscusslons
- Introduced In Chapter
7. It has the same genernl .advantages .and llmltatlons, iJut requires learners to
work m ore collaboratively. 11he main advantage of this approach to group work Is
d1at learners have an op pornmlry ro reflect on the developing Ideas that are being
put forward., and time to construct a reasoned response ro the suggesllons of each
group mem!ber. This encourages learners ro be open to and respect 1ihe work. of
others.
Masek and Hungs«on (200 7J describe the benefits and p!Cfalls of ,�sing biogs and
wlkls as on line tools to aid group work In a untverslty course. They found that
these flexible tools motivated. learners and provided a valuable means of rewarding
consistent s!udent effort The basic structure of their system could easily be adapted
for use with. senflor S(hool smden rs. Dulfy and Bruns (2006) provide a very useful
summary or the use of biogs and wlkls In education and emphasise that effective
use of these technologies requires both slllldents and teachers to have an adequate
set of dlgltaJ llte,ades . They also cialm that bJogs and. wlkls can a£1ow students to
demonstrate critical thinking, ral<e creal1ve risks and make sophisticated use of
language.
Baskin (2001 :277) makes the Interesdng observation tllar. onllne group work
Is a 'less volatile leanllng envlronrnell't' than real-time group work, because
Interpersonal lsrues are less likely to Interfere with the work of the group. He also
claims that tr ts more effective at promoting an Hncreased sense of re:,ponstbillty
for learning and fo-r self- and time-management as a learner. Atkins (201 O)
claims that usln:g technologies such as a wlkl In conjunction with Google Docs as
the organisational focus of a project can make group work more productive. He
emphasises d1ar this fornn of collaboradon can 'help group members organize their
conl'.libut1011s, respond ro others· Ideas, communicate with membe:rs of the group
(easily rorwardlog llnks or elecrronlc documents, for example), and facilitate a way
ro prerenr the fit1al group project to an audience·.
In general. the problems that might arise during onllne group work are similar to
those that arise In real-time group work, rnamely:
• lear111ers· dlsllke of group worl<;
_., the fom1atloJ1 of groups:
.., learners· lack of group-work skills:
.;. free-riding or non-participating learners:
• differences 111 learner abllllles; and!
• assessment.
Toe followlng sr.raregles for minimising these problems Incorporate tthe suggesllons
of Roberts amd Mcln.nerney (200 7):
• Explain to le:amers why you are using on line g.roup work and ho-w It wlll beneBt
rhem
.;. MaKe the as:sessment criteria specific !before learners commence the rask.
• Either randomly allocate learners to groups or dellberntely make the groups
hererogeneo us.
• Identify the skllls that leamers will need to work effectively In onllne groups
and, If necessaiy, teach them these skills.
.., Use peer pressure and your own direct intervention ro encourage non­
partlclpadng learners ro parrlclpare.
• Use an assessment scheme that encourages pal!tlclpatlon and re\vards Individual
learning.
REFLECTING ON THE SUCCESS OF YOUR GROUP-WORK
LESSONS
The basic evaluatlo11 question ro ask Is, 'Did the smdents achteve t11e learning
outcomes?' In addition t:o thJs focus on learning outcomes, lt :Is useful to ask the
following questions 1har focus on rl1e Jean11ng process,
• Did all learners pantclpaue acllvely In the group work? If not, why nor.
• Were the groups. and their acdvltles manageable? If nor, why nor?
• Were th:e group acllvltles sufficlently complex to challenge the learners and
engage rhem tn U1Igher-order rhlnklng?
A Was mere sufficient ltlme for each group oo finish ahe set activities and reach a
COJKIUsion?
• Were the stu1den 1S engaged tn deep or surface learning?
• Did the learners achieve the type of quality leamtrng described ln Chapter I?
• Was each group leader ef.fecllve? If not, why not?
• Did the other group members (for example, the recorder) fulfil their roles
effectively?
.._ Did the learners co-o-perare with one another. .and involve .all members of rllelr
group Ill the discussions and decisions? Did all the groups manage this?
• was the method of repomng back effective?
• Did the learners enjoy the experience?
• How could thls group actlvlty be improved for future classes?
REVIEW AND REFLECT ON YOUR LEARNIING
Develop answers to each. of these quesrtons and dtscuss your answeis with another
smdent or wtth an experienced reacher:
I. Considered front the learners' point of view, how ls learning ln a group different
from learning 111 a whole-elass situation?
2. Which leameis are unlikely ro benefit from group learning. acllvlcies? Why?
3. How does the type of s:ubJect matter to be learned Influence your decisions
about the appropriateness of small-group work as a means of maxlmlslng
!earning?
4. Wllat do rheortes of cognitive develo;pmenr, such as tl'lose proposed by Piaget
and vygotsky, rell us abom how leameis learn In group slruatlons?
5. From a construietlvlst perspective, why Is group work an e!Tecllve teaching
strategy?
6. Why mJghr group work take more dme co plan than direct lnsemctton?
7. From your specialist teaching area, tdenrlfy a specific [{)pie that would Ile
suitable for teachlng through small-group work. BrleEly explaln 11•hy learners
might learn more about tile topic by being Jn.volved In group work than they
would from recelvtng whole-class Instruction.
8. Group work presents teachers with. some specl.al mana_gement challenges.
Whac srraregles will you use ro minimise these dlfficul rtes?
9. ldenllfy five fm·porrant learning principles and explain how these principles
could be applied In small-group reachlng.
10. whar parrlcuiar skliis lieip peopie 11•iio work In your reachtng dlsclpilne (eg
Science) ro function effecllvely In groups? How can you emphasise these skills
when engaging your learners In group work?
l I . If you are preparing to teach In the Sentor Phase: Prepare a lesson plan t11at
would enable you to use group work with a Grade 8 class. What strategies
have you used to erugage reluctant leameis?
1 z. If you are prepanng to teach In the lntennoolace Phase: Prepare a lesson plan
that would enable you ro use group work ,vlth a Grdcte 4 class. What strareg:Ies
have you used to help learners Keep a record. of the t'.htngs they learn cturling
their group discussion?
13. HO\I' can the use of group work help you to reach In ways that are consistent
with the principles of Quality Teaching described In Chapter 3?
I
USEFU L WEBSITES
A The British Council \Vebslre, at http://www.teachlmgengllsh.org.uk/language­
asslsrant, has some useful guldlellnes on using group work for reaching language
skills ro 'Primary smdenrs_
.A. Gutdlellnes for consr:ruct1n_g and using wtkls are avallable 011 the Teachers First
website at http:/twww.reachersfirst.com/conrent/wlkV1vlklldeas1. .php.
Using co-operative
learning as a teaching
strategy

Ouce you have bet.:ume µwfic;lenc at u��,g giouµ wu1k. a� a teaching �uategy, aJLtl
your learners have tiecome accustomed ro this fonn of learning, you Will be ready
to oy co-opera\1ve learning. Much of rhe lrufonnatton provided in rhe previous
chapter Is relevant ro co-operative learning. However, co-operdtlve learning ls more
diam Just group work, and It places p•arttcular demands on learners. To help them
deal with these demands:, you wlll probably ll.nd It necessary to do more planning
and. preparal1on than you would ror any other reaching strategy.
Co-operative lean1Ing Is one of the most res:earC:hed reaching, srrategles of recent.
times. The plethora of Information about co-operative learning Is testimony ro Its
versatility and effeotlveness. TI1ere are many different vartefiles of co-operadive
lean11ng and numerous claimed beneBts. This chapter provides some Unslghr Into
die llte.rarure on co-opernt!v-e learning by outlining rhe :key feavures of several
common ap[l)roaches. It then gives you guldellnes for using the techniques and
suggests some ways In which you can evaluate your efforts to use these strategies.
It Is particularly Important that yo:u master the i!Jrlnclples of co-operdtlve leamlng, In
llghr of the emphasis that Ir receives In Urerarure abour recent educartonal refonns
In South Afrilca. To use eo-operative le.amlng effecctvely, you need the same general
competencies that you do for group work.
When you have mastered the Ideas Ill this chapter you wlll be able t:o:
.A. decdde when co-operal1ve lean1lng Is an approprtare straregy for help Ing learners
ro achJeve partiallar leamlng ourcomes;
.A. select an approprtate fonn of co-operadve learning and prepare thoroughly and
thoughtfully for using this straregy;
.A. create a learning environment that motivates learners and encourages rhenu to
work collaboratlvely to achieve the leamlng outcomes regardless of their ab[lhy
and culrural, ethnic or other dllferences;
.._ organise and manage co-operauve learning lessons In ways that encourage
students ro engage In critical and creative thinking: and
.A. evaluate the success of your co-operative learning lessons.
SOME IMPORTANT FEATURES OF CO-OPERATIVE LEARNING I
Co-operative learning Is an lnsuucdonal strategy In wh.lch learners work together In
small groups to help one another achieve a common learning goal. It Is based on t11e
belief d1at learners (of any age or ability) can acllleve more by working collabo rdtlvely
than by wol1<lng alone or by passively receiving lnfom1atlon from a teacher. As you will
see later in this chapter, there are many dilf.,..rent approaches ro co-operadve leamlng.
Many teachers consider themselves ro be using co-operadve learning whenever
they have learners work.Ing In gr oups (Bilo et al, 2001). but as Johnson, Johnson
and Johnson-H0lurec (1 993) polnc out, most group work Is not, srrlctly speaking,
co-operadve learning. So what exactly Is �o-operatlve learning? Well, that depends
on whom you ask!
 \-Vriters such as Slavin (1991, 1995) and Johnson and Johnson. (1989, 1994),
who laid the foundat1ons for wl1at we now call c o o- perative leamlng. agree that
Chere are t\'l'O esse111t1at components ro all co-operadve leanllng methods; a c o ­
operative task (which is a feature ofmost_group work) and a co-operacive Incentive
structure (which is uniq11e to co-operative learning). These Ideas are explained in
derail later ln thl.s chaprer. Based on the work of Johnson and Johnson ( 1994). It ls
pos:slble to tdendfy five b•aslc elernencs that need to be present for small-group work
to be considered mdy co-operative:
l. There must be positive interdependence. Tile learners must function as
a cohesive group to achieve specific learning goals. Each group member's
efforts anust. be necessary for the group ro succeed. Each learner must take
responslblltcy for the learning sucress of every ocller n1ember of the group, amt
must directly help them to learn.
2. There must be ongoing, direct Interaction ttn which learners help one
another to learn. '!'hey must discuss d1e task, decide how to approach It,
exchange Ideas and explain things 10 one another. It Is not sufficient 10 slmply
divide up the work and do it without further Interaction. (In early descripttons
of c o o- perative learning, this interaction always took place lace to face, bur
later in this chapter you ,1•ill see that it can also talke place using varlous fonns
of technology.)
3, There must be indivi«ual accountability. Ead1 learner Is responsible for
some identifiable part of the learning, and the entire group is accountable
for the success of each of its members. Each lean1er is held accountable for
demonstratl.ng his/her understanding of tlhe material.
4. The le�irners musil use appropriate interpersonal skills. l11ese :Include
11.stening attentlveiy, questioning -ro clar11y Ideas, negollatlng and consrrucrlvely
resolving differences, so that all Interactions are productive.
5. Group members must be reflective learners. Each group must analyse rhe
out:com.e s it achieves, how \Veil the group functions and how well Individuals
were able to learn.
Stahl (1997:1) proposes a far more rigorous set of crlterla to describe what
needs oo oc-cur prior ro, durtng and following group accivltles, as a measure of
whether learners are working co-operatlve[y. 'He emphasises the need for learners
ro conslsre11dy engage in maxnntslng fl1etr o,vn acad.e mlc achievements and the
acadern: lc achtevernenrs of every men1ber of t11elr group, ru1d malnralns that there
are ·21 essent1al elements that are necessary if groups are ro exist and operate
under condldons of oprln1al co-operal1ve learning'. His central claim ls that c o ­
operative !earning must allo\\' each group to focus on maxlmlslng the long-cenn
acadern: ic succes:s of each lean1er, so that .information can be retained, recalled and
applied well beyond the end of the group meetlngs. Vanous aspects of his theornes
are incorporated into the remainder of this chapter.
Why does it work?
The widespread use of co-operdtlve leamlng ls due to three main factors: It Is cleady
based on rheory, Ir has been valldated by research, and It has Ileen operadonallsed
Into clear procedures that educators can use Oohnson, Johnson & Stanne. 2000).
The main reason for having srudent:s work ln co-operdtlve groups Is so that all
srudents can be more academtcally successful as lndtvlduals than they wouJd be If
they worked alone (Stahl, 1997). There Ls growing consensus among researchers
that t.hls result Is possible (Hattie, 2009). and several explanations of why It
appears to l>e so effective.
Abrarni and Cl1ambers ( I 996) suggest that lean1lng through, co-operative group
work can be explained f!fom a number of lheored.cal perspecdves. They potnt out
the following:
11. A behaviourist (or moctvational) ex.planatlon for learning would emphasise
the Immediate feedback s-rudenrs receive from their peers and the benefi.rs they
gain from Increased practice.
• A cogni:tivist explanatlon would srres.s the lmporrance of srudems elaboral'ling
on and verbalising d1elr understanding.
.,. A developmentalist explanation wou1d emphasise the process of peer
modelllng.
11. A humanist explanation would suggest mar learning Is enhanced l>y srudents·
y
naturdl -curiosit and by the way group members respond to one another's
contiTlbutlons.
Various pers:pecclves on why co-operative Ceamlng Influences understanding suggest.
d1at group goals based on tl1e learning of rull group members have d1ree motivational
effects: they motivate scudenrs to learn. they motlvate scudenits to encourage one
another to learn and they motivate snidents to help one another to learn. When
learners are modvated In these ways, they can work as a cohesive group, give one
another elaborate explanadons. model appropriate chlnking processes. help one
another practise academic tasks, provide one another wld1 feedback, praise the
efforts of others and wtlllngly receive help from group members.
The cognltlve perspective for explaining th.e success of co-operar!Ve learning Is
d1at ·1nreract1ons among srudencs wlll In themselves Increase smctent achievement
for reasons whl.:h h.ave to do with mental processing of Information rdther than
with motivation· (Slavin, 1996:48). An example of a cognitive developmental
perspective Is Vygotsky's (t 978) theory of proximal development, If at least one
student In the group hais a deeper understanding rhan others, then he/she has
the potential to scaffold the lean1lng of other group members and deepen their
understanding.
An aJcemative cognitive perspective on co-operative learning Is based on the
notion of cognitive elaboration. Essentially, this perspective suggests that In oruer
for learners to understand and remember !nfom1atlon.. they must engage In so me
fomn of cognitive restructuring or elaboratilon of the marertal. One effective method
of elaboration Is to develop explanations for others, and this ls necessary In most
fonns or co-operative learning. This view Is consistent with neuroscience research
such as that reported by Sous:a (201 OJ and Wlllls (2006). It Is also consistent with
Stahl's (1997) constructivist perspective, ·which sees learning as a function ofduee
things, !llamely tthe appropriate lnfom1atlon one has relative to the Information one
needs to have and use. the approprlatte Internal processing casks one has completed
1 I I I 1 I I I
reladve to rhe processing tasks one needs to complere, and rhe productive rune
one has spent relative ro the dme one needs ro spend learning. He danms that co­
operative learning can maximise each of these factors.
A social cohesion perspective attem;prs to explain the effects of co-operattve
lean1lng on ac.hievemenc by suggesting rhat ·srudents will help one another to learn
because rlley care about one another and want one .another ro succeed' (Slavin,
1996:46). This Is a component of social Interdependence theory that Is described
In considerable detaJI by Johnson and Johnson (2006). learn building and self­
evaluation by tlhe groups help to create a posltlve c:llmate In which each group
member wants all other group members to succeed. Co-operative learning strategies
d1ar emphasise group Inrerdepenctence (such as )lgsaw) rely on social cohesion for
d1el.r success. However, the Australian research of Gillies (2004) cauctons that the
development of group ooheslon depends: very much on the way the gro11ps are
smlcrured.
From chis brief explanation you can see that there are many theories about
why co-operative learning can be an effective tea.:hing strategy. 1111s Is true about
all forms of learning, because there Is never Just one way ro explain how or why
lean1ers make sense of the things they are oylng to understand. 1111s makes
teaching a dlffiCUJlt task, but It also makes It very Interesting,
Regardless of which explanation you prefer for how and why co-operali'lve
leanllng helps sl'.lldents ro learn, rile potential of a group to worl< co-operacively and
to achieve common goals depends on the knowledge, skllls and disposttions of die
group members and on [he resources available to them. TI1e degree to which 1111s
potential can be realised will depend on t:he cohesiveness of l11e group. l11us It Is
Important. for students to feel comfortable worklng with one another, and for them
to be m.otlvarecl to make the individual et'l'ort that Is necessary for gro:up s!Uccess.
some guidelines for deve!oplng group cohesiveness were mentioned In the previous
chapter. The Issue of srudenr motivation Is addressed l.arer In this chapter.
Most advocates of co-operative leamlng stress that It Is an effectiive way to
promote academic learning aaid, equally ln1portantly, that lt promotes positive peer
Interactions and relat'lonshlps. But none of these things will occur unless you create
a lean1lng environment In whJch they are possible. Consequently, team-bulidUng
activities ml.ght have to be lntrodlucect before the co-operd·tlve learning starts, and
you must monitor tl1e group dynamics vezy carefully so th!at you can decide when
further ream-bulldlng actlvltles are needed.
Co-operadve learning Is very versatlle, and It can be used In all subject areas
at all levels of education. Some examples of its .application In various acadeI1lllc
areas can be explored In the followlng references: Biology (Lord, 2001), Creative
Arts (Baloche, 2005), Economics (Yannarll<, 2007), E;nglish (Duzzy, 2002),
Engineering (Hsiung, 2013), Geography (Rama, 2003), Health Education (GIibert,
Sawyer & McNeil!, 2011 ), History (Scheurelll, 2010), Literature (Annma, 2009),
Mathematics (Cangelosi, 2002; Slavln, Lake & Groff, 2009), Music (.McGUlen. &
McMillan, 2005: Chong, 2008), Physical Education (Hannon & Ratcllffe, 2004),
Science (Boo et al, 200 I: Thurston et al, 20 I OJ, Reacting (Stone, 2007) and
SOClal Studies (Zarrtllo, 2012). A. comprehensive meta-analysts of research on co­
operdtlve learning Is given by Johnson, Johnson and sranne (2000), and It features
prominently In the meta-analysis of Hartle (2009).
REASONS FOR USING CO-OPERATIVE LEARNING
Co-operative learning Is an effective strategy for helping learners ro achieve a
wide range of academic and social ourcomes, Including enhanced achievement,
Improved self-esteem, poslt1ve Interpersonal relationships with other learners,
Improved ttme-managemenr skllls, and poslt1Ve att1rudes towards sclnool. Many
of these outcomes can be achieved concurrendy, rather than being developed In
Isolation. Co-operative learning ls partlcul ally useful for the fotlowtng reasons:
A Having leamers work together results In much more learning tihan occurs
when sruderacs work competlllvely or Individually (according to evidence from
more than 600 research srudles reported In Johnson & Johnson, 1989, and In
recem srudies such ais Hsiung, 2013). By encouraging learners to explore and
<llscuss rl1elr understandings, co-operative leamlng helps them to develop a
deep understanding of course comem.
A Learners who engage in regular co-operad.ve learning rend -co like school better,
like one another 'better, and develop more effective social sktlls (Aronson, 20 12;
Johnson & Johnson, 2010: Pawattana, 2014).
• co-operatlve learning reaches learners to be less rellam on the teacher and
more reliant on d1elr own abilll}' to think, ro seek lnformacton from other
sources and ro learn from other students. They IJecome empowered to rake
greater responsibility for their own !earning and for the learning of others
(Drake & Mucci, 1993). Thts shared responslbJUry for learning can enhance
learner satisfaction. And, tf co-operative skills are r.aught ei.pllcUtly, they can be
transferred to new learning contexts (Patrilck, 1994).
A Co-operative learning helps smdents to le.am respect for one another's
strengths and llmtr,utons and to au:cept d1ese differences. This Is very Important
In culturally diverse dassrooms and in classrooms that include learners wld1
cllsabllltles. Because co-operative learning foster.; poslcive Interdependence
among :learners. It can promote cross-racial and cross-culrural frtendshi[PS.
Aronson (2012) descrtbes how these benefits were the catalyst that led him to
develop the Jigsaw approach to e-0-operat1ve learning. Manning and Lucking
('1993:13) point out that 'the recognition, acceptance, and appreciation of
learner differences required for successful co-operallve learning are the same
attitudes that are needed for posll'lve lnrercultural r,eladonsh!ps' . However,
subsranli'lal per1oos of time are required to change or eliminate biased arntructes.
A Co-operadve learning provides opportunities for learners to see that d1elr
individual differences In abill!les, backgrounds. cultures and experiences
are valued and respected, and can be accommodated !n learning tasks and
contexts. This enhances both mocivatlon and achievement and can help ro
create a general armosphere of compassion, respect and Lncluston (Aronson,
2012).
A Co-opera.ave learning helps leanners to understand that dllferen t points of
vtew need nor be dlvlslve; they can be a pos1t1,1e aspect. of de\•eloplng an
understanding or a subject. 1111s can lead ro students asking more and better
questions In dass.
A Co-opera.dve tasks are useful In promotlng a sense of responslbllicy ro others
and a wJlllngness to reflect on outtcomes (Curriculum Corporation, 2:002).
• Co-operatlve learning can boost learners' confidence and self-esteem, because It
allows all learners (nor. Just the high achievers) to experlence s uccess. In some
studies, thts effect ts relar,ect to group size (Bertucci, Conte, johll!son & Johnson,
2010).
• Co-operative learning can change srudenrs· views about learning. It helps them
ro move from seeing learning as indlvlduaJ memornsation of faots to seeing lr as
a collectiive consrructlon of understanding.
• Co-operative teaming encourages learners ro verba!Jse d1elr ldeas and. ro compare
rhelill with the Ideas and feelings of other learners. This caru be paitlcularfy
useful when tl1e learners are solving problems, because it helps them to see that
there can be multiple solutions to complex problems. and this helps: to Improve
rhelr problem-solving skills.
,;. Co-operative learning encourages learners to think about their !earning
processes, identify !lie limitations of d1elr knowledge and! learn co seek help
when necessary. It encourages students to reHectt on what they lt'hlnk about
each aspect of t11e task and to <xmslder (and. verbalise) how they arrtved at
those th oughts. Neurologlc.al research (Willis. 2006) su_ggests that these factors
all contribute positively to leamln_g.
• Co-operadve le.amlng emphasises democratic thought and practlce as a desirable
way for people to Interact (whatever the focus of their :lnternctlons).
• Co-operative learning can change the verbal Interaction panems of learners,
resulting ln them making greater use of specific verbal pa111:ems believed to be
related to Increased leamlng-- such as statements of support and requests for
help (Lonnlng, �993). It can also help them to develop effective strategies for
what Weger1f and Scrtmshaw ( 1997) refer ro as exploratory tall<. In which
srudenrs engage crlrtcally bur constructlvely with one another's Ideas and are
able to alternate between rdklng the perspective of anot11er group member and
crltlcally ass=lng that perspective.
• Co-operanve learning provides learners with oppon:unU:les ro rest t11enr Ideas and
undersrandlngs and ro receive feedback in a relatively safe and non-threatening
environment. Learners who might otherwise feel stressed by participating In
whole-class discussions (for example underachievers, learners with disabllltiles
and learners whose Elrst language ls not the language of lnsrrucdon) can learn
In a more relaxed atmosphere. Learners can practise problem solving In a low.
risk. envlronmerut, because lr. ls much les:s r.hreatenlng to make a misaake in
front of two or three peers than In front of a whole class.
• Co-operative learning can enhance learners· ablUry to use the l nfom1atCon
and sklllls they have learned in the al>stract to• make real decisions (Manera &
Glockhamer. l 988-89).
• Co-operative learning can help learners to see that their [Perceived lack of 'talent'
for a particular subject Is actuafiy the lack of a thorough understan.dlng of the
marertal (Manera & Glockhamer, 1988--89).
• ·when compared with lecmre and discussion activities, co-opernttve learning can
lead to learners being fntstratoo less o�ern. getting confused less often, feeling
more lntellecnially challenged. feeling more actively involved :In learning and
looking fo1warcl to class more often (Glass & Putman, 1988--89).
• Numerot11s srudles have found thar co-operative le:amtng can be equally
benefidail for high, average and low achievers (but for dltTerenr reasons). Co­
operdttve learning encourages weaker learners r.o persist, and helps strong
learners to ldenti:fy gaps ln their understanding (Felder & Brent:, 1994).
• The lnteractlons: that occur during co-operative learning help to motivate
learners and st:Irnulate their tllinklng (Gllbetr-Macmlllan & Leitz, 1986), :and
encourdge them to view educat!on as a llfe-long process rather than short-tem1
trdinlng (Galllen, l 988).
11. Co-operad.ve learning can help leamers to become ,socially Integrated Into
networks of positive peer relatilonshlps that assist them with consm1cdve conffllct
resolutton. This can lead to reductions In antisocial beha,1our such as bullyling
(Aronson, 2012; Johnson, Johnson & Holubec, 2008), In rum. tltls can lead
to Improved academic perfonnance (lohnoon, Johnson & Roseth, 2010). TI1ere
are some claims that providing frequent co-operative learning experiences may
be an lnnpoJtant tool to increase sructe nrs·
: co-operatlvemess and. thereby reduce
the frequency of aggression, Increase the frequency of prosoclal behaviours,
and reduce snidenrs' lnctlvlduallsl1c predlS'POSldons (Chol, Johnson & Johnson,
20 I 1 ).
11. Co-operal1.ve leamtng appears to be an elfectlve way of helping leamers ro
develop the core skills they will need ln the fuvure: the abllltty to research, think
crearlvetiy and solve problems collaborat!vely.
You cannot expect these benefits to occur rapidly. Stahl (1997) claims t:hat the
be1tefirs related ro affective social skllls and at:t:Jrudes may nor emerge unrn learners
have reen engaged successfully In co operattve learning for four or more weeks. A
0

range of other Issues and challenges that teachers face when attempting ro use -co­
operative !earning strategies are described In Gillies, Ashman and Terwel (200S).
Most research on co-operative leamtng has focused on Its benefits for learners.
bur a few smdles have considered how tr can directly benefit teachers. G-arvle ( 1994)
found that tea.chers who use co-operartve learning are likely to be more enthusiastic
about teaching than those w:ho do not use It Shachar and Shmuelevlrz (1997:65)
found that 'teachers wil10 employed co--operatlve !earning in their classrooms
expressed a, s:lgnlficantly greater degree of efficacy In promoting the le:amlng of
slow srudenrs compared with teachers who ... did !llot empl-oy co-operative learning
In their classrooms at au-. Many of the bemefits to teachers are a direct result of the
Increased m.otlval1O111 of learners.

Acllv.lty: Are the advantages litle same for learners of all ages?

After you have read this chopler. come back lo the above list of advantages of
cooperalive learning
J _ Rank them in order from greolest to least advantage for leochers and
leorners in the Foundation Phase, lnlerm.ediate Phase, Senior Phase and in,
FET.
2_ Discuss your rankings wilh o lellow teacher or teacher educoliorn student.

ISSUES TO CONSIDER BEFORE USING CO-OPERATIVE LEARNING

Attempting to use co-opernt!ve learning does !!lot guar.anree that your students will
learn. In addldon ro the general !Imitations of small-group work mentioned ln the
previous chapter, you should rake Into account the following factors:
'" An essentlal feature of co-operanve leamtng Is that the students le.am from one
ano·rher. Unless this ·peer reaching· Is effecdve, the srudents 1111ay learn much
less than <they would under direct lns:ltlllctlon from the reacher, You may have
to spend conslderdble time helping I.earners to develop the skll:ls tl1ey need
for helping one another learn - such as giving clear explanartons and asking
thought-provoklng q;uest:ions..
11. Co-operatlve learning may nor. be equally effecdve for a!I cypes of !earning.
There Is some evidence (Mullins, Rummel & Spada. 2011) that It Is more
effective wh:en I earners are attempting to master conceptual knowledge than
when they are trying ro master procedural knowledge..
.6. Some students do nor like to lean1 co-operatively; they prefer to work alone.
Sren1berg (1999) refers to tllese as internals - learners who prefer to apply
thelr lntelllgence to things or Ideas In lsolacton from other people. It Is Important
·to realise that such leamers do not necessairlly lack ablllty and that rhey are not
necessarily tty1ng to be dlsrupctve througl1 their lack of c o o- peration. Yo:u need
to be padenr, recognise that these learners may be amclous working In groups,
and help them to become Bexlble In their approaches to learning.
.6. The values and practices of the cu]tural, socioeconomic and educational ,vorrds
that learners experienced prior to b-elng Involved In co-operative leamlng
may create conBlcr for some learners (Liang, 2004). Most : of the suggestlo ns
about how t.o use co-operative leamHng are based on research conducted In
-�vesrem co1111tr1es. Nguyen, lerlouw, PIiot & Elllotc (201 O} ca\iltlon tliat some
modifications (pan:lcularly re:lated to group formation and leadership) might
need robe made to suit learners from different cultures.
.t. To be successful. co-operative learning needs to be used over an extended
period sot.hat learners de\1elop the neceRiary group Interdependence. It I s not a
strategy thac you can use very successfully Just once In a 1vhlle.
• To use co--0perat1ve leamlng o f the type suggested by Slavin ( 1996), you will
have ro keep veiy derailed records of each !earner's performance on ead1 !earning
raSk, and spend considerable time calculating group achievement scores.
• Although co--0perdtlon Is a very lmporrant ability for learners to masrer, many of
life's acdvltles are based on lndlvtdual effort. Therefore. students have to learn to
be self-reliant, as well as learning how to co--0perdte. It Is dlflicult ro achieve both
,of these outcomes from a single c o o- pe.move lea.ming lesson (Lindblad, l994).
• Learners· perceprlons of the ablllty and social scan<Ung of group members can
Influence the funcllonlng of co-operadve grouP5. You w[[I need to emphasise that
each learner has unique abilities and that evel)'one's con.rrtbudon Is Important.
• Some learners may initially object ro tl1e Idea t11at their assessment depends on
the learning of other students In their group. You have to make It clear thar.
alt.hough the groups complete tasks o r produce products (that \VIII be assessed
as group efforts). the learning Is by lndlvlduals -therefore t.he lndlvlduals must
also demonstrate achievement of the outcomes.
• Even though collaboration can Improve the quality oft11e products that students
produce (eg In collaborative wrlcing) some students may resist collaboration
because they do not want to lose a sense ofpersonal ownership of what they are
producing (caspl & Blau. 201 1). Some students may have difficulty reaching
group consensus: because they place roo much emphasis on personalising �he
raslc (Lowrie, 20 11 J .
.i. nanslatlng the promise ofco--0perat1ve learnlng Into practice Is not always easy.
Some of the teaciller racrors chat limit lrs success (such as teachers· perceptions
of teaching) are discussed by Sharan (20l OJ.
 AcHvlty: Leornlng from an experienced teacher

Tolk to a teacher who hos used c<:r0pe,otive leClming

1. Make lisls of the things he/she views a s odvontages and limitations o f this
strategy. How do these ideas differ from the a dvantages and limitations
listed in this chapter?
2. How often did this teacher use co-operative learning,? was it used only for
some types of outcomes?
3. Discuss with the teacher how he/she dealt with students who could not
get along with their peers, wonted to WOik a lone. were not mot ivated or
could not keep up with the rest of their group.
4. How did that teacher convince learners that they should help one another
to team. rather than competing against one another?

A1 a glance
la•• 1\r
• You want to GOCOurage learners lo
dewlop lhGir social skills while looming
acodamic contoot.
• You want learners to use their prior
knowkdgg OS a foundation for
examining issues. in depth.
• You want learners k> explore iss.ues
fiom multiple perspGCti=.
• You want learners to develop their
ability to loom oo!laboroti\lQly.
• You wont to minil!Tlisg I90Sions in th9
classroom that st .em from JGarner
cfrfferences.
• Loorn,ers do not hawG the basic
skills r;equi,ed for collaboration and
teamwork.
• Looroors lock 1178 prior knowledgG to
guide lhair collaborafiVQo looming.
• There is insufficient time for learners to
collaboralWG!y irwootigalG. discuss and
think about the things yo<J wan! them
toleam.

PREPARING lO USE CO-OPERATIVE LEARNING

Ir ls:
lmponant to understand that co-operative learning Is not simply a matter of
putclng ,srud.enrs: Into groups to learn. Your task Is: to get the learners to work as a
ream. exchange Ideas, d1lnk crltlcally and heJp one another to learn. You have to
create a learning environment In which there will be face-to-face lnre.racdon. positive
Interdependence, Individual accountablllty and appropriate use of Interpersonal and
small-group skills. Tills requires careful planning. because srructurlng the srndenrs·
learn Ing experiences: ls vital (GIilies & Boyle, 2011 ; Topping, 2006J.
When preparing to use co-operative Jeamlng, d1ere are two major aspects: ro
consider, learner mouvallon and the learning processes that you want lean1ers to
use. How you deal with these Issues In pract1ce wl\l depend on which variety of
co-operative learning you decide to use. ·However, In general you will have ro do
!lie followlng:
l . Give learners guidance and practice iin helping one another to learn.
This might mean thar yoUJ have to spend some tlme helping learners: ro develop
strategies for assisting one anod1er !before they attempt to master academic
outcomes di rough strucrured co..operallve llean1Ing actlvltles. It Is a good Idea to
lnrroctuce small co-operative tasks earl_y In tl1e reaching year and gradually build
these Into longer and more complex learnlng eplsooes. As with group work, It Is
a good ldea to have 1.eam.ers work In pairs untll you are satisfied that mey have
developed the skllls they w!U need to \Nork In larger co--0peratlve groups.
2. Specify clearly what outcomes you want t he learners to achiev,e. Tills
will 111sualiy Include acadenllc outcomes and social outcomes. Remember that
·co-operative learning groups are a means to .an end (student learning] rather
than an end In themselves· (Stahl, 1997:7). There must be ·group goals tnat
can be achieved only by ensurtng the learning of all group members· (Slavin,
1996:54).
3. Decide w hatcontent (issues, problems, theories) lea rners will focus on
as rhey try to a chieve the outcomes.. Ir ls viral rime the co-operative learning
task ls relevant -co all members of the group, and that It provides opportunlt:Jes
for them ro offer diverse opinions, otherwise they will not be Interested and
their ex.changes of Ideas wlll be very llnllted.
4. Selectwhatyou think will be t he most appropriate form of co-operative
Iea.rning to use (based on the lnfonnadon llere and elsewhere and on your
ow!ll eXIJleliences).
5. Prepare t he materials (or arrange access t:o the matertalsJ that learners will
need In order to learn and ro help one another ro foam.
6. Decide how to form the groups. Most commonly, it Is recommended that the
groups be mixed (males and. females, high and low achievers, etc). However,
there Is: some debate on this Issue, and It Is examined further fin the next
sectlon.
7. Decide how you will explain the co-operative learning process to
learners, what you expect of them, how you w!U assist them and how they
will be assessed. Ir Is essential that the learners unctersttand the concept of
co-operation and how t.o use It to achieve success on academic tasks. You
should emphasise that group decisions need co be reached. through consensus
rather than ma)ortty rule. as students are llkely to take greater responsibility
for decisions reached In this way and have greater commitment ro die actions
that follow those decisions (Srahl, 1997).
8. Develop a system for recognising and rewarding the learning of
individual learners as well as the achievement or the groups. Group
rewards based on lndlvldual learning have an Indirect elfect - they motivate
learners to engage In cerraln behaviours. such as giving one another elaborate
explanations (Slavin, 1996), and this, In tum, enhan.ces learning. Stahl
(I 997:9) emphasises that 'students must believe and feel that rlley can
earn the rewards for th.elr effortts only when the members [of their group)
collectively have been sUJccessfur. The rewards need to be :seen by rile learners
as designed ro provide them with feedback on tl1elr leamJng, so r .hey should
be based clearly on acadenllc ach.levemenr. For many !earners, the recognition
that they are learning and being supported In their learning will be sufficient
reward. The type of rewards that will be most suitable wll] depend on the age
of the learners. Ilt ts Important ro nore rhat the group rewards are nor tile same
thing as grades - rewards are d.eslgned to encourage students to engage In
leamJng, whereas grades are a summatlve acknowledgement of learning.
9. Prepare appropriate assessment instruments so that learners will be able
ro demonstrate tthelr mastery and retention of academic content and sk.Uls after
the co-operative groups have completed l'.helr worik. It must be madle dear tihat
each learner Is responsible for mastering all tile outcomes. Some co-operative
leamJng strategies (such as Jigsaw) divide the learning responslblilltles In the
lnltilaJ phase. but this Is merely a stepping srone to help all learners understand
all the content
10. Develop a system for k.eeping records of the group and Individual
achievements of learners, and for publicly acknowledging the achievements of
the groups.
11. Plan a periiod of refloction so that. after rihe groups have completed their
tasks and received rhetr reedback.. the learners can analyse their achievements
and ci1elr group processes.

IMPLEMENTING CO-OPERATIVE LEARNING

When you use -00-0 peratlve learning, your role its not to deliver lnfom1ait1on or
provide explanations (as it often Is wltil1 direct lnstrucdon). Rather, your role
Is to plan, manage .and monitor the learning environment, so d1ar learners can
collaborate and engage productively In lea ming. Co-operative learning wlll be most
successful when co-operation Is necessaiy for success - tl1at Is. when It would be
dlffiatlt (or Impossible) for students ro learn wid1our co-operatln_g with one another.
It Is not: approprtate ro simply conttlve a slruarton In which leaniers are required
ro oo-operdte when they could learn better Individually (see Boo er al. 200 1, for
examples of this pitfall).
If smctems are not famll!ar with the cyp e of co-operative learning that you wane
ro use. It Is besr ro start with short, frequemt acrlvlttes and leave the smdenrs. In the
same groups for an extended time. A co-operative learning session will generally
proceed as follows,
1. Assign !earners ,ro groups.
2. Clearly expl.aln t.he outoomes that le.amers are ro achieve and proVlde clear
directions about the academic rdsks that each group will undertake.
3. Explain how the lean1lng of lndlvldual sruden·cs will be assessed.
4. Remind learners of your expectatlO'ns of them (part!aIlarly In relacton co
helping one another lean1) and of the co-operative goal snucrure (the rewards
for ileamlng).
5. Explain how the learning of l.ndivldual students will be assessed.
6. Provide Iean1ers with resources, If thl:s Is nece.5Sary.
7. Remind learners how much time they have for rhe co-operative activities and
get them started.
8. Circulate to provide assistance as required, to monitor the acdvltles and leamlng
of the srudents, and ro make notes of matters d1ar wm need ro be deailt wnrll
once the group sessions end. Do nor meddle - allow the groups ro deal w£th
minor problems themselves. However, It Is not the learners' responslblllt:y ro
regulate peer behaviour that Is seclously !napproprtate; yoUJ must do that.
9. Bring the lesson ro a !ogtr.al conclusion.
10. Evaluate learners· achfevement and help them assess how well they
collaborated with one another and as a group.
Of course, reaching Is never a simple task lt.1 which everythlnggoes sttlcdy according
co plan. You will have co attend ·co many unexpected Issues, and you will have ro
keep ex:pertmentlng to find co-operative learning approaches li1at suit both you and
your learners. You can learn a lot by llst,enln, g co your learners as d1ey engage In
co-operative tasks.
Forming groups
There Is no simple answer to the question of how groups should be fonned for co­
operative !earning. You have three basic choices: allow learners to form their own
groups, fom1 groups by random selection or pla.ce hndlvldua.1 learners In groups
for some special reason. If you take the last approach. die main alternatives are
tony ro make the groups heterogeneous (as mixed as pos:slble In tem1s of learner
ab!lletes, gender, race. ere). or tony to make r.11e groups homogeneous (one gender,
similar ablllt1es, slmmar rulmres, etc).
Slavin ( 1990) clalms mar rhe achievement of social goals through co-operdtlve
learning Is dependent. upon each group being heterogeneous, with learners of
bod1 sexes, mixed races or cultures, and mixed abllltles. 1111s view was supported
by the research of Aronson. (2012) anct GUIies and Boyle (2006). Felder and
Brem ( 1994:7) also arg:11e strongly for mixed groups on the basis rhat ·weaker
srudents gain from seeing how better srudenrs smdy and approach problems. a.net
the srronger srudenrs gain a deeper understanding of the subject by reaching It to
others·. Stahl (I 997:8) goes further and suggests that groups should be mixed as
much as possible, •first on the basis of academic abilities: and rhen on the basis
of ethnic background, race, gender, ere·. However, Abram1 and Cliaml}ers ( 1996)
suggest that the Issue ls not oo clear-cut. (Don ·r be worried !by this: It Is not unusual
for educational researchers to disagree!) They suggest that:
"' low-ablllty leam.ers learn more in mlxed.-ablllty groups than when grouped
with other low-a·blllty learners:
A medlum-ablllcy l earners learn best when working wtth other medtum-abllll:y
learners; and!
"' ablllty grouping has no effect on the achievement of hlgh-ablllty learners.
Cuny (1997) found that mlxed-ablllcy grouping can encourdge lower-abUlty
learners to persist at difficult tasks, but high-ability learners may lose their lncen!'lve
to learn when pl.aced In mlxed-ablllty groups. Moody and Gifford ( 1 990) found rJ1at
there were no differences In achleven1ent between homogeneous and mlxed-abUlt:y
groups, bur both boys and girts performed bener when they were not In mlxect­
gencter groups. Torwel, GUIies, Van den Eeden and Hoek (2001 J claim that hlgh­
ablllty srudenrs (especially In hlgh-abUlty classes) benefit more from co-operdfilve
leanllng because they are better able ro provide sollclted explanations ro their fellow
srude.nrs.
Vennerre ( t 995) suggests that groups should be mixed (In terms of ethnicity,
gender and social class). but they should also be balanced - for example, not Just
one girl. In a group of boys. He also suggests that learners should be told that the
groups :are mixed In order ro take advantage of tl1e different strengths of Individual
learners, nor for rh:e purpose of developing friendships or reinforcing existing
socilal groupings. However. Logan (1988) warns rhar some fom1s of dlversll:y In
groups can be counterproductive. For example, palrlng learners who have caashlng
personalldes will rarely help them to overcome d1elr dislike for each other, and
placing learners 111t11 low self-Images and those with over-inflated egos In rh:e sa.me
group will probably Just caus:e conBlct
So w·here does all this, somerlmes. conflicting, 1tnforn1atlon leave you? It means
d1at wh.en you sran ro use co-operative learning, you wlll have to expertmenr with
die way you fom1 the groups and see what works best for your learners. Shlma1.oe
and. Aldrtch (201OJ provide some additional advice on this lssue. However you
fom1 the groups, Jr ls Important that ·students do nor see or feel themselves as being
penalized academlcally by being In the group they are In' (Stahl, 1997,8).
 y Activity: Forming co-operaflve groups

1. Make a list of the factors that you lhink should be tal(en info account
when a teacher is grouping learners in preparation for a c0-0perotive
learning activity.
2. ln1efView on experienced teacher.
a. Compare your list with the factors that the experienced teacher
considlers 'Whefl grouping learners.
b. Whal ore the reasons for the differences?
c. How does 1he teacher you inter\/iewed balance 1he academic and
social reasons for grouping learners?

Group size
Co-operative learning groups may vary In size from r.vo to ten or more. but there :are
advanrages to llmltlng group sl1,e to four or five learners. Groups of four ,(sometimes
called quads) have !:<!Vera! specific advamages:
A Quads are small enough ro encourag,e all group members co remain attendve
and focused on the learning task.
A Quads are large enough to funcelon smoothly when a team member Is
occasionally absent
A Quads lend r.hemselves well ro palr wcrk-palrs within each tettm can work co­
operatively to develop Ideas that are then refined by the quad.
A If the ciass does not divide evenly Int:> quads. a fift.h memrer can be added to
several teams without. making diem too large.

Effective group .slze may depend on the age of the learners and their experience
In working co-0peratlvely. Although Chambers ( I 993) found that kilndergarten
children were capable of leamlng co-operatively, Abraml and Ch.ambers ( 1996)
suggested tl1at their llmited abtllry to mke others· perspectives Into account may
llnllit their ability to work eo-operatlvely !n grou!)s of more than two or three. At
tile other end of the age scale, adults can sornetlrnes work effecl1veJy In large co­
operdtlve groups, because they are more aware of using rules or procedures to
control how leamers tnreract in the group. Ladyshewsky and Gardner (200S) make
the Interesting polnt that large groups can be more effective than small groups
when the learner col.laboratlon ls raking place onllne.
Apart from group size, you need ro consider how long co keep lean1ers In rhe
same group,. Yo:u might bring reams together and disperse them \vlthln a sln_gje
class period, keep them together until some specific task has been completed, or
have them remain roged1er for th:e duration or the course. My personal experience
has been that co-operdtlve groups function better If d1elr membership Is stable for
a reasonable rune (such as a fuU school term).
Guidelines for learners
The minimum guidance you need ro give learners If you want them to work co­
operatively Is:
A a well-defined task with clear ouocomes,
A some suggesttons of how they mlght get started;
A. self-checking guldellnes, so r.hat they can monitor their progress and know
when t11elr task Is complete:
_. gutclellnes about partlctp:atlon and some practice In working collaboractvely
(acd.ve :and tolerant llscenlng, helpb1g od1ers co und-erstand difficult points,
giving and receiving consmIct1ve criticism. managing disagreements};
..t. suggest!ons for how the group might develop a plan of actlon - who wlll be
doln_g wnat, when and for whar purpose; and
A suggestions ifor how co deal with group members who are not doing their fair
share of work. This ts particularly important if learners wm remain ln the same
a
group for sever l lessons. or If the groups are expected to continue their co­
operactve work outside the classroom.

y Activity: Helping reamers to help• themselve-s

1. Talk lo a teacher (or lecturer) who has used co-operolive leamir,g.Ask
whal he/she did to help toorners work co-operatively.
2. Use fhe information that the teacher gives you, plus information from
this chapter and your own research. to develop a one-page han,dou1
for learners Iha! summarises the techniques they should try t o use when
helping one another to learn in co-operati\le groups.
3. How would these guidelines be different for learners of different ages?

SPECIAL TYPES OF CO-OPERATIVE LEARNING

There are many dllferenr ways of organising co-operatlve learning. Some approaches
are designed co be used ln any subJecr area, while others are designed for a specific
subject area, several approaches to co-operative !earning are collectively referred
to In research reports as snictent Team Leaming (STL). Most commonly, the
approaches that are given t11ts label are Student Teams Achievement Divisions
(STAD) ancl Teams-Games-Tournaments (TGT). Other common zypes of co­
operative learning Include Jigsaw and Dyadic (pairs). Do not be i:oncerned about
these strange names: d1ey wJII make sense by t11e time you have finished sntdytng
this chaiprer. These are nor the only ways you can use co-operative leam:lng, but
they give you an overview of Its basic concepts.
IJ!1 the approaches to co-0perd!ive !earning discussed here, !!here ts an emphasis
on ream goals, and ream success as a result of all members of the team achieving
d1ese goals. You therefore need ro und'ersrand three Important cottcepts, ream
rewards. Individual accountablltcy ano equal opporrunJ!les for ·success.
1. Team rewards are given if, collectively, the learners l n d1e team achieve
predetermined learning cr1rerla. The reason for basing tine rewards on team
results l s simple - this emphasises the need for the team members to co-operate
and assist one another. Except In !lie case or 'teams-Games-Tournaments
(fG1'). the reams are not in competition with one :another because Jr Is !JlOSSlble
for all teams to receive rhe rewards In any particular week (or other per1od).
The learning success that comes from frequent use of co-operative learning
generally enhances smdenrs· confidence and self-esreem (Aronson, 2012}.
111e rewards for lean1lng therefore become lnrrlnstc and the need for extrlnslc
rewards dbnlnlshes.
2. Individual acoountability has two aspects. First, a wetH-snucmred learn.Ing
task w[I] ensure that the ream's success depends on. the tndlvldual team.Ing
of all team members. When learner& accept ahls, them Is greater Incentive co
work together and to assist any ream members who are smIgg]Jng. second, It.
ls rhe teacher's responsrblllty to assess the learning of each sntdent, not Just
the product of the group·s efforts.
3. \.Ylth d1e exception of TGT, equal opportun'ity for success for each learner
and each team ls achieved, because learners contribute oo their ream's score
by Improving on their past performances (or by achlevlng maximum marks).
111us, high, average and low achievers are all challenged to do their best and
they are all re,varded for this effort. Because all ream members must learn
In order ro hell) their team, and because lo\v ad1Jevers can help die.Ir ream
Just as much as high achievers, the con01butlons of all tea111 meml:lers are
valued. Rewarding learners for Improving on their past perfonnances Instead
of rewarding them for !)Crfom1ance relative to ot'.her learners Is an im .porrant.
principle In outcomes-based education. It also seems to be one of rh:e main
reasons why learners are motivated by Involvement In co-operative learnlng.

All forms of co-operative learning require learners to work In pairs or groups to

assist one another to learn. However, th.e var1ous fomJS of co-operartve leantlng
differ from one another In tenns of:
i.. how learners are presented with the lnfonnatlon they have to learn (with )lgsaw
being quire dlffe.rent from cl1e other m.et11oos):
"' how learners Interact with one another (\.Ylth several approaches emphasls:lng
peer tutoring and odier approaches emphasising group Jnvesllgatlon):
"' how the learners are tested (wld1 TGT being different from the other melihods);
and
i.. the fonnallry of the Interactions among learners (\\•Ith Dyadlc beln_g dlfferent
from the other med1ods).

\Ve will now consider the d.ecalls of some comn1on approaches to co-operative
lean1lng.

Co-operative pairs
The simplest form of co-operative lean1lng Is when learners work In pairs - rhls ls
sometimes referred ro as dyadic co-operative learning. It Is often a good way
to Introduce learners to co-operatlve lear11lng because Jr gives them a chance to
develop their social skills (such .as !Esten.Ing and accepdn_g the views of others)
In a non-threatening environment. It also helps them to develop their skllls .at
explaining, asking q111esrlons and helping someone else to learn.
One way of using this strategy ls r.o give each !)air of learners materials tiO read
that are divided Into seclilons. They read rhe materials one section at a tlme. After
the first section, one of the lean1ers in eaca1 patr eltplalns ro the other lean1er what
the re.adlng was about. They then dlscuss lt anrt con1e to agreement on the Important.
points. They then both read the next section and the second learner explains what
It means. This process conrln111es until all tl1e marer!al has been read. discussed and
understood. Once all the materials have been read and discussed, the learners quiz
each other and attempt ro clarify any mlsunderstandlngs about !'.he overall meaning
of the marectal. The reacher then gives the whole class a test to check what they
have leamed.
 An obvious exrenslon of t11Js simple procedure ls ro require the learners to do more
than Just Interpret the materials they are reading. Ifthe materlals are sultable, and If
!lie 'leamers are given appropriate gufdance, the tnteracttons between srudenrs can
engage them In high-level cognltlve processing such as making Inferences, drawing
conclusions, synthesising Ideas and generatlng hypotheses. One approach to this
fonn of learning Is called guided reciprocal peer questioning. King (2002) gives
a detailed account of how this srrategycan be used. It Is based on the Idea of giving
students high-level question stems that they use to construct questlons related
to the material to ask, their partner. The question stems are designed to engage
students In specific types of cognJtlve actlvlty, from reviewing t11elr understanding
(Descrll>e ... In your own words) ro explaining (\,\�iy did _,, occm?) to generating
new knowledge (\Vhiat would happen If ...?) to being metacognltlve (What led you
ro that conclusion?).
Having students work In co-operative pairs Is very similar to t11e Jewtsh social
lear11lng practlce known as hevruta_ In this fom1 of Interactive text study, two
people engage with a text and negotiate a common understanding of It through
llstenlng, questioning, hypothesising and explaining. Kent (2006) provides an
lnfom1atlve analysis of a typical hevruta session.

Y Activity:
So lllal
CCrOperatlve- pairs - II!
you know what it !eels to work in a
will like
try

c0-0peralive pair. try tnis

exercise.
l. Select a partner (another learner 01 teacher) and together work through
Chapter 14 of this bool<, using the gJidelines given abow: fo, dyadic c�
operative learning,
2. Alter you have read each major section, discuss it using the tallowing
questions as prom pis. While you are engaged in this discussion, have a
third teocner educatiofl stuelent obse,ve af11d make notes using the system
of analysing conversations suggested by Kent (2006).
a. How c ould your use these ideas in your speciolis1 teachirlQ area?
b. How would you need to modify ·hese ideas 10 use them with low-obility
learners?
3. From this expelieoce, clevelop a set of guidelines that you could use to
evaluate how welt co-operative pair activities were helping your students
toleam.

student Teams Achievement Divisions (STAD)

STAD I:. one of Slav1n·s basl.c approaches ro ro-operarlve learning (Slavin. 1978,
1986). It Is an easy way ro, Introduce learners to co-operative learning and It Is
a good technique to use on a regular basis (perhaps once a week). To use this
1ed 111lyue, follow che:;c step:;;:
Step l Drvide the learners into groups of four or five. (Refer to the earlier
discussion of how to fonn groups.)
Step 2 Give the learners an outline of whar. they wlll be lea:mlng and why.
(Ger. rhem focused on Ille outcomes you want them to acllleve.)
Step 3 Present new academic inform"tioo co che learners (!J)erl1aps as
a wrttren llandout) or direct them to the Information ('perhaps on the
lnremer).
Step 4 Give the learners worksheets or otlner smdy devices ro hel[P them
master die academ.lc m.arerlafs. Tiiese worksheets should guide l earners
through the materials and show them how they can help one anotlher
learn through rurortng one another.
Step 5 Give the learners sufficient tiru.e (several periods, If necessary) ro
work t,oge,her to understand the Ideas you ltave presented.
Step 6 Test the learners (as Individuals, not as a group) to see whether they
have learned whar you wanted them to learn. These rests are sometimes
called "qulu..es· ro emphasise that they are nott major assessment tasks tlhat
wl!U co:unt towards learners· grades; diey are simply part of the leanifing
process. It Is Important diat these quizzes test Important outcomes (such
as understanding and the al:llllry to apply knowledge) as well as the recall
of facts.
Step 7 Score the qulzz,es and give each learner an improvement score. This
Improvement score ls based on the degree to which the quiz score exceeds
tl1e learner's past avernge on similar quizzes. Remember that glvting
learners lmprovemenr scores Is Just a convenient way of motlvacling
them by showing them that th.ey are feamlng. The Important rlhlng ls
that the learners are achieving significant outcomes, nor that they are
accumulartng marks.
Step 8 Add tile lndlvldual Improvement. scores ro give a team soore. Emphas1se
to the learners that die more they learn, the more dielr Individual
Improvement scores will Increase their team scores.

y Activity: Rewards for Improvement

The following selleme was devised by a teacher for translating learners·

quiz marks into improvement scores when she was using STAD. The quiz wos
marlced out of 1 o and each learner's marlc was compared onty with his/her
own average mar!c on previous quizzes_1he improvement scores were then
allocated as follows:
Quiz score Improvement score
Full marlcs. 5
Three or more marlcs above previous average 4
Two marks above previous average 3
One marl: above previous ,average 2
Equal to previous average 1
Lower than previous average 0

Another teacher who was using STAD had this scoring scheme:
Quiz score Improvement score
AbaVe previous average 2
Equal to previous average 1
Less than previous. average 0

Who! do you think are the -acivontages and limitations ot each scheme?

The SfAD cycle of teacher presentation. team lean1Ung and ,quiz typically takes
three ro, five les:sons. Tile scope and depth of learning can easily be extended If
you require learners ro gather and process Information outside normal class times
(petrhaps using some of tthe e-leanilng strategies described later In this -chapter).
 You might find that learners res[l)ond weO to some fornn of publlc acknowledgement
of the success of each team. One way ro provide this acknowledgement (If you
have the resources) Is co Issue a short newslene:r each week, recognising teams
wh-0 have reached c.ertaln crlirerta and lea::ners wh:o had high lmprovernenr scores.
as well as those who had perfect scores on the quizzes. This newsletter could a:rso
contain a short summary of the key learning outcomes that have been achieved.
thus reinforcing thar learning. Other approaches. such as !Class announcemenrs or
flags on a class nodc.e board, mtg.ht be easier ro maintain and more practicable than
a weekly newsletter. Whatever technique you use. remember to emphasise that.
the teams who scored highly were those In which the ream members helped one
another ro lean1. and that all learners should be s0'1\1lng co Improve and helpHng
one another co lean1.
ST AD can be used wfith learners of all ages and In any subject area. Ir ls well
suited ro subJectts such as Mathematics or Science, bod1 In Prlmary and Secondary
schools, where :factual material has to be mastered as a basis .for further learning.
STAD can also ()e used e:ffecttvely In other areas. such as language !earning. where
there are ample oppomunltles for lean1ers ro rutor one another on fairly well­
defined contenr. In general, STJ\D 15 suited il'O tho:;c GCCdons of a cour:;c where
lean1ers are required to master conren t that Is nor controversial or open to roo many
lnterpremctons ( for example facrual lnforruacton), but It ls nor suitable for slniadons
where die academic learning ourconnes cannot be assessed obJectlve!y (such as
discussions of moral or ethical Issues).
Teams-Games-Tournament (T'GT)
TGTwasSlavln's ortglnal version of co-operative learning (DeVrles& Slavin, 1978).
It Is similar to STAD ttn truar you present Information ro learners and they then help
one another learn. The difference Is that t.'ie qulznes are replaced by rournamerurs.
In which reams of learners compete against one another lru order to, gam points for
their home ream. To use fhe TGT stracegy, you would follow these steps:
Step t Po.Uow steps I to 5 of the STAD approach.
Step 2 While the learners are learning In their groups, review your records of
their learning progress over ·the w,ist few lessons. so that you can classify
each le.amer as a low. medium or high achiever at this time and for
this aspect of their learning. (Rememoor the outcomes-based educalion
principle that learners learn at different rates and In different ways, and do
not fall Into the trap of (hlnkJng d1at .a learner lacks ability simply because
he/she Is behind the learning of other members of the class at this ctme.)
Step 3 When It ls time to check on what the learners have lean1e<1. select tliree
at ,a time for the rournament. The three learners should be from the same
category (low, medium or hlgh achievers). but from different groups. The
learners do nor need co know how you have made tl1ese selections.
step 4 Pose a senes of quest1ons (perhaps four) co tt1e ·concesranrs·. Tlle learners
each need ro try ro gjve the answer first (just like a quiz show on '1V).
Step 5 At the end of the round (after f.,ur questions. or more If yolil need a tle
breaker), the winner eairns one [Point for his/her team, regardlless of how
many quesdons he/she answered correctly or how difficult the questions
were.
By havl ng the high achievers compete against one another and the low achievers
compete against one another, you ensure that each tean1 member has an equal
chance of scoring ream points. Learners do nor have t,() compere against the same
people each week, particularly If some are making rapid progress In the subject and
od1ers are maklng slow progress. You decide each week w'ho w/111 compete In each
round ofd1e tournament. AS with STAD, you should ay to develop some system for
recognising the achievements of the groups and Individuals who are learning well.
TGT i s s111re<1 ro rhe same types of sub)ecr matter anct Iearning outcomes as STAD.
It requires ai little more organlsal1on than STAD, but can be very motivating for
lean1ers. A variation. of TGT is to have learners compedng aga:Jnst one another as
teams rad1er than as Individuals - the teams tty to be first to answer the quesdorns.
This works best when there Is nor much difference In the ablllt!es and leamlng
progress of the learners In the class, otherwise the roumamenc becomes dominated
by the high .achievers.
Otlher STL approaches
Slavin ( 1990) provides a brief outline of two very specialise<! approaches ro sructem
Team Leaming: learn Assisted IndiVlldualisation (TAl), which ls designed to teach
Mathematics to Primary school children. and Co-operative Integrated Reading
and Composition (CIRC), which Is designed for reacihlng reading and witting In
the upper Ptlmary levels (Intermediate Phase). Once you have become familiar with
using STAD and TGT, you might like to Investigate these other apprO'aches.
Jigsaw
TI1e STAD and TGT approaches to co-0perarlve leamlng were devised as ways of
Improving student leamtng, and the social benefits came as a bonus. In contrast,
the jigsaw approach to co-operddive learning was devised as a soludon to a social
problem that was Inhibiting lean1lng. Aronson (20 12) descrtibes how he and a
group of graduare students developed Jigsaw In 1971 as a means of rooucu1g the
Interracial hostility among sructents in a recently desegregated school Im America.
By shifting the emphasis from compecltlon ro co-operation In the c.lassroonn, they
were able ro reduce racial conflict, raise the self-esteem of srudents, Improve their
academic perfom1ance and In.crease d1elr enthusiasm for learning.
In the STAD and TGT af!)proaches to co-operntlve learning, rhe lean1ers all
have access ro all the relevant learning materials at the same rime. In. die Jigsaw
approach, the reacher divides the learning materials Into manageable pieces and
each learner lnlrtlally concenrrares on masrertng a small portion of the marelilal.
TI1e learners then share their understandings and Integrate all rhe pl.eces: Into a
meaningful whole to complete the 'Jigsaw·. This Is how you can use tr,
Step t Focus on the out.comes. Dectde what outcomes you want learners to
achieve. l11ese outcomes should require deep understanding, not simple
memortsatlon.
Step 2 Organise the learning materials. Prepare learning resources (wrlcren
materials or guides to where relevant Information can be located) that
learners can use In order ro achieve the outcomes. l11ese resources should
be divided Into clearly defined sections that address dl.fferenr parts of
the material to be mastered. Each section of d1.e matert.ais needs to be
numbered .and you need ro make one copy for each team.
Ste_p 3 Divide the learners into groups. Use tthe pr1nc1ples discussed earlier ro
dec:lde on the composltlon of the groups, but alm to have the groups mlxed
In renns of ablllty, gender amt echnlclty. Each group will need to have [he
same Dumlber of learners as there are sections in the resource mater1als.
(If there are four sections Im the mater1al.s, then put four Cearners In each
group.) These groups are called the 'home reams'. It does not matter how
many home teams you have. Number the learners In each group (1, 2. 3,
4 J and appoint a leader In each group.
Ste_p 4 Explain the procedure. Br1eBy outline how you have divided tthe
learning mater1als and explain how the rest of the lesson will be organised.
Ste_p 5 Move learners into 'expert groups'. Ask the leamfilS to move Into new
groups that are numbered to corre.spond to the nu mile.rs on the sections of
the learning materials. All rilie ·num·ber 1 • leamern will move to Group I
to dean with Section 1 of the materials, and so on. These new groups are
sometimes called the expert groups, because the learners In each group
will become ·experts' on their secdon of the learning materials.
Ste_p 6 Have learners study their specialist section. Within the expert
groups, the learners help one another to learn ln much the same way
as they would If you were using STAD or TGT. However, since they
are focusing on a smal.l secaon of [he marertal, thls learnlng can occur
relatively quickly. Allow sufficient time for them to discuss and master tthe
lnforn1atlon, and to agree on how they wUI explain Ir ro ochers when they
renim to tllelr home reams.
Ste_p 7 Have experts te'.ich in tlteir home teams. Afrer the learners ln each
e�ert group have helped one anotlier le.am their ma¢erlal, they remm co
their home reains. There they teach the other members of t1helr group what
they have learned from their section of die resource mater1als. Tiie only
way learners can learn about die secl1ons of material rha£ were not their
speclallsarton ls from die other members of their home team. Therefore.
the learners are encouraged to Interact and learn from one another. Thls
part. of the fleamlng process can extend over several lessons.
Step 8 Assess learning. After the learners h.ave ibeen given adequate oppommlry
to team abour all the sections of the resource mater1als and to lntegrare
this knowledge lnro an understanding of the total topic, their learning ls
ass:essed Individually.
A very useful addldonal step In this )Cgsaw procedure was described by Lazarowlrz
and Karsenty (1990) and Lazarowll!Z (l99 1). They suggested that after Step 7
(peer teaching In the home teams) each group should be given a problem tto solve
that Involved a1:l1vely using what they had lea.med. Tiley clalmed that If this
problem required srudenrs to use higher-order thinking skills, the srudents • ablJlty
to recall and. use their new learning Improved.
Some learners nllght have difficulty wl.th this way of learning, because they are
expected to get a detailed understanding of one section of the mater1al (one piece
of the Jigsaw) before they see the 'blg prcrure·. To overcome this problem, Slavin
(1990) developed a version of this reclmlque diat he calls Jigsaw II. To use dils
approach, you start by having each teamer read all the marerlals they are going
to learn together as a group. (Recall tthat In )lgsaw I the learners lnltlally read only
their specialist secdon of the matter1als.) !Each learner Is then assigned a particular
aspect of the materials on which they are ro become the expert. Learners meet in
expert groups to srudy the materials in depdi and then return ro their hom.e teams
to teach on.e another. At an appropriate dme, the learners are given individual
quizzes. Matlingly and VanSlckle ( I <)9 I) report success with this approach In a
high sdhool Geography class, and Gli. alth and Abd El-Malak (2004) found It to be
a useft1! way of Improving higher-order comprehension In an EFL class:.
In both approaches to Jigsaw, team scores can be fornned using one of the scortng
procedures described for STAD. High-scoring teams and Individuals are recognised
In tl1e weekdy class newslerrer or by some other suitable means.
TI1e outline above suggested t11ar the sttJdenrs learn from written marertals rl1at
you have provided. After the learners become fam11lar wlthi these approaches ro ,co­
operative learning, you can extend thiem by requiring learners In the expert gro1Ups
to gather additional ttnfo1111adon from other sources. You can increase the need for
lean1ers to develop deep understanding by setting challengln_g tasks that require
derailed lnregradon of the Individual parts of the learning cask.
some teachers do not like Jigsaw oecause mey think Ir pl aces coo much
respons!blllcy for learning on the lean1ers. However. tthe responslblllty will be too
mu.:h only if t11e learners cannot cope. The only learners who wtU not cope are
!hose who do not have the academic or sodan skills to lean1 in this way.
All approaches to co-operative leamlng. but especially Jigsaw, depend for their
success on r:he ablllt:y of lean1ers to help one anot11er learn. You should not assume
mat all your lffiffiers wlll be verry adept at doing this. some lean1ers may have
dlffi.culty reading the marertals r.hat they have to master. Some may have IJttle
idea of how to ldendfy the tmporrant ideas in the m.atert.als, some may be poor
explainers, some may not appreciate the difficulties that otf1er learners wlll have In
lean1lng, and some may have ctlflicul.ry overoomlng their prejudices rowards other
srudents In their group. If Jigsaw ls to be a successful learnt.ng experience, you
will have to spend some preparatory dme helping your learners to overcome these
dlffi.cuhies and develop some basic Instructional skills. Aronson and! Pamoe (201 I)
give some usefuJ guldellnes for doing this. Aronson (2012) makes the point thar
Jigsaw wlll be most effecdve In the long tenn If Ir Is introduced to students early in
their school years. although older students readtly adapt to tr.
POTENTIAL PROBLEMS WITH CO-OP,ERATIVE LEARNING
The re ts conslderdbCe evidence to suggest that co-operative learning Is a useful
teaching strategy. However, most reacihers do not use co-operative learn:lng
freq;uenrly. As a result. learners are unllkely ro be very famlllar with the fom1al
approaches ro oo-operatlve Leaming described In rills chapter and, Initially, they
may not be happy or comforrable learning In this way. Therefore. you cannot expect
!hat your first attempts at using co-operatlve learning wUI be highly suocessful. You
will need to persist with t11e approach until rl1e leamers become comfortable and
con:fictenc learning 1111 chis way. some of rile difficulties you mlgJ1t enc.ouncer are the
followtrug:

y Activity: Please explain

The success of c-0-0peroti11e learning depends on the ability of learners to

give one anolher approp!iote explanations. of important concepts. How
can you help learnet'S in your class to give ooe another ,sufficienl!y detaHed
explanations rolhet !hon jusl sharing in.formation or answers'?
"" No matter how carefully you !Plan your co-operative learnlng lessons. there are
ltkel.y to be some srudenr.s who do nor participate or contribute as well as you
would like them to. particularly In the expert groups. This can occur for a number
of reasons. Just as It can when you are using any ot11er teaching strategy. This
can be a particular problem In mlxed-ablllty or mixed-race co-operative groups,
where the contrtbuaons might be unequal because of the dlftfertn_g scams of
some sruden.cs within rile class. For CQ-Qperatlon co succeed, students must gee.
to know and mtst one another, conununlcate accurately and unambiguously,
accept. and support one another and -resolve conflicts consm1ct1vely. Aronson
(2012) describes how this can be achJeved with jigsaw.
"" Some highly task-oriented learners might Initially v!ew co-operdtlve learning
wtth Impatience, perhaps because the activities often require dtsc.usslon and
consens'I.IS bulldlHg raliher rhan tile Immediate resolutlon of a problem.
"" Some leamers may object to the Idea that their marks (the group marks) will
depend upon the effort and learning of ocher srndencs:. You wlll need to explain
very clearly to a]! sruden.rs why you are using co-operallve learning and why
you are using a particular assessment scheme. Some useful suggestions for
group grading are given In Kroll ( 1992).
"" In co-operative learnlng groups, the achievement of each student will depend
on tthe ablllry of all members of t.he group ro help one anorl1er ro team. King
(2002) empl1aslses rhe point chat different cypes of lnteractlon. are required to
facilitate different kinds of learnln_g. Group Interactions that are little more than
requesting and providing lnformattlon !llllght help with learnlng factual material,
bur more complex Interactions are required ro pro1nore high-level complex
learning, Wlthoutcareful teacherguldanre. sntdents may not generate thought­
provokl1.1g quesrlons or probe different perspectives on Issues. Most students
wlll, at least lnltl.ally, require direction and help with tutoring one another.
"" Learners wm not be able to help one a1:1orJ1er to ream If the materials and
resources they are using are noc appropriate. You will have co select and sm1cn1re
all learning materials carefully. It will o�en not be appropriate ro simply use the
type of material that learners might find In a texciJook, or materials that you
mtg·ht give them. as a supplement ro your direct lnsm1ct1on. You wUI probably
have to spend more time preparing for co-operative learning than you would
preparing for a dlrecr lnsmIctton lesson.
You may also en.counter some of-Che dlfficuldes that were discussed In the previous
chapter on small-group work, such as learners who refuse to participate. learners
who want to dominate their group, learners who waste time, .and so on. Ellis and
Whalen (1992) [Present 35 d:lfferent strategies for dealing with these challenges.

y Activity: Take a positive approach

Consutt the CAPS for a subject you will teach
J _ Identify a topic that is suitable for a series of cooperative learning lessons.
2. Pion ot least two lessons for this topic and indicole ttle specific strategies
you will use lo minimise each of the possible DJol:llems ic:lentiliec:1 above.

USING ICT WITH CO-OPERATIVE LEARNING

When the original oo-oper.atlve lean1lng strategies were developed In the 1970s,
It was taken for granted d1at one of their key features would be face-to-face
Interaaton, and chls Idea pers1srs In mlllch of the wrltlag about co-operalilve leanllng.
!'or example, Johnson and Johnson (2010) say that '(ITit Is through promoting each
other's teaming face:-ro-fac.e that members become personally committed to each
other as well as ro their mutual goats·. However, they also emphasise die broader
Idea of promotive interaction, which they say oocurs when • members share
resources and help, support, encourage, .and praise each other's efforts to learn·.
More specifically, such Interactions encourage learners to share ideas. clarify ideas
and evaluate orhers· Ideas. Ir Is becoming lncreaslng]y easy t o engage learners in
such lnterdctlons In vlm1al classroom environments.
It Is possible fo use information and communications technology (!CT) co
enhance students' co-operative learning experiences In several ways. At .a basic
level, traditional computer-based technologies can, be used as cools to enhance rhe
face-to-face c0-operat1on of srudents. They can !J)rov1de a sl1ared workspace for
obtaining and processing lnfom1atlon (eg via die Internet) and for deve[oplng and
exchanging Ideas (such as summarising discussions with a word processor). At rhe
nex.t level, computers and mobile digital devices (such as smarrphones and tablets)
can become t11e prime means of communtcarlon among group members.
\'l'hen onllne communications are used for JCT-assisted co-operntlve learning, these
communlcatilons can be elther synchronous (meaning thatt the participants are on
the system at die same dme) or asynchronous (che participants are on t11e system at
dUTerenttlmesJ. There are advantages and lln1ltadons \\1th each approach. You should
h� die cautions of Savard. Mltc.hell, Abram! anct corso (1995) concerning die Umtted
effectiveness of co-op,emlilve leamlng when comnmnlcatlon between group memb-ers
Is nor lnlmedlare, or when some of the group efforts are reladvely anonymous.
For chis fom1 of co-operntlve learning, you maiy use software spoclfically
designed for group tnreractlon (such as a dtscusston group on a school web server).
or more generic optlons such as wlkls. Altem11111vely, you rould have students share
Information In less sophisticated ways, such as email (Huang, 2006). \Vharever
system you use, It Is essential that It enables easy sharing and refining of Ideas. so
that pardcll)allts are learning from their exchanges rdther than merely exchanging
lnformaclon. The overall organlsat1on must create a learning environment in which
the lnreractlons among students are academically focused and productive, and It
must maintain the essential elements of co-operative learn Ing (a co-operative task,
pos;ltlve Interdependence and Individual accounrablllcyJ.
some researchers have found thaf computer-assisted c0-op,erat1ve leamllng can
promote greater achievement, more si1ccessful problem solvlng, mo re srndenr­
smctenr lnterdctlon related to the task. .and 'higher performance on factual recognition.
appllcatlon and problem-solving rest Items than normal co-0peratlve learning. Ir
can also Increase the perceived status of female students, which seems to b,e partly
responsible for the finding by McConnell (2000: 105) thar 'there ls 11! grearer equaillry
In tlle con!rl.budons made by males and females In mlx,ect on-line debates d1an there
Is In the correspondlng physical groups where males tend ro dominate·.
Some specific suggestions about how you can use compurers as part of a co­
operntlve learning straregy are given by a number of authors, such as the following:
A Schmidt (2003) describes how to use wel>-based simulations as a focus for co­
operdtlve learning In an Economics course.
.., !ding, Crosby,Speltel, Shlmabuku and iNguyen (2001) offer spec.Ifie suggestlo ns
for using computers to supportSTAD and Jigsaw when reachingScience .
.., Hutchinson (2007) suggests a framework for effectively managing an onllne
learning envilronrnent for co-operative !earning.
• Pelllcclone and <Craggs (2007) describe how WebQuests can be used as an
lnsnucrtonal rool to foster co-operative !eamtng practices In Prtmary dassrooms.
• Chong (2008) descrtbes an effective use of edub!oggtng to facilitate co-operafilve
learning among music students.
A Blesenback-'Lucas (2004) also provides a very useful discussion of the
techniques that can be used to promote computer-based collaboracive leamlng.
\'Illen oo-operatlve leaming Is betng s!Upporred wltln !CT, group memlbers have added
responslbllltles In he!plng to scaffold one another's leamtng. Because their exchanges
will be primarily written. It can l>e cl1allengtng ro pose appropriate questions, offer
evaluative comments and prov.Ide constructive criticism In a supportive way.
However, tllese types of Input are critical to hel(lllng group members restructure
their knowledge and understanding. You should not assume that your sntdencs
have the skllls they need ro participate effectively in this form of collaboranve
learning. You will need co spend time helping smdents ro develop these slctlls and
learn how to manage their t1me, :stay on task and arrive at Joint decisions.
One lmporrant advantage of havtng students co-operate onllne (say, via a 11"1kl)
Is tlnat It helps students to keep track of their leamlng and Interactions (Reimann.
Thompson & Welnel. 2007). As your stl!lderuts become confident ar collaboratlng
onllne, you might consider Introducing th.em to additional tools such as Jing, which
allo-ws easy capturing and sharing of on-screen lmage:s and vtdeo.
Of course, die lnt:Jroducction of [CT Into all South African schools wlll nor occur In
the near furure. However. the development of feaslble models of !CT lmplemematlon
ls l>elng discussed at govemment level, and teachers need ro be prepared for the
changes that JCT can bring to rea:chtng and leamtng.
REFLECTING ON THE SUCCESS OF YOUR CO-OPEIRAlilVE
LEARNING STRATEGY
As usual, your oasl{ evaluation question will De: 'Did rhe learners achieve the
outcomes?' In adctltlon, you could ask the following quesdons:
A Did thls learning task really require co-operafilve group act1vlty, or could the
learning have been achieved equally well by leamers working lndtvldually?
A ·was this an effiaent way for smdenllS to learn? Was the lnvesm1ent of time
worthwhlle7
• Was: the learning cask authentic? Did the task engage learners In ·the type of
,co-operation that adUtlts engage In at work or In ot'.her real-world situations?
A Did all learners part1clpare enthusiastically In the learnlng activities?
• ·were the learners confident and successful when helping one another ro learn?
A Did the learners challenge the Ideas and Jnterpretatlons of others In their groUIJlS,
or did they passively accept all co:ntrlbutlons?
JI. Did the learners appear to enjoy the co-operative leamlng experience?
• Did (he activity achieve the social goals I had planned?
• ·were the avallabl! leamlng mater.tals suffictent to allow learners ro achteve the
outcomes, and dld the materials carer for those srudenrs or groups who wanted
to learn more th,m the minimum I expected?
• Did the co--0peratiVe 1eamlng acttvltles aclnteve any worthwhile outcomes that
were not planned for or antldpared? How could I cry ro deUl>erately achteve
these ou.rconnes In the fuutre?
• Did the activities lead to rile type of Quallcy Leaming described In Chapter 3?
• How col!ld rills co--0perarJ've learning experlenc:e l)e Improved so that It produces
better teaming outcomes?
REVIEW AND REFLECT ON YOUR LEARNIING
Develop answers to each of these questlo111s and discuss your answers with another
srndent or with an expernenced reacher,
1. How will you convilnce learners In your classes that they should help one
another ro leam rat.her than compertng against. one another?
2. Consult the CAPS for a subject yo111 will reach. Which of the outcome statements
In these docunuents describe the types of learning d1at can be achieved
effectively through co-operal!lve learning?
3. \Vllen you are using co-operaave le.amtng, how wlli you deal wltll learners
who do not get along with their :peers, who want ro work. alone, who are not
motivated or who do not keep up wlcil th,e rest of their group?
4. \'/hy are group goals and lncllvldual accountabillry so lmportantt In co-operdtive
leamtng?
5. IV11en you use the dyadic approachJ ro co-operar!ve leamlng, wllat do you
think rntght be t11e advantages and di sadvanrages of p.alrlng learners of similar
ablllty? What mlght be the actvanrages and dtsadvanrages of palr!ng low
achievers with high achievers?
6. Are STAD and TGT approprtare ways to help learners achieve the rypes oflong­
tem1 outcomes mar are listed In rile National Curriculum State11re11t Grades
R-12? ',Vhy, or why nor?
7. In co-operative learning. rile learners are not Just required to do sometl1lng as
a team: they are required to learn something as a team. How wlli you explain
thl& difference to learners?
8. Because team success depends on all sntdents lean1lng, it Is necessary for them
to tutor one another rather than simply share Ideas and Information 1vtth one
another. \Vhat ls the difference between tutoring and sharing Ideas?
9. In rihose versions of co-operntlve leamtng where marks are .allocated ro learners.
there is opporntnlty for each member of each team ro succeed, because success
Is based on Improvement on past petfom1ance rather than on absolute scores.
\'/hat are the advantages and Umltatlons of this waiy of acknowledg!ng learners·
ach!tevemencs?
10. How cain rh:e use of co-operative learning help you ro reach l.n ways mar are
comsisrenr with ·the prlnclples of Quality �aching described In Chapter 3?
1 I . \'lllen lean1ers are co-operating onllne. what are the partlCllllar advanrages
and disadvantages of the fact they wlll generally be communlcal!lng
asynchronously?
12. \' lllen swdents are learnu1g collaboratively onllne, what Is the main role of the
teachen
13. If you are preparing to teach In the Senior Phase: Prepare a lesson plan that
would enal>le you to use co-operative learning With a Grade 8 class In your
specialist reaching area. What factors did you consider before deciding on die
type of co-operative learning ro use?
14. If you are preparing ro teach In the lnrem1ed!ate Phase: Prepare a lesson plan
rhar would enable you ro use co-operative leamlng wlrll a Grade 5 class.
\'/hat. allowances have you made In your plan for learners who have no p rlor
experience with co-operative learning?
USEFUL WEBSITES
• 1\vo of the llilOSt prolific researchers/writers on co-operacive lean1lng have been
D.\V. and R.T. Johnson. Much of rllelr current work ls available from !'he C o ­
operdtlve Leanllng lnsrJrure at hn;p://\\'\V\\'.co-operatlon.org.
.._ The Early Childhood Australia we:bsire. at http ://11"\l'W.earlychlldhoodausnalla.
org..au. has suggestions about using co-operactve learning srracegie.s with
young children.
• On tthe website ofthe International Association for the Study of Cooperation In
Education. http://w1vw.lasc.e.ner. you can access a wide range of lnfonnatlon.
research and practical advice about co,operatlve learning.
.t. On the Jigsaw dassroom websire, at hrtp://1vww.Jigsaw.org, Elllot Aronson
describes how and why the Jigsaw tech.nlque was developed, and gives. a
comprehenslve descrtptlon of ho1v to 1Use It.
IMPORTANT FEATURES OF PROBLEM SOLVING
Problem solving Is a baslc human learning process. �Ve are consrandy faced wlth
situations In whlch we want something (our desired goal) diat we do not have at
the etme. Some of these slruatl'.lons are so trivial that we do not consider them to be
problems - for example. we want a drink. of water and we are standing next to a
rap In our kitchen. Bur If our desired goal Is non-trivia! and Its attainment requires
conscious effort. then we have a problem. If, for example. we .are I ost l n a forel_gn
city and cannot speak th.e local language. the goal of finding our h:otel consdtures
a problem.

Using problem solving as

a teaching strategy

There are many different wa;ys in which you can use problenn solving as part of
your teaching. These can be divided Into three categories, reaching for problem
solvlng, teaching about problem solving and teaching through problem solving.
When you teach for problem solving, you conoenrrare on helping learners ro acquire
die knowled.ge, understandings and sl<llls mar are useful for solving problems (you
provide them with the foundations for later problem solving). \I/hen you reach
about problem solving, you concentrate on th:e processes of problem solving (you
teach learners how to solve problems). This chapter ls concerned maln.ly with llie
processes th.at teachers can use ro reach through problem solving - th.at Is, usnng
problent solving as a technique for helping learners to learn other things.
Because problem solving can engage le.amers In developing ,deep understanding
and applying Ideas to real-world slruadons (two very lmpo.rrant components of the
Quail!cy 'leaching Model discussed In Chapter 3), It has tile potential ro motivate
lear11ers and show them practical reasons for leanilng. These advantages can be
obtained In all learnlng areas. not Just areas such as Mathe mattes and Science
where leaniers are rraditl.onally learniaig a·bout problem solving.
This chapter examines some sllluatlons 111 which problem solvlng ls an appropriate
teaching strategy to use. The chapter ruggesrs some ways lJ1 which you could
prepare yourself and your learners for using the strategy, and It makes some spoolfie
suggestions about how you mlglu. use problem solving in your teaching.
Vihen you have mastered the Ideas In this chapter you will be :able co:
• decide when problem solving Is an ap-propt1ate seraregy for helping lean1ers. to
achieve particular learning outcomes:
.., prepare rhoroughny and thoughtfully for teaching through problem rolvltng;
& create a leanilng environment that 1111orlvates leamers an.d encourages them
'to work Individually and collaboratlveJy ro aclileve specific lean1lng OUt'.,COmes;
• organise and man.age problem-based lessons in ways that fadllrace learning while
-carertng for the culn1ral, ethnic, language, learning scyle aml other differences of
die learners; and
& eval11are the success of your problem-solv.lng lessons.
 T11ere ls considerable evidence that what we learn In problem situations lnHuences
our furure thlnkJng much more than lnforma-tlon that we have read or been 11:ild
In situations where we are nor faced wlll1 a problem. This sugges!lS that problem
solving should be elfecdve as a teaching strateg,y. As a teacher, you have to make
sure that It acmally Is elfecdve. To do this, you need to remember three Important
features of tl1e real problems that peo;p!e face Hn th.elr dally lives,
1. When people are nylng to solve a real-life problem. they know why they are
tiylng to solve It.
2. When people are faced with a real-life problem, they often do not have all the
knowledge and/or skills to solve It. This generates a need to learn sornethlng
new.
3. Real-llfe problems rarely have only one solution. and often do not have a best
soludon. Such problems are said to be ill defined.

Thus, me learning t'hat takes place In order ro solve real problems ls focused on
clear needs and on a high degree of uncertainty. This Is very different from many
classroom slmactons: In which learners are presented with some new Lnfomiacton
and examples, and are then asked to solve a ·problem· to show that they have
understood the lnfonnation. Such ·problems· are nor focused on a real need, a11d
often have only one answer. Consequently, lean1ers often wonder why they are
being asked ro solve tllem. These acrlvltles are much be:t:rer referred to as ·exercises·.
Hence, a few words of caution are necessaiy. 'By Its vel)' narure, to solve a
problem one must dunk about the [llrol>lem; choose, try and rest strategies for
solving It: and finally find an answer. To be told how to solve a problem lrnmedlately
red111ces It to an exercise' (Van de \A/alle& Holbrook. 19S7:6). Exercises t.harrequlre
learners to simply apply standard procedures can be useful ways of reinforcing
kn0wlectge and undersrdndlng, bm they do not fit rhe defmltton of ·problem· rhac
Is used an thils chapter.
T11e Ideas presenred In this chapter are nor about teaching learners how 10 do
routine exercises; they are about using problem solving as a deliberate strategy to
reach somerhlng other than how to solve problems. Problems that are suitable for
use \\1th this teaching strategy generally have four characirertstlcs:
I. TI1ey are substantial rather than trivial.
2. 111ey descr1be a specific and reallstlc goal that ts ro be reached.
3. some maJor obstacle prevents the goal being achJeved readllly.
4. Learners are motivated to find a solution ro the problem.
Problems such as these can be used as part of a lesson. as a theme for several
lessons or as a strucrure for substantlal parts of a -curriculum.
What is the difference between teaching problem solving and
using problem solving as a teaching strategy?
Teaching problem solving ls exactly that- reaching learners how to solve problems.
for example teaching learners how to solve word problems In Mathematlcs_ On die
other hand. using problem solving as a reachJng strategy Is a technique for teachlng
througt1 problem solving. It . Involves usJng problem solving ro heCp srudenrs learn
other things. for example helping learners ro understand the concept of occupational
health and safety (OHS) !by solving d1e problem of how co plan and conduct an OHS
audit of their school. TI1e difference between these two Ideas Is very Important_ On
the one hand, the en1phasls Is on solving problems by applylng exlstlng knowledge;
on the other hand, the empl1asls ls on develo;plng new knowledge through. solving
problems. If you thln.k about this iJlOlnt carefully, your understanding of It will make
a bl,g difference ro the way you Interpret the lnfonnarlon In this chapter and ro rhe
way you use problem solving In your reaching.
To help you understand this ldlea, we will fook at an example. rn a 'trddldonal'
approach ro reaching, If you wanted learners co be able ro solve complex machemartcal
problems. you would first hav,e to teach them the concepts and skills they would need
(this would be reaching for problem solving). then you would have ro reach them rhe
processes ro use ro solve particular types of problems (this would be reaching them
about problem solving). After learners had developed their basic knowledge and their
problem-solv!ng skills, you could rheu get them to apply tihese skJils In two ways.
First. they could solve problems of rhe rype you had caught them about; this would
simply be applying what !hey had learned In famlllar contexts. Beyon<I that, you
could get learners to use their problem-solving skills to learn something else. either
\vlthln or outside Mathematics (this would be read1lng through problem solving).
Por example. you could teach learners about measurement and volume (teaching for
problem solvtng) and then teach diem how to solve problems lnvol\'lng calculatlons
of volume (teaching about problem sol\1ng). Then. as pan of a unit of soudy on
Collectiug and using i1y/Jrnratio11 about weather. you could pose a question such as:
'How can we devise an accurate way of measuring ralnfall?' This would be reaching
through problem solving. Learners would be using thel.r knowlffige of mathematlcs
and the!lr skills In solving mathemadcal problems to lnvestlgare a real problem. h1
which they were learning about a non-mad1emadcal phenomenon (weather).
It Is lmponant ro help I.earners understand cl1ese different aspects of problem
solving. At the point where they are atternptl!ng to solve real prolilems, they need
ro know what they are su[Pposed ro be leamlng and tltey need to be able ro call
upon their foundational knowledge and d1elr problem-solving skills. They need ro
understand that the foundational knowledge and prob.lem-solvlng skllls are not
the uldrnate learning goal: they are Just tools that can be applied In n.ew learning
slru.atlons. Ilf learners do not understand tl1ese dlsttnctttons. they may vJew the
mastering of problem-solving technlque.s as their ullrlmate goal. l11ey are then
likely ro focus t:heir problem-solving efforts on getting (O the right answer rather
than 011 learning new th:lngs.
To use problem solving as a reaching strategy, you wUI naive to do much more than
simply work tl1rough several sample prolblems and then give the leamers practlce
problems to solve. You wlll need ro e.."\pla!n to the learners whar you wanr thenn ro
learn, why you are usln. g problems as a way to teach, and how you expect them
to Interact with you and with one another as they learn. Throughout. this learning
proi:ess, your focus must be on helptng learners to develop their understanding of
Important concepts (not Just proble.1111-solvlng procect:ures). This 1.s best achieved
with subsrannve problems that engage learners ror extended periods of rlme and
encourage them to develo!) deep understanding. rather than problems that can be
solved I n a few minutes.
\¥hen problem solving Is used as a reaching srraregy, the emphasis must be on
students learning about ll1e subject, rather than simply learning ro solve problems.
The reason that this point Is be.Ing stressed Is rhat lf you reach learners simply
how to solve problems, they may learn very llttle other than tlhe sequence of steps
they need co follow In order to solve a particular typ,e of problem. This Is not an
effecdve way to hellP srudents learn, and there Is conslderdble resea17Ch evidence
that learners wlto are C-dught ro solve problen1s with ai ·means-ends' approach can
do so without learning very much. Some of this research also suggests that If you
 1i1ie use ofproblem-based learning Is bull·� on the p remlse that sustained engagement
with an approprtate ser of ·proMems wm help learners to acquire a subsrandal
knowledge base, deepen their understanding of lrnpotrdnt concepts and principles.
and develop sk!lils (Including :problem-solvang skills and Interpersonal skills) that are
relevant ro their :future careers. For chis potential to be realised, the problematic Issues
with which learners are engaged must be carefully selected so that,
• the integrated set of real (or real!srlc) problems that form the curriculum wlll
requlre learners to systematically acqulre, understand and master all the
knowledge and skills necessary ror them ro achteve all the desired learning
outcomes of the currtculu.m; and
• rile Individual problems will engage learners In the forms of lnquliy, thJnk!ng,
lnfonnatton processing, collaboration and com munlcatlon diat are most valued
In their field of study. ThJs wlll lnvarlably mean that learners have to grapple
with multifaceted, Ill-defined problems that require more knowledge n:han Is
Initially avaliable (so new things have ro oe learned) and which have no single
solution.
A fully problem-based currtculum will typically have the following features:
1. Learners are assigned to groups (tlSttally five to seven per gro:up) and remain
In the same group ror an extended period (perhaps a f111l year}.
2. The groups are given access ro problems (one at a time In a predetermined
seq;uence) that . are designed ro he! p them sysrematlcally develop die knowledge,
unctersr.andtng and skllls that are defined by the curriculum outcomes. In a
well-de:;lgnect curriculum, these outcomes wlll reflect the knowledge and skills
that learners wIII be expected to use when solving complex problems ln their
future careers.
3. VJhen presented with each new problem, grolilp members analyse the problem
and at.tempt to :solve Ir wlrh their ex.ttsrtng knowledge (th\is reinforcing what
they already know).
4. If each problem Is well designed, It 1vlll not be possible for learners ro solve It
with their existing knowledge, so they will have to Identify what they need to
learn In order to solve the problem and agree on strategies for learning these
things. (Forcing leamers to focus on ·what they do not know emphasises that
this Is a learning task. not merely an exerdlse In applylng what Is already
known.}
5. Learners rhen engage In self-directed smdy (usuaUy lndlvfdually, bur possibly
In pairs or as a group) ro research !lie lnfom1at1on t11ey need. The lnfomiatl'on
Is obtained from resources made available by the lnsouctor and from any other
resources (lncludlng experts in 111.e field) vllat the learners consider appropriate.
6. The group members then share what rh.ey have learned and rewnslder tthe
problem.
7. When rhe group members are sa!lsfi.ed r.har <they have fully understood and
resolved die problem, they submit their solution to the Instructor. Because
the problems wlll be complex - problems that reO.ect the reallcy of the ,careers
ror which the lean1ers are preparing - t11ere will not be :a ·correct' solucton.
Therefore, the learners \\111 have to )lLSctfy their solution In a manner similar co
the way profess.lonals have r o be able ro Justify the decisions and c:holces they
ma·ke.
In this process. the role of rite Instructor ls primarily that of a coach whose main
funcl1011J ls to assist learners ro develop the skl!ls tbar 11.J!ll enabl e them ro engage In
productive lean1lng through problem solving. The lnstlr\lcror does not have a direct
teaching role - the Instructor Will not tell the learners what they need ro know to
solve the problem, how they sJ\ould oy to solve lt or what resources they should
use.
In a school situation, fr ts extremely rare ro find: a curriculum that fits the above
description of PBL. Because of the difficulty of d esigning and lmplemenctng a full PBL
curriculum, rile best most teachers wrn be able to do Is opt for a hybrid mode:! that
combines some elements of PBIL with some elements of more rradltlonal approaches
to teaching. WhJle PBL purls!S might decry this approach, It can be an effective
way of Improving teachl:ng and Leaming In snmatlons. where teachers, le.ar111ers or
admlnlslrdtors a:re nor ready for a full commitment to PBL. ThJs 111!rennedlate step
of using problem solving as a reaching strategy Is the approach being advocatted In
die remainder of this chapter.
REASONS FOR USING PROBLEM SOLVING AS A TEACHING
STRATEGY
When used effectively. problem solvnng has a number of advantages over direct
lnsm1cclon or simple group work. Some speclllc reasous for using Ir as a reaching
srraregy are the following:
.t. ·Problem sol\1ng engages le.unecs acctveny and purposefidly In teaming by
focusing their attention o n what tthey need to learn. It develops their tltlnklng
and reasoning skills: tl1at Is, their ablllty to analyse slruactons. to apply th.elr
,existing knowledge to new situations, to recognise the dlffe.renoe between facts
.and opinions and ro make objective Judgementts.
• Problem solving helps lean1ers to see a need for ;making sense of the subject
they are srudylng.
• Pro:blem solving enables I.earning to be focused on rhe concerns and Interests of
lean1ers and encourages them to discover answers to questions that arlse from
those concen1s and lnreres!l'S.
.t. When the problems are engaging and dlflicult. higher levels of comprehension
and skills development occur than In direct Instruction, because developnng
meaningful solut1ons to problems leads to deeper l!lnderstandlng of the subject
matter.
.t. Problem solving helps learners ro take responslblllcy for their own leamlng. It ls
re\vardlng for them to see that their leamlng Is a result: of their own efforts. As
they develop new knowledge for themselves and feel responsible for d1elr own
!earning, they ave encouraged ro evaluate their own learning and their !earning
processes - that Is, co be meracognltlve. AS learners accept responsibility for
�heir leamln.g and develop confidence In rJlelr own ablllry, the familiar !earner
question 'Why do we need to know this?' Is ofcern replaced with 'WIil you help
me to learn how to ... ?'
8. TI1e group then undertakes a self-appraisal (each member assessing her/
himself. one other and the group).
9. There Is usually a srrtct time Umlt on t11ls set of activities, and when It ls
completed the learners are presented with their next problem scenario.
.._ Problem solvlng can develop lean1ers· crldcal t!hlnklng skills and their ability ro
adapt ro new learning sltuat1o ns, but only If they 'have lean1ed to be conscious
of what they are doing' (Marshall, 2003: I ) .
.._ Problem solvlng can. show leamers d1at each subject they study (Science,
Matlhemarlcs., Hlstol}', etc) llllvolves a systematic way of rhlnl<lng and dol ng
things that rhey need ro understand. 1111s Is particularly the case when the
proDlems belJlg lnvffitlgared are s:lmllar to those emcounrered by professionals
In the field. This helps them to see ho\N new knowledge Is created in that field.
.._ Problem solvlng, parricularly in g:roup•s, encourages learne:rs ro talk about the
concepts they are try.Ing to understand. This helps them to evaluate their o,vn
unders!clJndlng and ro lctendly flaws ttn their thinking. It also develops d1elr
language skllls.
.._ !Problem solving develops learners· ablllry ro ;make infonned Judgements and
emphasises the Importance ofbeing abl.e ro explain and )1!1stlfy thoseJudgements.
..t. Problem solving encourages learners to rake a deep approach to learning
(Dahlgren & Oberg, 200 I). This helps them to develop a deep, understanding
of the key concepts in d1eir li.eld of srudy and a better understanding of when
and how to apply those concepts.
..t. Problem solving in groups promotes learner lntteracnon and rearnwork, thereby
enhanclng learners· interpersonal skills.
A !Problem solving provides a challenge for learners, and they can derive great
satlsfacrton from discovering ne,v knowledge for d1emselves. it can help ro
keep alive lean1ers' namrnJ curto.siry (which often seems ro get. lost as tliey
grow older). Jt can be a fun and re1\'ardl.ng I eamlng experience that ts both
Interesting and sl!lmuladrug.
A !Problem solving hel;ps learners remember important ideas and provides a
sound foundation from which learners can transfer their kno1.vledge to other
slntatlons. Ir can help rhen1 to understand the relat1onshlps ber.,•eeru what th:ey
are studying and die world beyond school.
A Problem solving helps learners to develop a deep understanding or the key
concepts 111 their field of srudy and a bette:r undersrdnding of when and how to
apply those concepts.
A Problem solving can help learners ro develop quail.ties such as resourcefulness,
independence, patience and tenacity. Appropriately challe:nging problems can
encourdge srudenrs ro cont:l.nue learning long after the forni.al le:sson Is fimished.
Vlhen learners are successful, rhelr self-<COnfidence and self-esteem i1nprove
and they are more likely to take academic risks and ro keep t:rytng when they
do make mlsaakes.
A Problem solving help-s learners ro see the reacher as a resource who can help
them learn, rather th.an Just as a source of lnfom1adon.
A Engaging leamers in ;problem solving can give the reacher a better understanding
of the abllltles and special talents of tfle learners.
In addlt'Jon r.o these advantages. you can achieve all the benefits ofsn1all-group work
and co-operative lean1lng by ha\•lng leamers work collaboratively on proble1ns.
ISSUES TO CONSIDER BEFORE USING PROBLEM SOLVING AS A
TEACHING STRATEGY
Before using problem solving as a reaching strategy, you need to be aware of the
following:
"' Successful problem-solving lessons requtre a lot of preparation. Appropriate
problems take time to develop, since each problem. needs to l:>e carefully
sm1crured to produce specific learning outcomes.
"' Unless learners und.ersrand why they are attempting to solve a particular
problem, they may nor learn what you want tl1em ro learn. For example. they
may foe\1s on the problem-solvlng strategy and not on the prtm.:lples yo\t want
thenn to discover.
"' Unless learners see the problems as relevant, they may regard them simply as
busywork - ttn which case they are unlikely ro, leam much.
"' Because learners are working relattvely Independently of th.e reacher. they may
noc discover all the things you would like !'.hem to learn. They may also develop
misconceptions or ln:complere or disorganised knowledge that later has ro be
'unlearned' (Klrschn.er, Sweller & Clark, 2006:84). Unless you monitor the
learners closely, you may not reallse that these thtngs are happening.
"' Unless learners believe that tlley are capafule of solvlng die problem. they may
be reluctant to engage with It (Brad, 2 O 11). You need to develop problems that
are seen by students as challenging but achievable.
A Learners who are accustomed to rhelr reacher being the rnaln source of
knowledge may feel uncomfortafule with the self-directed learning necessary
for problem solving, In which case th.ey are unlikely ro engage sertously with
the learning task.
A When learners are solving problems In groups, lt ls easy for less able or less
confident learners to be dominated by the confident or capable learners. (Refer
to Chapter 8 for a discussion of other illmlt.atlous of gro:up work.)
"' 'Problem solving can place a huge burden on a learner's working memory and
'while working memory Is being used to search for problem solutions, it Is not
available and cannot be used ro learn· (Klrsch!ller, Sweller & Clark, 2006:77).
"' Problem solving can be a frusuatlng (and posslbly fuorlng) experience lf leamers
believe that they have to find a solution that ls already known to die teacher.
A Dlsc-overy learning approaches. such as problem solving may nor be successful
unless srudenrs have undergone sufficient prior sm1cturect Learning experiences
·to have a solid foundation on which r.o buJld new understandings.
At a glance

• The outcomes you want IGorne.rs to
ochiQIIG orQ r�ily r�oo to i�SUQS
ooyond Jhe classroonn.
.. You want to base }'Ollr toochi:ng on
real isst.JGS that ar<> of in!G<esl lo lhe
learners.
.. You want IGamers to davelop
dGGp u:nd0rstanding of important
concepts and an abiUty to transfer
that understanding to ne.v learning
situations.
• You wonl to MCOUroge studenra to lbe
ir,c:lependGnt loom<>rs.
• Loomers lock the basic stills to work
indQP<}ndantty.
• l-8orners lack the prior knovAedge
and skiOs (particularly literacy skills)
to <>ngog<> 0ffectivGly in this form ol
learning.
• i
You connot expla n to ieornGli'S 'tNtYy
they are solving problems and how this
will help lhem to IGOm.
PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTING PROBLEM SOLVING
The decision rouse problem solving should not be made Ugtitly, because Ir Is not Just
a matterr of presentlng smdents 111th a ·cex:rbook problem· and askln,g them ro work
through it. You have to use appropriate problems :md create a learning enviro nmenr
that will engage students and foster deep u nctersrandlng. 1b be successful, the
probie.m.-solvlng rdsk must require smdents to process relevant Information. Your
challenge Is ro strucrure learning opporrunlrtes that will allow and encourage learners
to engage In this processing. In other words. you h.ave to scaffold the smdents'
learning so that they wlll have a sustained engagement w.lth the lrnportant things
you want. diem to learn. AS Wlllls (2006) explains. thls ls essent1al lf srudents are to
use the meurolog:lcal processes that support elfectlve learning.
The general steps you wlll need to take In planning and using problem solvl.ng
are:
1. Be clear abour the outcomes !liar yo-u want lean1ers to achieve. Ldenttfy the
deep undersrandllng that you want learners ro develop.
2. Develop a suitable problem or sertes of problems mat can be used to help
learners acllleve the desired learning outcomes. Normally, d1ese problems will
be bullt around an Important concept or prtndlple (for example , die concept of
nurrtoon or t:he prtnclple of the conservalilon of energy). The problems should
also lle bullt around some realllitlc s1ruat1011 that rite learners rhlnk ls Interesting
(such as the simulated clime scene lnveslilgatlon described by Harley [2011.]).
The types of problems that w111 be suitable will obviously d.epend on the age of
the srudents and the subject tliey are srudylng.
3. Identify what. prior knowledge (he learners w!U need In order ro srarr. their
lnvestlgatlon. If necessary, reach that pclor knowledge. However, remember
that die problem solving wlll not be a matter of learners Just applying d1elr
exlstlng knowledge - they will! be leamlng new things.
4, Dec:lde how you wlll mollv.ace the leameis to engage In die problem solving (so
that the problem wlll be one that they want to solve).
5. If necessary, teach tne learners the problem-solving skills that they wlll need,
or Satrucrure the problem so that these skills will be learned as st:udents work
through the problem. For example, you may hruve ro reach learners 11:ow to
construct a questionnaire so that d1ey can use rhls as a tool ro gatther data to
help rhem solve rhe problem.
6. Identify the parts of the pro'blem that are likely to cause the most dlifficulty
for :learners. If necessary. develop some strategies to assist r:he less capable
learners with this part of t11e problem solving.
7. Identify a numboer of approa.:hes that mlght help learners as d1ey attempt to
sol1•e this problem, so that you will be prepared t:o recognise and. encourage
those who use these diverse .approaches.
8. Use the lnformatlon. above to plan your lesson or sertes of lessons. (Often.
problems t11ar will help learners to gain real Insight Into the subJect: matter have
to � lnvestilgated over an extended period.) Make sure that your plans give
rile learners the freedom they need to think, explore Ideas. experiment. and
rake lntellecrual rtsks.
9. Describe the problem ln simple language so that the learners wUI understand
what they have to do and how this will help them to achieve specific leammg
ouocomes.
10. Gulde learners to rescurces that wtll help them co solve the problem.
11. Gulde and help the learners co dlscuss the problem (either in small groups oras
a whole class).
12. Encourage learners t� us:e their own strategies for solving the problem. Praise
thelJ lnltlaelive. orlgl�al Ideas, resourcefulness and willingness to explore
different approaches to the problem.
J 3. Help ro keep learners on trdck, perhaps by asking questions such as:: 'How
does that Idea help you to solve the original problem?' It l s useful co see your
role as being rha.t of a metacognltlve coach who questions, encourages, [Proboes,
gives critlca.i appraisal, promotes Interaction between learners and prompts
them to become aware of the reasoning skills they are using.
14. Challenge learners· fog!c and boellefs. perhaps by asklng questions such as:
'How can you Justify that conclusion?' or 'What alternative approaches have
you tried?' Give cons::ructlve feedback to correct erroneous learner reasoning.
15. Encourage and assist learners In recording their problem-00lvlng processes as
well as their conclusrons.
16. Pantclpare In problem solving wtrh the learners so that you can model problem­
solvtng approaches and show them that the problem is a real one for which
you would genulnely like an answer.
17. Help learners to bring their Investigation to a conciluslon.
I 8. Evaluate the learners· understanding.
If you are using problem solving for the first time, do nor be too ambitious: tty it
with one class on a fairlywell-defmed problem, re:6ne your approach until you feel
comfortable mar tr ls working successfully, and then try tr with other classes anct
wlth problems that are less well defined.
Of co:urse, it is imporrant that learners shou.ld strlve to find appropriate solutions
to rhe problems you pose for them, but you nnust help them to see that this is not
the only reason for attempting the problems. Learuers need to understand that, by
reflect1Jl_g on their problem-solving strategies and on the aspects of the problem
that they find difficult, they can increase their knowledge of the subject matter
at t11e same tlme as they ln1prove their problem-solving sklils. In short, learners
should be encouraged to see problems not simply as a test of ra1elr knowledge, but
as an opportunity to lncr€ase their knowledge and! understandtng. 'l'he best way to
convince t11em of rhl.s po Int ls to show them that It ls ttrue! 1111s can be done using
carefully selecred problems and a lot of planning on your part. A good starting point
is co demonstrate co learners rhar. effective problem solvers are people who:
A are open-minded:
A can make decisions based on sound Judgement:
.it. have lmagin.atloD;
• focus on learning, not Just on solving the ·proolem:
• ,are crttlcal or their own problem-solving prore.5Ses:
• learn from their experiences,
A .are challenged by (and inceresr.ed In finding out more about) the unknown: and
• do not become frustrated by dlflicultles.
[stablishing on appropriate learnin!;J climate
You cannot expect sntdems to learn through problem solving unless you create and
maiilll"din an approprtate iean1ing cilmare- one in which the learners are encourdged
to learn and in which they wlll feel comfortable with exploring d1elr own Ideas. 111e
followln_g sectioDs discuss some techniques that are worth trying.
Use group wolf<
Problem solving Is an Ideal strategy to use In conJuncdon wt1l1 group work and
co-operative learning. To achieve the benefits of group work that were discussed In
the previous two chapters, you need to create a leamlng cllmatte In which leamers
ran freely dlscus.s with one another what they understand t11e proDlem ro be, how
they feel about die problem, and! the various steps In their al'ltempts to solve t11e
problem. This Is [Particularly Important If you are raking a constructivist approach to
reaching In which your main aim ls ro hetp leamers bu.lid their own undersrandl11g
of tile subject rather than slntply accept pieces of knowledge what you present ro
them. Allowing learners to work In pairs or groups encourages them to d.evelop
explanations that are meaningful to someone else, .and to oy to Interpret the
developlng Ideas of other leaimers.
Duren and Cherrlngron ( 1992:80) suggest that tl1e main advantage of co­
operative le.amlng groups for problem solving Is that they 'give s!Judents the
oppommll}' to talk aloud, challenge and defend a point of view, and focus on the
problem solving processes rat.her than the answer. They also claim that leamers
who work co-operatively to master probJem-solvlng strategies are better able to
remember and apply those strategies d1aru learners who work Independently.

y Activity: An evolving solution

Sandefur (2004) suggests a newel strategy for group problem solving in

a Mathematics course where the goal is to increase learners· abilities to
construct proofs. solve non-standa rd problems and com municote these
solutions and proofs both oralt,,, and in written form:
• learners wor1c in groups of lhree. They o,e allocated complex problems that
they are expected lo solve over several weeks.
• After one week ot working on the problem, one member ot tile group has
lo email to the instructor her/his initial offempt at solving the problem.
• 1he next week, a different member o1 the graup hos to email her/his next
draft to show what revisions have been made to the sollJ!ion offered by the
first learner.
• 1he following week. too third learner emails her/his solution, showing the
revisions that hove been made to 1he previous solutions.
• learners are encouraged to critically revise other learners· work. and they
are penalised if they do not make revisions to a drott that contoirns errors.
• Once Ille final draft has been submllled. each group Pf9pares a short oral
presentation to explain how they approached the prablem.

How could you modify lllis group problern.5otving a pproach to suit vour
subject a,ea and leaching situation?
Encourage learners to participate
Motivation Is a key element In problem solving. Unless learners want to solve the
problem, and belffeve that they have a reasonab'le chance of success, rhey are unlikely
to persist and, therefore. are unlll<ely to leant what you want them ro learn. It Is
not appropriate for you to as.sum.e that leamers wlll automatically be motivated ro
solve whatever problems you confront them wtt:11. You need to make your problems
lnterestlng and relevant if you hope ro engage smclents :In effective learning.
Encourage learners to think and to monitor their teaming
The way learners think about the problems they are solvln_g Is lnAuenced by more
than Just the structure of tile teamlng situation. Ir Is also Inlluenced by tltelr genel'al
approach to learning and tile type of thlnkilng cliat I s encouraged In your dassroorn.
If learners are encourdged to think ll1l diverse ways, they iiJrobably will. If you do
nor.encourage learners to be metacognlrtve, they may not be. You therefore need co
help sntdents to be aware of their thinking proresses and to reflect on thelr efficacy.
Hov,ever. you should heed die caution of Holllngwonh and McLouglllln (200 l:
51 J tha-r reachlrug smctenrs Isolated merac:-ogntt1ve sktrns Is ·of llmlted value unless
tliey know what and why they are learning these and how diey wl!I benefit'.
One of your main challenges will be to help learners recognise the llmltatlo : ns
of the cognitive strategJes tliey are uslng. and to see how these strategies am be
Improved. To help learners develop reflective and meracognlt1ve skills. you could
encour.tge them to ask d1emselves the foll owing questions as they attempt to solve
problems:
• \Vhy am I tl}'Jng to solve this pro·blem?
A In what way Is tJils problem similar to other problems I have solved?
A What did I learn from solving those stimltar problems?
... \Vhat seraregles w�re: successful tn solving eh� l)'roblems?
• ls tills problem an example of some general pr!nclple?
• \<Vhar Is che most lmporram piece of lnfom1atlon I llave?
.t. Could I solve rhls problem If ! had one more piece of lnfonnatlon?
.t. How confident am I that I c,m solve this problem?
• What assumptions am I making?
• Is there something Important that I might be missing by using this approach?
A Do r need to finctl more than one way of solving tl1ls problem?
• \.Vhat assumptions am I making?
A Is there something Important that I might be missing by using this approach'?
• Do I need to find more than one way of solving this problem?
• What chJnklng strdtegles am I using as I oy ro solve this problem?
• Is tills problem annoy!ng/frnsrrattng me? If so, why?
• How wll!l I know when I have solved this problem?
To keep smdents eng.aged In problem solving, you must value rhelr problem
solving efforts. If you accept learners' initial Ideas. and then -offer suitable challenges
to keep them rhlnk1ng, they wm be encouraged. co refine chelr Ideas and their
thin king processes. This Is slmllar to the Idea of accepting learners· lnJ-rtal writing
efforts and rllen encourdglng them to edit and refine their work (see Chapter '14).
For students, the most dlffiallt part of !Problem solving may be _getting started.
And sornetlrnes the opposite Is the case - some students may Jump In too soon. To
mlnlmlse these difficulties. you should follow these guldellnes:
A Do not make problems so complex that students wm believe that they are
Incapable of solving diem.
A Students who believe diat they can solve a problem will show greater interest,
effort and perseverance than students who see die problem as Impossibly
dlffiatlt.
_... iEnoourage lean1ers to read the problem several times and to explain !'lie
Important fearures ro another learner before they attempt ro solve Ir.
A Encourage the learners to think of at least r.vo ways to solve the problem before
they ny to apply their first approach.
_.. Does It matter If my methods are nor very elegant?
_.. \Vhat am I learnIng about the subject as I solve thl:s problem?
_.. What problem-solving skills am I developing?
_.. How wtrn my new knowledge and skills help me to• learn other things?
An alternative approach to encou.raglng learners to chtuk ls to use brainstorming.
This a:an be a very effectlve way to emphasise the lmportance of sharing and
acceptlng ldeas. It can be a whole-class activity. but It Is ofren l>errer when lean1ers
work In te,1111s ro generate Ideas. The basic procedure for brainstorming ls this:
1. TI1e reacher outlines: the problem or Issue ro rhe learners.
2. Learners are Invited to contrtbure Ideas (possible approaches ro solving tl1e
problem, Issues to be considered, as.sum(Pcions that mlght have to be made,
wurces of lnfom1atlon, possibleplrfalls, ere).
3, All of these Ideas are recorded, Do not. discuss any of chem at this stage and
do not pass Judgement about any of !hem. It Is essential that all Ideas:, !110
matter 'how unusual or unexpected, are accepted as posslble keys ro solving
the problem.
4. \/o/hen no more Ideas are forthcoming, the teacher hel ps the learners to sort
through the Ideas and decide how each one mlgh[ contribute to the solution of
the problem.
5. Learners then work In reams ro my ro solve the problem.

\\/hen used In d1ls way, brainstorming Is nor Intended robe a means of reaching
a solution to a problem. It Is slm1PIY a way of revealing the Ideas and questions of
Ille group, s,o that all Jean1ers have a clearer understanding of tile problem. As their
understanding of the problem Improves. learners are more likely to start formulacl:ng
possible approaches ro solving the problem and learning about the :subject matter.
A variation of brainstorming Is ro teach tea·rners some of the thinking srraregles
advocated by Edward de Bono. You could teaoh th.em how to use De Bono's
·six l!11lnktng Hats· as a means of focusing on facts and questions. feelings and
lnrultlons. postttlve aspects of their solutlon, weak points In their argumell!ts,
creacive alternatives and broad overviews (see De Bono, 1985). Thl:s can be a
useful way of encouraging students ro think about ways In whlch their new-found
knowledge can be applled In other slruadons. It can give diem confidence to suggest
hypotheses that lead to generalisation of their :solution to other slmUar problem:s. To
do this. lean1ers wlll have to be tlllnklng lhlngs such as This approach seemed to
workbecause .. .' and ·1 coulcl use this approac:h In other problems provided d1ar .. :
When lean1ers are arremptln,g to broaden d1elr understanding In tl1ls way, you
should respond as follows:
• Accept all their hypotheses without making value Judgements. Ultlmar.ely, the
learners need to be able oo rest and evaluate their own hypotheses.
• Praise learners for their contr1butlons. particularly If these Indicate that the
learners are using 1nnovat1ve approaches.
• Encourage learners to develop logical arguments to support their hypotheses,
A. Help learners to feel comfortable about attempting to explain why their
,ge.neraltsatlon Is m1e or for attempting to find a counter-example ro dJsprove
.anofher learners generaJjjsatlon.
Focus on Individual learners
Teachers should oy to meet the learning needs of ea:ch learner, both the highly
capable and the less capable. This might require you to change the co ndltEons or
details of a problem so that It Is more challenging for some learners and simpler for
oll1ers. One way of simplifying a problem Is ro remove any information t11at Is not
essential. (Evenmally, the learners must learn ll1ow ro do this for themselves.) If the
lean1ers are working in groups, you can ofren help them to share the lean11ng tasks
In such a way t1hat even the less ab! e learners can make a valuable conn1lbudon
towards. solving die problem and, In tihe process, leam more than they would from
direct lnsm1ct1on.
Encourage curiosity
If your learners are tlnqulsltlve about the world around th:em, you will have Utttle
trouble engagh1g them In me:aningflll problem solving. The best way ro encourage
curiosity Is to model It. Show the learners tha:t you are Inquisitive about the world
and that you are keen to iJe Involved In dob1g things t11at you have nor done before.
Srdrt by showing learners how keen you are oo find ex.amples tn real life, in books.
on televlslom or on the Lnrerner of the things about which d1ey are learning. You
can bulld these things Into your teactllng In t·wo ways, namely:
I. using everyday applications to demonstrate principles (sucih as when a Science
reacher uses a hot air balloon to help lean1ers understand the relartonshlp
between temperature and density In gases): and
2. shartng with lean1ers questions that require real lnvestttgatilons, such as: ·�vhy
do leopards have spots and zebras have stripes?" (See Killen, 20O3a, for an
explanation of why this might. be a useful quescion for a Mathemat:Ics teacher
to pose.)
Another way to encourage learners to be Inquisitive Is to ask lhem to Investigate
how problems In tlle subject they are smctylng are solved In real life (who solves
these problems, what training they have. what equipment rl1ey use, how much
ll1ey get paid for doing It.. etc). You can then bulld on 1111s l:nformatlon In class and
bring further realtsm and relevance ro your teaching.
You can encourage learners of all ages to be Inquisitive by asking them to keel) a
Question Book (paper or electtonlcJ IJ1J which rlhey record all rhe questions to whli:h
d1ey would like to find answers. At appropriate times you can then use some of
d1ese quesdons as a focus for your reaching. For example, If you were planning a
unit of work on the roplcjfigllt. you could ask whether any learners had questions
In rJ1eir Quesllon Book about aeroplanes or birds. If !11ey did. you could make a
point of building some of these questions lnro the learners· Investigation of flight,
By using their quesctons as a focus for your reaching, you wm enlhance leamers·
monvarlon ,md iShow thP.m that you arP. lntP.rP.srP.d In what rJ1P.y want ro IP.am.
Encourage writing
Writing can be a useful way to enco111rag€ learners to share their problem-solvtng
experiences and to develop a systemadc approach to ldendfytng their dlffiailtles.
For example, you could pose a problem and J1ave learners wdte abo u t what they
understood rJ1e problem ro be and how the:I chlnk It could be solved. You could rhen
display rhelr Ideas In a suitable manner (perhaps on a noctce board, In a folder, on
a blog) and .encourage them to respond co one another's Interpretations and Ideas.
You might even arrange for the learners co post d1elr problem on a buaetln board
on tthe rnremer. and exchange Ideas with learners. In od1er schools or even other
countries. As well as developing their problem solvlng sk1lls and helping them gain
knowledge, this form of writing develops learners· communication, skills. Further
Ideas at>o\tt using writing as a learning tool are given In Cliaprer 14.

Make /eamlng relevant

Learners are more likely to find meaning In the subjec.rs they are siudylng [f they
are given the opportunity to apply and develop d1elr undersr,mdlng by solvlng
problems that have some personal meaning for tl1em. At the vel)' least, you should
construct a learn.Ing environment In which learners are able to,
.._ raise Issues that d1ey see as problems;
.._ Interpret protiJlems according to their own understanding:
.._ pursue their solurlons creatively: and
..t. feel confldent alxlut assessing and defending their solullons.

If you can achieve ·this, you wfll have ,reatted an environment where learners
can really learn from problem solving, rather than an environment In which they
see prolllem solving as yet anotJ1er time-wasting acClvlty w1th no real purpose.
You.r greatest challenge .In using problem solving as a reaching strategy will ·be
developlng problems that are relevant to the learners.

Select appropriate problems

There are thousands of problems mat you could use oo reach your learners about
your specialist area, your challenge Is ro find suitable problems. Your choice of
problems will have a very slgnlnamr Imp.act. on what srud.e.nts learn, and there Is
some evidence that a poor choice of problems can acn1ally Inhibit !earning, The most
lmportdl!lt question ro ask when seJecrlng a problem Js: 'WIii ir help learners to acqurre
the knowledge, understanding, skills and artlnides thar I want them ro develop?'
It Is common to divide pro"blems Into three caregortes, routine, non-routine and
open-ended.
1. Routine problems are those char can be solved by rhe appllcat:lon of an
already known process. Many simple matllematlcal problems fall Into this
category, and they are probably best refelled to as dilll and pracrtce exercises.
For example, for most seven-year--0ld children, this would be a routine problem:
·1r111annba spends R3,54 at one shop and R4 ,27 .at anorl1er sllop, how much
money did she spend?'
2. Non-routine problems are chose where the method of solution has: to ·be
discovered as part of the problem- solving process. (TI1e previous simple
problem would be non-routine for many five-year-old children.)
3. Open-ended problems are those that can be solved by several different
methods and for wl1lcl1 more than one answer Is possible, depending on whar
ass!llm l>tlons are made. An example Is, 'How could rne total consumption of
perrol be reduced In South Africa?'
As you can see In the examples In the list above. the complexity and difficulty of
problems depend on rhe learners as much as they do on the problem Itself. Problems
d1at are rourlne for some lean1ers are not straightforward for !eamers wld1out rhe
necessary prior knowledge and skills. Often, you can vary rhe difficulty level of
the problems simply by varying the conrexr. A rich context wUII require learners. ro
analyse and plan before they start to solve rhe routine aspects of the problem.
 If you are looking for challenging problems that can engage srudents In an
extended period of lnvestlgacton. you should be searchlng for real-world., open­
ended problems. These can be found In. classic worl<s about your subject, past.
or present concroversles. clever applications of nmpormnt concepts oo everyday
slru.atlons, research llterdture or your own experiences. Because the problems facing
humans am dlveTSP. (P£ [>P.rsonal, social, P.nvlmnmP.ntal. eron<lmlr.. rollHr.r1f) and
the ways of solving rhern are also diverse (eg te(hnologtcal, social, educatlonal)
mere ls scope for using problem solvtng ro reachi In all subjects. lf you are alert
to the possllbllltles. many everyday slruatlons can be rumed !mo problem-based
lean1Jng experiences for your smctenr:s. For example, Wle;t and Sturbaum ( 1996)
give useful examples of h�w problem-solving sltuat1ons that ar1se when travelling
In a foreign counny can Ile rumed Into cl1allenglng classroom problems.
A useful gutdellne for selecting problems ls that they should satisfy three basic
criteria: they m111st be relevant, comprel1enslve and suitably complex. Problems
d1at are relevant wrnl malntaJn leamers' interest over an extended period of dme
and. help them ro transfer rJ1elr newly acqmlred knowledge to s1ruat1ons ours Ide che
classroom. Comprehenstve problems wtll help learners ro explore several Ideas and
ro Integrate rhetr cteveloplng unctersranctlngs. Learners wlll see suit.ably compCex
problems as manageable and solvable.
\¥hen consldertng real-world problems. keep In min.ct that they need to l).e 'real'
to tile learners . Problem solving that has no purpose other than co please the reacher
ls polndess. Ir ls the type of actlvlty that Levsctk and Barton (2005: 15) claim ·robs
children of the desire to learn· and smnts their lnrel!ecrual growrh. A t the very least,
lean1ers need ro be curious about the problem. of course. 11ot ail leamers wal have
the same Interests. but you should ny to use problems rhar,
• are basoo 0111 the com:ems of the learners;
A have Immediate, practical effects on the learners· IEves;
• are actionable In the rense th.at learners are able to do somerhlng to change or
Improve matters:
• have no 'right' answers or clearly defined boundaries;
A requtre learners to use their own Ideas and efforts to s,Jlve tthe problem; and
• are complex enough to requlre conslderdble effort and activity.
The complexity of d1.e problen1 should reflect the complexlty of real-world problems.
but at a level appropriate tJ the abllldes of the ileamers. Thls will ensure that there Is
more than one possible answer ro die pro:blem. thus allowing dllferenr perspectives
and solutions ro be expl0red. complex problems also encourage learners ro r«lke
mulddlsclpllnary approaches to the problem soludon. If you select appropriate
problems, sl!Udents will learn that ·solving real problems l:1 adult llfe Is not a game
of guessing whar soludon ls In somebody else's mlnd!' (Eason &Green. 1987:24!9).
Neither Is ltt a matter of folfowlng a set routine to arrive at the correct answer.
Ral'.her, tr 111voJves explonng 1aeas ana aeallng W1th emerging problems that. may
not have been evlctenc. at the begtnntng. It Is also about asking the right qlllesdons
rather than getting the right answer. That Is why you have ro help learners progress
from solvlng roliltlne problems to solving non-roudne problems and rhen ro solving
open-ended problems, You al.so n.eed to help them understand that Intellectual risk­
taking ls an Important part of solving complex problems.
 If learners are to Ire able to solve reaJ-,-vorld problems. vhey wlll need more than
Just accumulated knowledge and an alJll!ty to follow a set of ntles. They wm need to
be able ro use a range of cognitive strategles ro analyse unantldpated. lU-stn1cnuec1
situations that reflect life beyond the classroom. You ,viii have to help leaniers co
develop these sk!lls.
Students can learn by attempting to solve two broad types of problems: those
that rak.e only a shon tlme ro solve (a few mln11res to an hour) and tthose rhar must
be Investigated over an extended pertod of tlme. The problems that are found In
many school textbooks are typical of die first type. Generally, these are designed
co give learners prdcrtce In applying very specific pieces of knowledge, or practlce
In applying part:lcular problem-solving strategies. TI1ey are often not designed to
develop learners' depth of uncterscandtng to the same extent chat Is possible through
problems that require extended lnvesdgatlon. The second type of problem Is at the
boundaty between problem solving and research (see Chapter 11 ). It requires a
sustained effort ithrough ,vhlch sn1denrs can lean1 to:
I. Identify precisely what the real problem ls by focusing on the key Information;
2. decide on a strategy for solving the problem:
3. Identify• approprnate :sources of lnfomtatlon:
4. evaluate the !nfon11at1on for possible errors or bias:
5. distinguish :facrs from opinions;
6. analyse lnfomiatlon In depth:
7. reach conclusions and make generalls:arlons;
8. develop convincing argumemts;
9. present results so that rlley are meantngful ro others; and
10. reflect on their problem-solving strategies.

lf you limit your problem-solv!.ng lessons ro having learners solve problems

presented lru reXitboo'.ks, you will be severely restrlcrtng your chances of promoctng
leanier Interest and understanding. A better approach Is to develop your own
problems to help leamers achieve outcomes that are aligned with the currnculum
and relevant to the learners. Bellido, Walker and Wayland (2005) dl.scus.s dils lss!Ue
In relarron ro reaching Mathematics. ancf they offer some useful suggestions for
modifying typical textbook problems so that they ,generate better opportunlt1es for
students ro learn some of die 'big Ideas' In madiematics.

y Activity: Getting ready to use problem solving

1. Selecl or, Important cor,cepl lrom a subject area which you will teach.
Oesclibe how you could teach this cor,cept using problem solvir,g as the
main leaching strategy. (For example. how would you teach the concept
ot conservation of eneKgy in Scier,ce. or lhe concept of democracy, or the
concepl of en!repreneurship?}
2. Whal woula you ao to motivate lhe learners?
3. How would you prepare lhe learners tor this leomir,g experience?
4. How could you encourage low achievers ir, your class to participate
productively in problem solving and to learn about your subject in this
way?
WHAT SHOULD YOU EXPECT OF LEARNERS DUlRING PROBLEM
SOLVING'?
Some wrtcers claim the main benefit of problem solving Is that It enco11rages
students to take responslbilicy for their own leamlng. However, rhls leam:ng wlll
not. ocair u nless the stUJdents are able and wUllng ro panlclpate acdvely In the
leacnlng process. You can help and encourage the studenl!S to do this IJy making
your expecttartons very clear. As Indicated below, rh.ese expectations wlll differ
according to the way you have structured the problem-solving acdvHrles. Generally,
you will expect srudents to draw· on their previous learning and experl!ence, pose
questlons that will help them explore new Issues, set personal !ean1lng goals, rake
responslblllcy for their own le.imlng through lnde;pendenr reading .and study, and
teach one another through student-student lnrerdctlons.
tf problem solving Is ro help sn1denrs develof) their understanding, the most
Important first step Is for them to be clear about what lt ls they are supposed to
be lean1b1g. They can then focus their learning efforts. and the problem becomes
much more than an exercise In a[PplyJng skills tha.t they have already mas1ered. It
ls your responslblllcy to focus srudents' learning ln thls way; Jr ls their responslblllty
to ask for clartficatlon lf they need Jt.
One d the choices you wlll need to make Is whether to set the same problem
for the whole class (and have t11e learners work on that problem as a dass, In
groups or as lndlvlduals), whed1er to set separate problems for groups of learners,
or whetller to set separate problems for each learner. \Vatts and West ( L 992) offer
sonne gu:de!Jnes:
,1. Individual work. If you organise learners to work on problems lndlvtdualiy,
you should expect them to:
l . develop a plan for solving the problem before they Jump lnto calculatlons or
expertmenratlon or research:
2. work systemadcally through the learning task and ask quesdons If they are
r.ot clear about what d1ey are required. to do;
3. keep a written record of how they attempted to solve the problem an:! of the
1osults they obra1ned; and
4. 1offecr on what and h:ow they learned by solving the problem.
"' Group worlt. lf you organise learners ro work !n groups or pairs tv solve
prolblems, you should eX!l)ect d1ac they wru do the things llisted abo,ve. as well
as:
5, explain to one another what they understand .about the problem a11d how
lt might be solved:
6. llsten to, and. try ro understand, the Ideas and explanadons of other learners:
7. rose quesdons of one another and ask for clalifical'.lons:
8, co-operate with one another ro :om[l)lete the tasks and maxJmlse their
learning:
9. explain thelr solutions to one another and show Interest In one another's
expl.anadlons; and
1 o. �erslsr undl they agree that rlhey nave solved rhe problem sailsfac!Orlly or
until d1ey have .ldentlified legltlmare reasons why the problem carunot be
oolved.
DEVELOPING LEARNERS' PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS
If you expect your students to develop thenr problem-solving skills merely by
solv:ng problems, you may be disappointed. You wlll be even more dlsappolmed
if Y<'U expect them to develop effective problem-solving skills without any direct
teaching of those skllls. Tiiere ls a const:ferable amount of research that shows
concrete dltf:erences between the ways no"1ces and experts solve problems, with !lie
most significant difference being that ·experts think about, consider, and eirnm'.ne
the problem as a whole before begtn:ntng to work on a solucion ... [whereas] ...
novx:es Jump rtght in' (Breslow, 200'1 J. Tiie neuroscience research reported by
Wtllts (2006) suggests that the problem-solvtng approaches used by novices
can aCl'lllally lnltlblt their leamlng. To bec,me effecnve problem solvers, and thus
be able ro solve problems and concurrently develop their understanding of Ihe
subject, smdents need to develop some very specific skllls. It ls your responsibility
to strucrure learning sltuatlons in wl1lch thls development can occur. Some of the
approaches dtscussect in die following sectlons may help you to do this.
Deliberate approaches to problem solving

Comparing pt0blems
Novice problem solvers tend to see each problem as unique in all respects. While
it ls tme that all real or reallstlc problems: have some dlsll:ncllve features. learners
shoi:ld be encouraged to look for slmllarldes. They can then consider what
srraegtes were effective In solving other problems that had these characrer!srts.
You can help learners to develop their ablll.ty to recognise slmllarttles in problems by
dellllerately stmcturtng a serles of problems around a comnuon theme. For example.
a Sc:ence reacher might develop a serles of problems based on Newton's laws of
motlon. She/he could srarr with very simple problems (such as the typical textbook
exercises on linear motion of objects on fricllonles:s planes) and gradually Increase
die oom.plex:lty of the problems by making diem more realtstlc. As learners attempt
each problem, they should be required to Identify the ways in which it ts similar
to and different from the previous problem. 1!11ls will encourage learners to think
about how these fe.a.mres mlghc anHuence their approach to solving real problems
diatare based on slmllar scientific ptlnclples.
Comparing strategies
Mos, real-world. problems can !be solved In several different ways, and each
poss.ble strategy wlII have its advantages and llmlrat!ons. The dttTerent strategies
may produce different solutions or they may produce the same solution. Real-wcrld
prob:ems never have 'perfect' solutions. Therefore, you should encourage your
learners to took for different ways of solving problems and compare the effectlveness
of d.1elr dllferenr approaches. Thinking alxlut more than one strategy should be an
lmp'-'rranr pan of each leamer·s plan for solving a problem. Learners must be hel�ed
to llndersrand that, when one approach to a [ProDlem Is not successful, they n�
to identify why tr doesn • t work and then modify their approach or look for a new
approach.
A ,vbote-ctass work. tf you ctioose to Jiave the learners work on the problem
:as a whole-class activity, you should expect that they wlll do the things listed
above, as well as:
11. comment on the Ideas and solutions offered by odier learners; and
12. help to d-raw general conclusions from die problem-solving expetlence.
 Learners' ablllry to plan how to solve problems wlU be enhanced as diey learn
· co look for altemanve approaches and ro Judge the ltkellhood of th.ose approaches
being successful. You can help them <ilevefop this sklll by cUscusslng wlrll them the
various straregJes rhat daliS members use ro solve problems. If you are teaching
young chlldren, you can encourage them to take dllferent approa.ches co solving
simple problems, and this should motivate them co 'look for different ways of solving
more complex problems as they get.older. Et may help learners to focus on particular
·problem-solving stra(egles If you give the strategies names, Edward de Bono's 'Six
'l'hlnklng Hats' strategies are an example ,of !his rechnlque.
Learners may be relm:rant ro give up their lnlt1al ttdeas abour ihow co solve a
parulcular problem, and may try very l1ard to find evidence co support the correcmess
of d1elr .approach, giving little thought to whedier there Is a berrer approach and
Ignoring evidence diat suggests their approach ls Ineffective. This mtindset Is usually
called confirmation bias, a!lld this tendency for people co cling co their favoured
Ideas ls very common. When attempting to solve problems, people often l<eep to
thel r earner hypothesis even when lt ls known to lJe wrong, The stress that results
from not being able co solve the problem can then Interfere l\1di their capacity co
dunk and learn - a neurological phenomenon de.scribed by lmmordlno-Yang and
Faeth (2010) and by WIilis (2006).
\.Yhen faced wlth an unfamlllar problem, many learners wlll Inl!lally belleve
diat the solution must be compllcated and, consequently, will not look for simple
solutlon.s. This can lead to srudems fall�1g co learn because they are unwilling co
accept ta1at wharever they are supposed to be learning ls easy to understand. You
can mlnlnllse thJs problem by dellberacely showing your !earners how ro simplify
the problems that they have ro solve, how to avoid Jumping to conclusions from
llnllted evidence and how to develop tlielr divergent tfulnlctng skills (ways of
tlllnklng that. are open-ended).
\"/hen you are helping learners co com[1Jare different problem-solving strategies,
give diem practice ar focusing on die big plcnire rather than the fine derail. They will
then srarr to understand that effective prolblem solving often Involves a reasonably
standard set of steps. In subjects such as Physics, seeing the 'blg ptcrure· Is often a
matter of recognlslng what scientific prtndlples or laws are relevant. �\�t.hout taking
d1ls first step, It ls Impossible for learners to proceed to translatln_g the pr!nclples
Into madiematlcal rela11onshlps, Identifying which variables are known and which
are not, decldlng how to measure or calculate the unknowns, and a!J)plylng the
approprtace computational procedures. If learners cannot take �hese steps they will
nor be able to learn rrom the problem-solving experience.

y Activity: More than one way to ...

1. The following is a simple problem: What is 19 multiplied by 63?
a. In how many different ways can yo u s olve this problem?
b. Compare your ways ot solving this problem with the approaches used
by another learner.
2. lhis is a more difficult problem: Imagine -you are o Science teachel trying
to help learners t o understand the concept e/eclricity.
a. Thi'nk of three different ways in which you co uld approach this problem.
b. Discuss your approaches with another learner or teacher.
3. What are the important differences between the two problems in questions
1 and 2?
4. How hove these two problems changed the way you think about using
problem solving as a leaching strategy?
\A:Jlulng the process
When you start using problem solving as a reaching strategy. many lean1ers are
llkeOy ro be more concen1ed With producing the correct answers to problems than
wlth usl ng tile problems as a vehicle for learning about the subject. This can happen
because the:lr earlier pro!blem-solving experiences placed an emphasis on findnng
the solutlon to routine problems. They may not readily see the need co question or
evaluate their problem-solving strategies or compare what tthey have done with tthe
elfo rts of ocher learners. As a res.ult, learners are lncllned ro wait for you to show
them 'h.ow to do it', rather than apply th.elr own reasoning and persist until they
have found a solutlon that th:ey can defend.
To encourage students to focus on wha: they are learning rather than on findnng
an answer, you .:an by the following:.
.._ Always emphasise the lmporrance of learners focusing on the suitability of tthe
processes they are using rather than Just trying co find a quick solulllon .
.t.. Model good problem-solving practices (such as considering several possi!ble
approaches before nying one) .
.._ Help learners to use metacognldve srrnregles that make them aware of how
they are nylng ro solve the problem.
.a. Have le.une.1s wu1!- in smatl g1uup,; am.I eucuuiage the111 IO cu111pa1e their
strategies.

It may also help If you use both roudne anj non-routlne problems and help learners
to distinguish between them. It can also be valuable t:o- give learners frequent
practlce at tllinkJng through the strategy that they would use to solve a problem
without actually proceedilng r.o ti1e solution.
At various times we probably all think that our preferred way Is the best way of
doing things, and this can be a barrier to problem solving. You must avoid giving
lean1ers the lrnpression that one particular approach to solving a problem Is tthe
best one lust because Ir haooens to I.le lfle one that vou had In mind. Likewtse.
they must be encournged to see il'.hat a partlcular approach Is not die best one just.
because it Is the one that ti1ey thought of, or the one tllat they thought of ftrst
Ohlsson (201 1) explores this Idea In crea�ve and challenging ways.
commitment and perseverance
Jc Is very unHlkely that students will solve problems success:fully without w!lllngness
and perseverance. It is also unllkely that rhey will learn anything while nylng to
solve a :problem unless they want to learn and unless lhey delliJerately ny to learn.
The lean1ers· desire to learn must be smong enough co have them persist even
when !heir Initial acrempn; to solve a protlem are unsuccessful.
To help learners understand these points, It Is worth, giving t'.hem some examples
(from your subJect area) of real-world p'Oblems rhat have take:n many years co
solve or d1at have not yet been solved. Some examples are finding a cure for
the common cold, achieving full employment In a capitalist economy, preventing
murder, and stoppln_g the spread of HIV/AIDS.. A good! exampfo from mathematics
Is the problem of developing a proof or Fennat's Last T11eorem (that die equadon a•
+b" = c" has no solution for non-zero Integers a. iJ and c If II Is an Integer greater
llian 2). This problem rook more t11an 350 years to solver This pardc\tlar example
can also be used to lllustrnte the point d1a: It Is often difficult ro get experts to agree
about whether or not a problem lilas been solved.
 y Activity: Problem $Olvlng In yo1Jr subject are<1
Find two examples from your specialist teaching areo of problems that have
taken a very long time to solve or Illa! hove no generally accepted solution.
I_ How could you use these problems to encourage your learners lo attempt
difficult learning tasks?
2. How coulcl you use these problems to help students learn about your
specialist subject?
Encouraging learners 1to pose their own problems
Learners: ab lllty ro learn through problem -solving can be eruhanced by having them
generdte their own problems. based on the concepts or pdnclples that you have
been teaching. If learners can generate their own problems to Illustrate partlcu!ar
principles, this wlll b e a reasonable lncllcat1on of their mastery of the content. Ford
(1990) found that learners who were asked ro generate their own mathematics
problems and discuss them with other learners frequently generated more complex
problems than tthe reacher had antlctpatect. 1111s suggested ll1at rl1e process of
generarnng problems leads learners ro thlt11k and le.am more t11an th:ey would have
by solving the (simpler) problellils that 11:lelr teachers thought they were able ro
solve. When leaniers generdre their own !)roblems. it Is useful 10 discuss wlrn them
how their problems could be made easier or harder. since this encourages tlhem to
look for chese facrois In problems that the_y later have ro solve.
Having learners generate problems Is a siJmple extension of having learners
generate their own questions as a means of exrendlng and/or testlng chelr
knowledge. Many would argue that. In order for shtdents to learn, they have to be
able co ask che right quesrtons - questlons that wlll guide thetr exploration of tile
subject matter and help r,hem extend tlielr understanding.
There are several advantages In having leamers develop problen1s for oilier reamers
to solve either Individually or 111 gtOU[l5. The:se advantages lnalude the following:
A Poslng problems can enhance the learners· understanding of problem solving.
A Poslng problems can help learners. ro d.evelop d.eeper understanding and to gain
a different perspect1ve on the dilngs they are lnvestlgafilng.
A Postng problems can boost learners· confidence t>y sho1�1ng them how well
they understand the topics they have been studying.
A The challenge of solving a problem generated by a :fellow student can be a
strong motlvatlonal force.
• The [Problems learners generdte give the teacher a good idea of how \'lell die
learners understand rhe subject.
One of the main .advantages of replacing textbook problems with srudenr-generared
problems Is that the srudents are more likely co develop examples that ha,ve
meaning to them and to other srudents. '!l'hls makes learn:lng more Interesting for
t11e srudenrs and! Increases rhe chances that t11ey wlll become actively engaged In
lean1lng. SlmUar effecm on engagement are demonstrated I n the student-generated
mlrul-lessons described by Marcos (20l l )- As with other aspeors of your teaching,
you sho:uld be a model for your smdent;S and show them how you are able to
generdte problems to help you learn.
DEVELOPING LEARNERS'THINKING SKILLS
Before you can use probl:)m solving as a n effecrtve reachlng strategy, you might
first have to spend time :t.elplng your learners: to become effective thinkers. There
Is considerable literature available on how to teach learners to think (for example
Pierce, 2003; Thorton, 2C09). One of the strong messages In that llterdture Is that
reaching learners how ro think for r:hemselves (parrludarty reaching them how
to Interpret evidence and draw reasonable conclusions based on that e,1dence) Is
much more useful than teaching facts and fixed procedures. As Donohue-SmUth
(2006) puts It: 'Answer a student's quesdon, and you have educated her for a day:
reach a Sllldenr !how to question, and you have educated her for a lifetime·.
one of the dlfficult1es In reaci1lng learners ro ll1lnk Is that ·we do not have a simple
language as a control system for our thinking' (de Bono, 1 985 :20 I. J. De Bono suggests
the 'Six Thinking Hats· technique as a solution to t11Js problem, so that leamers can
be r.aughc to make de:liberate choices about the type of thinking they use. and so that
they have a simple langm,ge for dlscusslng their d1lnklng processes. Even If you do
not ravom de Bono·s approach, It i!S worrh ldenctf)1ng and reaching wme of rhe core
thllllklng skills that learners will need In order to solve problems.

Thinking skills
Toe d1lnklng skms discussed In d1e following secrtons might help you to plan ways
to enhance learners· thinking.

Focusing
Learners wllJ not be able to solve problems unless they can focus their lihlnklng on
specific Issues. For example, they need to be able to define exactly what the problem
Is (or what question they are nylng to answer or what ou'.come d1ey are trying ro
achieve) before they startto generate altemadve approaches to solvnng the problem.
You may have to reach them how ro focus on a specilfic piece of I nfom1at!on and
decide whether It ts relevant or Irrelevant. In doing so. you need ro avoid the rrap
of simply teaching students ro lmlrare the problem-solving approaclies used by
od1ers. Keep In mind that srudenrs leam most ftonn problem solving wh:en t11ey are
prepared to experiment and use divergent searches for Ideas and solutions.
Information gathering
ror all but the simplest of problems, learners will need to gather lnfonnatlon
(beyond that which you �Ive t11em). You wlU have to help lean1ers ro,
l
• develop their abi ity oo Identify what Information ts needed;
• fommlate questions to guide their Information gathering: and
• gamer Information by observation or lby an appropriate form of research.
Organising
\l�ll!le leamers are gathering lnfom1at!on to enable them to solve a problem, they
must be able to organise that lnfonnat:lon Into a for!l11 that wlll enable them ro
Interpret the Information and put lt to best use. They wrnt, at least, need to be able to:
• compare things In a v1ay that hlghl!ghrs slmllarttles and differences:
"- classify, categorise or aITTIJlige things on the basts of their attributes or
characterlsrtcs (or some other criteria), so matt the Information Is more readily
assimilated: .and
• represent Information In new fom1s (such as arranging Information In a table or
using a diagram to represent !nfonnar:lon comalnect In text).
Analysing and integrating
Once Information has been gathered and organised, Hr needs to be placed within
a suitable concepntal framework. l'hls process of analysis and Integration Into
existing knowledge sm1crures depends on lean1ers· ablllcy ro Identify key elements
and reladonshlps between the various pleces of lnfonnatlon they hav,e gathered.
They wlll. at least, need ro be able co:
-A ldendfy the matn Ideas In the lnfonnadon;
.t. use approprtare methods ro ldentlfy Important elements. relationships and
patterns In the lnfomnatlon (particularly cause-and-effect relatlonshlps);
..,. Identify errors In the facts, logic, calculadons or procedures In the Information:
and
.t. modify ithelrexlsrtng knowledge structures to accommodate the new lnformaclon.
Evaluating
You might .also have ro teach learners how co evaluate lnfonn1at1on and Ideas so
d1ar d1ey can decide whether or nor tthey are rellable and useful. Learners need to
be able ro establish criteria for Judging the value of Infonnatlon and the merit or
logJc of Ideas, and they need ro be able to apply these criteria obJecctvely.
Generating Ideas
Showing learners how ro solve J}arclcular types of problems may give Iii.em so me
Ideas about ·how to approach other problems, but It will not necessarlly re.ach them
how ro ;generate Ideas (possible solutions) d1at are unique. The sklll of generdtlng
Ideas can be enhanced If you dellberarely reach. smdents ro be Innovative and
sceptical and ro use rlle[r lmagJnatlon. Bartel (2009) describes l1ow ·this can be
achieved In Arr classes, and marry of his ideas translate readily co other subjects.
An alternative view of thinking
You should recognise char tile ld.eas presented In the preceding sections fit very
closely with the concept of higher-order thinking embedded In Bloom's taxonomy
and In the Anderson-Krat11wohl raxo1tomy des.crlbed In Chapter 4. \Alllllan,s ( 1980)
suggests a useful expans.lon of tl1ls concept by describing e11ght learner behavtourn
associated \Vlth creative or higher-order thlnklng. namely:
1. fluency: rhe ablllry to produce a large number of Ideas, products :and responses:
2. flexibility: the ablllry to take different approaches, generate a variety of Ideas.
take cterours In dtrectlons of r.houghr, and adapt ro new struatlons:
3. originality: the ablllty ro generate novel, unusual, clever Ideas that move
away fTom the obvious:
4. elaboration: the ablllry ro stretch, expand or embelllsh Ideas:
5. risk taking;! the courage ro expose oneself ro failure or crttlclsnn. take a guess
and defend one's own Ideas;
6. complexity: seeking many alternatives. brlitlglrug order out of chaos and
delving Into Jntrtcare proillems or Ideas:
7. curiosity: the wllllngness to be lnqulslrJve and wonder, to toy with an Idea, to
be open ro pu1,21ing strmntons and ro ponder !lie mysrety of things; and
8. imagination: die power ro visualise and build mental Images and reach
beyond sensual or real boundaries.
Critical and creative thinking
Sale (2001 J suggests d1ar problem solving requires (he well--0rchestrated use of
three ry;pes of thinking, namely:
t. creative/divergent thinking. which lnvolves generdtlng many possible
options that have variety and originality:
2. critical/convergent thinking. which Involves analyslllig components and
relationships In a sysrem; c.omparlng. con.rrasfilng and evaluating options; and
interpreting data and maklng Inferences; and
3. metacognition. wl1lch Involves monlto:rlng, evaluating and revising one's
own thlnklng.
Put simply, we want learners to be able to thlnk crealtlvely (to generate Ideas). to
d1Jnk critically (to evaluate Ideas) and robe consciously In control of their thinking
pro.:esses. 1b successfully engage learners In these types of thinking processes.
you first have ro Identify what rypes of thinking underpin the outcomes you want
learners to achieve. To do this. Sale (2001 J suggests you should ask the question:
'How would a highly competent person think In the eff<ectlve execution of d1ls
activity'?' Next. you have to struchtre problems t11at wtill require learners to think In
chese ways. You. also need to model rile mecaoognJ-clve processes that you use when
solving problems so tl1at students can learn these processes (Wenning, 2002).
Elder and Paul (2009) s111ggesr that critlcal thinkers do the following,
..a. Raise vital q;uestlons.
• Gather and assess relevant lnfom1atlon and use abstract ld.eas ,to In rerpret It.
• Come co well-reasoned conclusions and test them against relevant crtterla .
..a. Think open-mindedly wld1 an awareness of their assumptions.
..a. Communlcare effectively.
These attributes can be fostered through well-structured. problems a:nd dirough
activities such a;s ·w-rltlng for content learning'. which Is discussed In Chapter 14.
Noslch {2011) rakes this Idea further and argues t11at critical thinking Is dls<:lpllne­
based - that crtt1cal thinking In blology Is different from cr!tlcan thinking In history,
for example. It Is certainly worth consldertng how fhe viral quesdoms. abstract
Ideas, assumpllons and ways of communlcatlng in your speciallst field of reaching
might differ fronn those in other fields.. and how you mlghr go about reaching rhese
spedaltst ways of rhlnklng.

y Activity: Helping learners to think dlfferentty

1. Develop a problem that you could pose to learners to help them achieve•
one o1 Ille! curriculum oulcomes from your specialist leaching area.
2. Identify tile thinking processes lillat they would need to use in order to
sotve the problem (perhaps using Williams· clossifiocition system).
3. Which thinking skills could you reasonably expect the learners to have. and
which thinking skills might you have to teach them before they could solve
the problem?
Chancellor (199' t) provCdes a range of examples of mathematical problems that
require thlnl<Ing at each of vVllllams· levels. You. could use these examples as a
guide ro develop a set of problems for your su!.JJecr area that would enoourage your
lean1ers ro use each of WIUlams· tl1lnklng processes.
Purposeful thinking
Regardless of how we describe the thinking processes that leamers need to use
when problem solving, lt ls lmporrdnt to recognise that these processes do not
come naturally ro many learners. In order·co learn effectively, smdents must engage
In intentional cognition r:ather than rely on incidental learning. Howeve:,
many leamers do not routinely use dellberare learning strategies ro develop their
understanding; they remain passive and hope that learning wlll occur automatlcanly.
An example or this Js when a smctenc. reacts: somet111ng once anct hopes ro uncterstanct
arrl remember It, rather than dellberately trying to decode the lnfonnatlon In the
text One reason that many students try to learn this way at :school ts because !t
seems to work for them In their everyday llves. What they do not reaUse ls that,
as they go about their day-to-day activities, they are often doing familiar thlngs I�
routine ways - they do not have ro think much about these things because they ca�
do them almost automatically. It Is not until something goes wrong or something
unusual happens that they have to pay careful attention to what they are doing and
think atiJout solving their problem. Fonnal education ls not llk.e this. Learners are
confronted with new things every day, and Incidental learning strategies are simply
not efficient enough to enable them to learn everything.
Language leanllng provides a good example of the difference between Incidental
lean1Ing and Intentional cognition. Young chUdren learn the basics of their first
language Incidentally through their everyday exper1ences. often Involving a lot of
trtal and error. They do nor dellberately use the thinking strategies th.at we later
expect of them at sclioo1 when they start to learn about language I n fonnal ways.
ConsequentUy, at. school, they have to learn n:ew ways of thinking. Similar thing;
are true abour the way pre-school children oy ro so3ve problems. They are net
aware of ( and rend not to use) many of the thlnklng strntegles that we expect them
co use and develop for solving problems fom1ally at school.
A furriier probiem. ls d1at, In our day-to-day acd.vltles. we can get by with a very
basJc understanding of most things. For example. It does not really marrer If most
people have only a vague Idea (or even a torally Incorrect understanding) of how a
television set or a mobile telephone works. They can srlill use these things, and there
ls Uittle ttncentlve for !hem to try to develop a deeper understanding, because their
everyday understanding serves them well enough. In 1:ontrast to this, at school we
oy to g.et learners to develop a deep and correct understanding of the things they
are dealing with. Casual, surface thinking Is no longer good enough - they m1Ist
be able to think much more deeply and deliberately. Because we want learners ro
be able to solve complex problems, we try to encourdge precise. accurate, abstract
thinking, and thils Is a very unnaturdl activity for many learners.
Le;u11e1� whu u:;e µ1euvmlmmcly eve1yllay d1l11klng (u:lyl11g uu 11nulclu11,
nc-t. questioning their preconceptions, and trying to find quick solutlons rather
than accurate solutions) often fimd chat the forms of reasontng d1at serve them
well In everyday life are not necessarlly appropriate for academic learning. The
Intuitive concepts that they have acquired 111tl1out explicit lnsnuct:lon may not be
accurate enough to help them solve complicated problems. In some cases, their
preconceptions might even cause them to make errors. TeacheJS need to be aware
of d1ese dlffi.culd. es.
 You should nor as:sume tllat your learners wlll be effe,crtve thlnkers and problem
:solvers, especially w hen rhey are young. Many people do not develop their ablllty
ro reason logically unrll they are adults (and some people never develop this ability
to a very htgh level). Because the dellberate use of sophlscicated tlllnklng strategies
,does not come naturally ro all learners, you l1ave ro be able ro encourage them to
put effort Into thelr learning by sf1owE11g them that new ways of thlnklng are both
possible: and necessary for academic leamJng.
It ts possible to Improve le.amers· t hinking and reasoning skills, even when th:ey
.are ln the early years of school. To achieve this. you mlght like w ny the ldeas
suggested by Greenwald ( 1991 ). She claims tl1ar learners· thlnklng Improves If the
lesson fonnar has four dlsdncr sections, namely,
1. a content/concept focus section in which learners are Introduced ro the Ideas
they wlll eX!Jllore In me lesson;
2. a thinking sub-skills section In which learners practise using the rlttnking
skills they 1\111 need In rile main pan: of the lesson,
3. activities srrncrurect around thinking skills, ro help learners develop their
understanding of the lesson conoeprs; and
4. a thinking about o•ur thinking: (meracogntelve awareness) sectlon In which
learners reflect on lh.e thinking processes they used during the lesson.

An Important fearure of this approach! ts that the teacl1lng of tl1lnklng Is Integrated

Into the tea.chlng of all aspects of t'.he curriculum; It Is nor seen as somed1Ing
.separate.
TYPICAL TEACHER ACTIVITIES DURING A PROBLEM-SOLVING
LESSON
To use problem solvnng effectively as a reaching strate.gy, you will need to develop
certain teaching skills, Just as the learners wUI need to develop thlnk1ng skllls. Your
mann role will be to encourage learners to think and explore Ideas. (rather 1lian ro
provide learners wilih ln!formaelo:n), and rhls may not be something rhar you are
aa:usromect to doing as a teacher. Quire obvtously. you wlll need all your usual
teaching skills (such as questioning skllls). Im addtllon, you will need skills to cto
die things d.escrtbed In the following secd.ons.
Help learners to analyse and clarify the problem
If your reamers are not sl<Jlled problem solvers, you might have to help them make
sense of the problenn and clarify exactly what they will need ro do ro s olve It. You
might need ro do the foll owing:
• Help srudenrs t.o, clarify why they are solving the problem and what rhey are
expected ro ieam from it.
... Help learners tdentJfy the main features of the problem. This might stare with
underlining ikey words and phrases In rile problem srarement, but tr should also
Include some dtscusston of tltese lmponant potnrs.
• Encourage learners ro reduce the problem to a quesdon or sec of quesdons. This
often provides gre.arer focus than a lengthy problem. sraremenr.
... Help learner.; tctenelfy assumptlons that seem to be conratned In rhe problem or
that mtght be necessary m solve tile problem. Discuss the lmporr.ant lmpllcadons
of these assumpt1ons.
• Help learners to write a brief statement ·that puts the problem In their own
words- perhaps a Sl"dtemenr starlilng ltke this: 'The problem is aJsklrug us ro find
.an answer ro the que:stlor.1: ...7'
Help learners to generate ideas
When you present learners with an open-ended iJlroblem (rattler than a problem
that can be solved In s.ome routine way). one of your major tasks Is to encourage
lean1ers to explore different ways of solving the problem. To achieve this you might
do the followlng:
.a. Encourage learners: to compare the problem wlrh other problems that they have
tried ro solve. This wlll help them ro lctennry general principles that are relevant
and strategies th.at wlll be potenttally 11seful.
• Help students to brainstorm Ideas.
• Have students dl. souss the problem In palrs or small groups.
Help learners to evaluate udeas
When solving open--ended problems, learners may have dlfliculty deciding on the
reladve mernrs of various ways of approaching the problem and/or rile merits of
vartous suggested solutions. You can help t11e learners ro select techniques for
solving a problem, am£ to Judge the n1erlts ofalternatlve solutions, by giving them
son1e specific criteria for maknng tihese Judgemencs. You could suggest tile following
criteria as a srart1ng point:
• Practicality. Do the learners have the resources and dme to use the suggested
approach?
• Effectiveness. How likely Is It that the approach wlU produce a satlsfacrory
solution to t11e problem?
• Originality. Is tthe approach original? And Is thtis likely to produce a betrer
result than more traditional approaches?
USING ICT WITH PROBLEM SOLVING
lnfonnadon and comm unlcalllon technology (KT) can enhance your use of problem
solving In four basic ways:
I. It can offer engaging ways of presenting problems.
2. It can give students access to lnfom1atio11J.
3. It. can ()rovlde tools to help smdenrs solve the problem.
4. Ir can provide tn.novactve ways for students ro presenc rhe results of their work.

You may need to equip learners wltl1 slcllls in electronic lnfonnallon processing,
teach them ro evaluate the Jnfonna!lo n they find, help rl1em to work lndependendy
and help them to select the most appropI!ate tools ro apply to the problems they
are solving.
The following are some possibilities for lncorpordd11g ICT Into problem-solving
activities:
• Help lean1ers rouse the Internet to locate Information. 0on·r forget to teach the
.srud.ents how to evaluate die data they find.
• Help learners use word processors, damoases and spreadsheets tD store and
manlpulare data chat they are uslDg ro solve problems.
.a. Encourage learners to use word processors, drawing programs, presenrarton
programs, and so on, to present the results of their lnvesrtgar. lons.
• Show learners how to use problem-solving rools that are used In Industry (for
example critical-path analysis).
• Help leame.rs ro develop a mind map or a matrix to show the connecttons
between different p,ans of the problem.
When learners are using the Inremet as part of their problem solving, there are
several things that you need to do In order to ensure that they are learning. Perhaps
the most lmportdnt thing that students have to realise is that finding relevant
lnfonna-tton on t'.he lnte.11et Is nor necessarily a simple or easy process - It requires
skllls and perslsuence. Yo:u might have ro \\'Ork hard ro prevent some srudenra being
discouraged and g1vlng up when their furst Google search does not produce the
results they were hoping for. You can encourage learners to pe rsist. and to lean1 In
the following ways:
A Prompt learner tl1inking with appropriate questions. If learners appear
to be stuck, or If they ask yol!I for assistance, do not be an encyclopaedia 11'.lth
all the answers. Ask learners a ques!1on that ,vlll l1elp them ro think and learn.
such as: ·�Vhy do you thlnk your search returned 543 9'73 hits?' or 'How can
you make your search more sped fie?'
A Encourage learners to evaluate the Information they findl and compare
data from different sources. A1uch of rhe lnfonnatlon on the Internet ls
pur there wl(houc ha vlng been reviewed or fiLrerect oy anyone other than the
author. You need ro provide learners wlt11 guidelines for evaluating wel>-based
lnfonnatlon. Prompt them to evaluate rhe Information tthey find w1th questions
sucll as, ·can yo:u fin.ct two Independent sources that present. the sa111e point of
vie"'?'
A Have high expectations of learners. Because the lnremet Is such a vast
source of lnfomiatlon, you can have high expectations about the depth and
diversity of lnfonnatlon tJ1at you want lean1ers to locate when addressing any
problem. You should encourage learners to seek !information from a vrurlecy of
sources and to look for different perspectlves on each problem. Ho,vever, you
may have co reach the learners how to search effectively and efficiently.
_.. Encourage learners to reflect 0111 their experiences and share them
,vitb others. B&alS€ there are so many different ways for learners to locate
Information on the buemet, It Is Important to help them share their experiences
and the lnfonnatton that they find.. One productive way to do th.ls Is ro regularly
Incorporate a reff.ecelon session towards the end of each Internet-based lesson.
This wl!D gJve the learners a more complete view of the lnforn1atlon !liar has
been located, and It \Vlll help them leam l>etter searching strategies:. As part of
chis reflection proce;s, It Is useful to have learners keep a log of the \Vebsltes
and oilier places where they located lnfom,atlon, and to record short evaluative
comments about each wellsl�e. This log wlll save rile smdenrs valuable llme
on later searches an.ct the lnfom,atlon can be snared wltth other learners: ro
help them build up a database of websites and search slJ'a(egles. During these
reflection sessions. you can prompt learners to amslder what tJ1ey were leanllng
by askln,g questions such as: 'Ho1v could you make your search strategies more
effective In the funue?'
A Ena'ble learners r.o work collaboratively with srudents from another school (even
In another country) via t'.he Internet to find solutions ro complex problems.
A Show learners how to obtain lnfonnatlon from real experrs using ·ask an expert'
wel)sltes.
There Is an Increasing l>ody of evidence tiat gaming can be an effectlve way of
teachtng learners problem-solving strategies and crtcical tht11king skills. Klopfer.
osrerwell. Grolf and Haas (2009) explore some of these posslblllt1es. Because
games are 'purposeful, goal-oriented, rule-based activities that the players perceive
as fun· (Klopfer, 2008). they have the porent1aJ to engage learners Rn problem­
solving acdvttles r.hat can develop skills and ways of !,earntng it:hat are transferable
ro other areas of learning. In particular, diey h.ave die potential ro d.evelop learners·
abilJty r.o:
"' process tnformatlon quickly;
"' determtne when lnfomiatlon ls or ls nae relevant;
"' slmulraneou.sly process Infornnacion froJ1 multiple sources:
"' explore Information .In a non-linear fashion; and
"' expertment with possible solutlons ro problems.
REFLECTING ON THE SUCCESS OF YOUR PROBLEM-SOLVING
STRATEGY
In addition ro tthe general evaluative procedures descrtbed for other teaching
strategies 111 this book, you can Judge the effectiveness of your use of problem
solvlng by answering the following quest1.ons:
"' Were learners Investigating problems I.hat are Important In the world beyond
school?
"' Did learners appreciate that they were solving proMems In order co learn
Import.ant concepts or prlinclples, ratha- than simply solving problems for !lie
sake of finding an answer?
.a. Were learners wllllng to rake risks In exploring their Ideas? Were they prepared
co be wrong and were they tolerant of one another's errors?
.A. Did you encourage learners by showlng rliem th.at you were genuinely Interested
In the.Ir thinking? And did you accept their explananons and Justltic.actons In a
non-evaluative way?
"' Did you always assume that rhe learners· solutions made sense to chem? And
did you always treat their thinking with respect'/
.A. Did you encourage le,amers to persist and figure out problems fur themselves?
And dtd you acknowledge appropriately those learners who did this?
"' Did you give tlie learners prtmary responslblllcy for their learning and conduct
during the problem-solving sessions?
.A. Were learners able to dtsctngulsh between the Important and urulmportanr dara
d1ac were available to them when they trted to solve problems?
"' Did learners tell you when they dtd not understand thtngs? Old they ask for
more Information wl1en diey needed It?
.A. Did die problems you posed sctmulate the learners to challenge their assumpdons
and preconceptions, and to re-examine what they had previously taken for
granted?
"' Did you give learners sufficient rime to report on dielr problem-solvting
experiences and ,ro clarify what they had learned?
"' Did you give learner& opportunities to generate their own problems?
"' Did you actively assist learners ro refine their meracognlt1ve sk!ILs while problem
solvlng?
"' ·were Jean1ers prepared ro revisit parts of rh.elr attempts at solving the problem,
.and to review their earlier decisions In die Ught of new Infonnallon that they
REVIEW AND REFLECT ON YOUR LEARNING
Develop ans:wers ro each of tbese questlon:s and dls:cuss your answers with another
sntdent or with an experienced reacher:
1. What are the main advantages of using problem solving as a teachlng strategy
In your speclallsr. area?
2. In what ways are leamers· problem-solving abllltles related ro the:tr stage or
cognitive development?
3. How will you help learners to understand the difference betwee11 'problem
solving· and ·1earntng through problem solving'?
4. What special skills are necessary for problem solving In tl1e subjects tl1ar
you 11111 teach? For example, problem solving In Hlstoiy requires skills In
acoomulatlng evidence, evaluating the relevance and authentJd ry of the
evtctenc:e. and diawlng substantive conclusions from ll1e evidence. How can
you help le.amers ro understand, ,ctevelop and 11se t11ese special skills?
5. How will you detennlne whether or n,ot your leamers are using metacognltlve
strategies when they are solving probiems?
6. How can you ensure th.at what you reach your leamers will give them rhe
aJJllltles ro solve problems Independently In a real-world context rather than
simply l1elplng t'.hem to be skilful at doing school-related tasks?
7. What are some of !he barriers to effective problem solving, and how can you
minimise d1ese barriers when using problem solving as a teaching strategy?
8. Wh:at are the advanrages of oom!Jlnlng small-group work with problem solving
ro teach lmpo1tant concepts In your s:pec!allst teaching area? Suggest. at least
three concepts that could be effectlVel:y taught In tlhls way.
9. Find tw-0 examples, from your speclallst reaching area, or routine proiJlems and
non-routine problems. \Vhy .are non-roulilne problems more appropriate when
you are using problem solving as a teachlng strategy?
10. \>Vhy are the ·1ncldental reaming strategies· that leamers use In their llves
our.;lde school nor efficient enough rro enable them co leam everytthing that
they are required ro learn at ;S{:hool?
11 . \'/hat examples can you use ro cremonsrr.are ro leamers how you have solved
real-world problems that are related to the subject you will teach?
had gaLned? Were they prepared! ro acceiPt that going back over ground rl1at
had! already been covered was not a sign that they had failed In [heir earUer
attempts?
And, more generally:
• ls the amount or time you devote to problem solving consistent with your
bellefs a.boutt the Importance of problem solving as a vehicle for encouraging
anct facilitating leamlng?
• ls the amount of dm.e you devote ro problem solving adequate to allow your
learners to achieve the problem-solving teaming outcomes Hn your curriculum?
• Are you restricting learners· oppornmlcies for teaming through problem solving
by matntalnlng r.oo much. cottrrol over the direction of tthetr tnqutr1es?
• Did you snucrure your problems so th.at they encourage learners 10 engage In
Intentional cognition rather than lncld.enral leamtng?
• Have you taken any problem.-solvlng strdtegtes from anotller subjectt area and
o1ed ro adapt diem to the subjects that you wlll teach?
12. HO\\' wfll you respond w·hen learners tell you that problems are 'too harct· for
them to solve?
13. Ifyou are prepa11ng ro teach fin the senior Phase: Prepare n.vo lesson plans that
would enable you to use pro:blem solving with a Grade 7 class and a Grade 9
class In your speclalilst teach:lng area. What allowances did you make for the
possible dllferences .In problem-solving abllltles of the leamers In these r;vo
grades?
t 4. If you are prepartng to reach In the lnrermedlare Phase: Prepare two lesson
plans that ,vould enable you to use problem solving ,vlth a Grade 4 class In
two different subjects. �\'hat lmportant differences .are there In your r;vo lesson
plans?
15. How cam the use of problem solving help you to teach In ways that are
conslsrenr ,vith the prtndples of Quality leaching descrtbed In Chapter 37
16. Ho"' can you lncorporare ICT Into problern-solvlng sessions In your specialist
teaching area?
USEFUL WEBSITES
..t. For some real-world problems that are sulta!Jle for leamers aged 8 14,
- try
http://w,vw.abc.netau/scJenoe. This site also has an 'Ask an E,cpert' secrlon .
..t. A comprehensive summary of strategies that you could teach learners �o help
them team �hrough problem solving Is aivallable at htrp://w1\'w.une.edu.au/
abo:ut-u ne/academlc-schools/bcss/ne,vs-a nd -evenrstpsychology-communlty­
activlt1es/over-fift:y-problern-rolvlng-strategles-explalned.
..t. The Problem-Based Leaming network, http://pbln.lmsa.edu, provides a range
of resources to assist teachers In using PBL In schools.
Using inquiry as a
teaching strategy

Teaching d1rough Inquiry ls a Bexlible strategy d1at .can be incorporated Into many of
die specific strategies described In other ch..aprers, for example co-operdtlve !earning
and problem solving. Alten1advely, It can IJ.e the basis for small-scale smdent
research proJeers that engage students In :asklng questions, gathertng Lnfonnacton.
analysing data, drawlng conclusions and making decisions. Inquiry-based lean1lng
sessions or projects are nor lllnsm1crured; they are dellber:ately sm1crured to help
students Increase rhelr understanding of a problem or Issue rather than .simply
attempting to memorise lnfom1at1011.
\'l'hen snudenrs e.nga_ge In sm1cntred. (or guided) Inquiry, they have rhe
oppoltllnlty ro learn subject-specific content, but the strategy ls also designed co
Improve their Inquiry skllls so that there skills can be applled In other areas or
leanllng. In partlcular. It !builds the studenJl:s' research and crltlcal thinking skllls.
Imqulry-based leanung requires careful planning and preparallon by the reacher.
It also requires the teacher to be tilexlble and responsive In order to guide strudents
appropriately and help them co take advantage of each learning oppon:unlty.
You 1vlll recam that., In . the chapter on problem solving, a d!stincnon was made
bet\veen using problem solving as a tea<ehlng strdtegy and structuring a whole
curriculum around problem-based learning. A similar slt.uatlon exJsrs here.
This chapter encourages teachers ro use strucnired lnqulry as one of the many
teaching strategies they might employ over a rem1 or year; It ls nor advocating
the developn1en.r of a completely Inquiry-based !earning curriculum. as mis ls
lmpracrlcal In most school slruadons.
In this chapter, lnfonnatlon Is provided to help you decide when Ir mlght be
appropriate ro use inquiry as a ceaching s:cracegy, and to help you prepare yomse.Jf
and your srudenrs for d1ls ap:proa:ch ro learning. Examples are given co spark your
lmaglnacion, ro show you how research (carefully sm,crured lnqully) Is a logical
development of problem solving, and to help you to see that this strategy can be
used In a diverse range of reaching slruat1ons.
V.'hen you have mastered the Ideas In tl1ls chapter you wlU be able to;
.t. decide wlten Inquiry Is an appropr1ate strategy for helping srudenrs to achieve
particular Iean1lng outcomes;
.t. prepare thoroughly and thoughtfully for teaching through lnquliy;
.t. create a learning environment that modvates lean1ers and encourdges them to
work tndtvldually and coUaboratlvely to achieve me lean11ng ourcomes;
A organise and manage Inquiry In ways that faclllrnre learning while cateting
for the cultural, ethnic, J.anguage, Jea·mlng sryle and other differences: of rhe
learners; andl
.t. evaluar.e the success of the way you used Inquiry.
SOME IMPORTANT FEATURES OF STRUCTURED INQU.IRY
Inquiry ls a form of research that can !be employed for short perilods or for ex:tenslve
projects, for activities that range from re.search-based ro creative, and In a wide
range of subjects. When using Inquiry as a reaching strategy, reachers need to
sm1cn1re the learning ex:perlence so that Learners follow a sysremal1c process. This
process can be summarised as follows:
1. A compelling ques,tion Is posed as a focus for swdent Jearnln_g. This quescion
may come from a learner, as a result of his/her direct ex:perlence and curiosity,
or lt may come from the reacher, It Is: Important that the quesrton Is related ro
the !earning outcomes thar learners slloul.d be srrtvl.ng co achieve, and that nt Is
compelllng enough to engage learners In a dellbernte attempt to learn.
2. TI1e learners plan and undertake an investigation to 6ind an answer to the
question. This should be more than Just an lnfomiatlon-gatherlng exercise; It
should engage learners in a dellberdte .arrernpt to learn. Ideally, the lnvestlgadon
will be driven by each learner's curtoslty and desire to understand, !but the
teacher needs to be sensitive to the motivations and abllltles of each learner
and provide guidance when necessary.
3. As rhe search for lnfom1ation and understanding progresses, each learner ls
encouraged - and, if necessary, .assisted - to formulate and articulate his/her
developing understanding. This Is the creative pliase of the lnvesdgatlon, as
learners wlll be developing new Ideas.
4. Learners are encouraged to share their learning experiences and new
understandings with others.
5. Learners individually and collecdvely reflect on rhe research quesdon, their
approach to finding an ans.ver, the conclusions they reached, and the inquiry
process. This may result in new questions being posed - so the process can
begin again.
Learners may engage in the Inquiry process Individually, In groups or In co-operattve
teams. The level and type of teacher guidance provided during this process will
depend on the abilities of Individual learners, their prior knowledge, their p:rtor
leanllng experiences and rile complex:lry of rhe question rhey are Investigating. 11'he
driving force of the strategy !Is th.e learners' Instinctive desire to as'.k questions and
learn. The more compelling the Issue Is to each learner, the deeper they will become
engaged In the Investigation.
There are many different approaches to research or Inquiry, and !t w!II be
partlcularly usefi.11 ro famlllarlse yourself with rhe types of research that are common
In your speclalls.t field (history, oclence, music, etc) because these are most likely
ro oe th.e techniques. that you can use effectively In your Inquiry-based reaching.
Broadly speaking, there are three general approaches co research that have the
potential ro be useful as reaching strdtegles:
1. Research based on findlng, Interpreting and us:lng information that has
bee,n produced by someone else. Par example, research that located
historical accounts of the south African \Var (some written by Boers, some by
Engllsh soldiers. some by men, some by women) and compared rhem would
be research that used exisrlng l.nfonnatlon even though that Information might
be re-Interpreted ro provide a new perspective.
 \'lhen learner research ls used as: a teaching strategy. the research questions
should focus on Important Issues to which leaniers can relate, but whlth they
do not fully undersrand (oth.envlse tl1ere ts 110 point doing the research}. As 1vtrh
problem solving, learner research will be most successful In helping srudenrs to
lean1 when the Issue being tnvesrtgared ts reallstlc and reasonably romplex. In
many cases. the researcih wlJJ be even ,nore effective as a learning strategy If die
reacher does not know the answers ro the questions that learners are invesrlgatlng.
Sometimes a useful way to get learners to focus on an lmponrant issue Is to have
them develop their o-wn research quesdons, as explained in more derail later In this
chapter.
111 the chapter on problem oolvtng, It was emphasised ,that teaching learners to solve
problems Is necessary, but not suffictenr, to help them to learn about the subject tl1ey
are studying through problem solving. Llkewtse, teaching learners how to do research
Is necessary, but nor.sufficient, to help diem to learn about the subject through research.
�\�ienever you use this strdtegy, you must emphasise to learners that the purpose of
the rese.arch Is for diem ro expand their knowledge and deepen their understanding.
In these and other fomis: or research, new knowledge ls generated - there l s much
more going on than a regu.rgltatlon of existing knowledge. That ls why some
learning actlvltles should not be referred to as research. For example, the mtndfless
copylng, of lnfonnal!lon from encycl opaedlas or from the In remet ln rhe name
or project work Is definlrely not research. A!I research should set out to answer
one or more research questions. It Is the syscemait1c attempt ro answer a research
question that changes an acrtvlty or protect Into research. Consider. for examp le,
the difference between a reacher say!ng ro learners: ·1 wanr you to do a project on
die Incas· and the teacher saying: 'Your raisk Is toans\ver die question: 'iNhy did the
Inca clvlllsatlon dlsappear?'
2. Research based on gathering, Interpreting and using information that did
not exist before the research ,vas conducted. For example, research rihat
Involved interviewing people who had been polltlcal prisoners during the
apa.rtlleld er.1 and drawing conclusions about the lJnpact this had on their lives
would !Je generating new data.
3. Research oased on some form of experimentatlon. For example, research raiar
investigated r.he effects of applying different amounts and types of fertiliser to
matize \vould be a fomi of controlled e:qiertmenratlon - that Is, deliberately
changing dilngs: ro see what happens.
REASONS FOR USING INQUIRY
A prerequisite for using this strategy Is thctt your learners must be capable of
working effecnvely in groups or Undlvtctually. If they can work In groups, you ran
use this strategy In conjunction with group work, co-operative learning or problem
solving- and obtaln the advantages prevlousiy attributed to those strategies. \Vhat
follows .are some of the specific advantages of lnqulry and reasons for using it:
• Structured lnquliy encourdges learners ro ask questlons, ro lnvesdg.ate, to
discover and to create answers for d1emselves, rad1er than waldng for someone
else to l!)rovlde the answers for them. Therefore, It Flelps them to be more
Independent learners who belleve they are capable -of understanding quite
complex. Issues and of discovering lmporrdnt new knowledge themselves. l11Js
Is part!cularly Important, because these skills are essential for rile decision­
making :processes that all adults must engage In. However, these benefits will
not occur unless learners have the necessary prerequlslre knowledge and are
given the guldance they need to fli.Jrther d1elr understanding.
• St:rucmred lnqul:ry encourages learners ro strive for more rhan. superficial
undersrandlng a11d to view learning as much more than Just remembertng
Isolaroo pieces of Information. Lt encourages and challenges learners ro Integrate
die things they are learning and ·ro connect their world wld1 the cunilculum•
(Kuhlthau. Manlores &casparl. 2007:IJ.
• St:ruc111red Inquiry helps learners to progress from what.they already understand
to what they need co understand - deliberately building on rhelr existing
knowledge. The deliberate thinking Involved In this process encourdges I earners
to be metacognltlve.
• Structured Inquiry can challenge, engage, motivate and ext.end all lean1ers, not
Just the more capable learners.
• Structured Inquiry encourages learners to be sce1:rrlcal about Ideas that others
pr�nt as f.acrs. It encourages learners to view knowledge as problematic.
to appreciate rhar knowledge In the area they are smdylng Is llmlred, and ro
recognise that there still are unresolved problems and unanswered questlo ns.
(It Is a strategy that helps re.achers to treat knowledge as problematic, In ·the
manner suggested In Chapter 3.J
• Structured Inquiry encourages crl.tlcal thinking an.d re ffectlon, both of which
are extremely Important In the cont.ex:t of the Increasingly ext.enslve amounts
of Information that are available (pal11cularly through the Lnremet) without
having passed through any appra'lsal, censorship o r review process.
• Strucrured lnquliy can provide a meaningful context for learners to use
and develop their communlcatlon skills. It can help learners develop their
reading skills, note-raking sk1lls, wrttt.ng skllls and oral cornmunlcatlon skills,
parrlcularly If they are requlreo to discuss their work, present their findings and
propose courses of action based on their research.
• Structured lnquliy can help learners develop their organlsational and cime
management skttls.
• Structured Inquiry can give learners experience at wo rklng In the way
professionals work. for example, It can help children to !)ecome ·young
sclentlsts ... consm1ct1ng their own theories of t11e world, restlng them against
their observations. and adjusting their theories accordingly· (Heckman. Confer
-& Hakim, 1994:36). However, teachers need ro heed the wan1lngs given by
KJ&hner, Swellfil and Clark (2006) and ch:eck the undfilsrandlngs that learners
are developing.
• Structured Inquiry can help learners ro undersrand the essenciaJ nature of a field
of study. For example. It can help them ro understand that science Is ·a process
of creating laws, models, and theories: t11ar enable one ro proolcr. explall1, and
control the behavior of the world' (White & Frederiksen. 2000:331), or that
marhemadcs Is more about the study of patterns and reladonshlps than Ir ls
.about numbers a nct calculadons.
• Strucrured lnquliy can reach learners how to make use of the sources of
lnfonnatlon that are ava!flable In rl1etr locan community.
• Strur;:rured Inquiry provides t,eacllers wtth an oppommlty ro stand oack and
observe learners. ro analyse t'.he ways In which they Interact with one another
.and ro reflecr on thefir !earning styles. With this new knowledge, teachers are
then better able to help students learn.
• Planning for lnqil.llry lessons reminds teachers that ch.elr primary role should
be oo help srudenrs learn how ro thlnk, rather tihan reaching diem how to
remember.
• Strucrured Inquiry provld.es an Ideal opporrunlcy for teachers to help learners
develop rhetr computing skills and their famllladty wIt11 technologies .such as the
Internet. At tl1e simplest l evel, learners can use word processors ro record tllelr
dara or prepare their reports. Later, they can use daralbases and spreadsheets
as tools for recording, analys.1ng :and shat1ng data. The use of the Internet In
learner research Is discussed later In this chapter.
• Inquiry can oe a fun and modvatlng way ro learn. partlcularly for gifted learners.
• Inquiry can be an effective way of getting parents Involved ln their chllct·s
education. (And no, I don't mean that the parents should do the research
for their child.) 11ils can start with simple things such as having the learners
lnre:rvlew their parents on a d .eslgnated topic, and then sharing this lnfomiadon
so that the class can analyse the pooled data to answer a research quesdon.

Y: Activity: Two perspectives on Inquiry

1 _ Talk lo al leas! lwo expenenced teachers about the ways in which they use
inquiry as a leaching st rategy. What do they see as its major advantages
and limttations?You may find that some 1eachet's do no! use 1his strategy
very much. It so. astc !hem why.
2. Talk to at least three learners (at a school or higher education institution) who
haVe =tly been involved in some lorn, of structured inquiry.What did !hey
ike and dislike about it? What did !hey learn tram their experience?
ISSUES TO CONSIDER BEFORE USING INQUIRY
Inquiry Is n:ot ai suitable strategy ro use In all r.eachlng sltnatlons. Some of die
specific limitations of this strategy are the following:
• Most In-depth Inquiry wrn rake a considerable amount of time. parttcularly In
the early sra .ges when learners are developing their basic reseairch skills.
• Inquiry will not always result In !he learnmg that you had hoped learners would
achieve - perhaps because tile lean1ers lack the sklnls ro gather or I nrerpret
Information, perhaps due to external factors such as fauliy expet1menral
equipment, or perhaps due to learners· lnabll:lty to relate their research to the
outcomes you wanted them to achieve.
.i- Not all learners wlll enjoy learning In this way. Learners who lack con6dence
In their own ability may ltnltlally be very reluctant ro participate, particularly In
Individual research proJeccs.
• Leaniers who have poor reading sl<flls may be disadvantaged by an Inquiry
task diat requires them to make extensive use of written rnatet1als.
You have ro be realistic and expect that all of the al>ove problems will occur for
so1111e learners at some dme. To minimise the problems and achieve the benefits of
research rhar were outlined earlier, you have ro plan carefully and monlr.or learners·
research closely.

y Activity: Minimising the problems

Discuss each of the poss b e problems with a colleague teacher or fe low
i l l
student. Suggest one way you could minimise each of the above problems
when using reseorch as a teaching strategy n
i your specialist teaching area.
• Learners who hwe poor ,vrttlng skllls may learn a lot from an Inquiry ttask bur
may have dl.fficulty demonstratln .g what they have lean1ed. You can mlnln1lse
this problem by giving your learners clear \1•rltlng guidelines and practice a t
,vrttlng short parts of research reports. Further guidelines for asslscing learners
to develop thetr academic wll.tlng skllls are given In Chapter t 4.
• Some lean1ers may find inquiry ver y frustrating If they do not have the nocessary
research skllls. The structured approach used in \VebQuests, descrl!bed later In
tills chapter, can help learners with limited research skills.
• Leaming through Inquiry requires a lot of self-direction. Many lean1ers may not
have these skllls and may need help to develop chem.
• '\Vhen Inquiry places learners In an environment rhat they find highly complex,
the heavy load on their working memory n1ay be detrtmenral ro their lean1lng.
Klrs4:hner, S1.veller and Oark (2006) suggest that this I s most likely ro occur
with. novice leamers who ·1ack proper schemata ro lntegrare the new tnformatllon
with their prior knowledg,e .
.&. Maruy learners, even .at postgraduate level. want to Jump In. and sr<1rr gatherling
data even before they are clear about what research question they w.lll be rryHng
ro answer. Your efforts to focus the learners and have them prepare thoroughly
before starting ro gather data may frustrate some leamers .
.&. Unless your learners have the sklllls to Interpret the dat.a they gather, they n\ay
learn very llotle and see the exercise as a waste of time. You may have to spend
considerable lime hel1Plng learners ro make sense of rhe data they gather.
_... Unless you plan the lnquliy tasks very carefully, they may become unnianageable.
If dlls happens. and learners are unable co ,romplete a project, they may become
dlslllusloned and discouraged from partlcipatlng In dug fon11 of leainlng In the future.
.&. iJesplre your best. elforts to make lnqU!ry an engaging leamlng expertence. some
learners will see It simply as a project 10 be completed with minimum eff o rt. Tuey
may plagJartse material, coerce d1etr parents !nro doln,g die worl<, or Invent results.
 Ala glance
..-t,·t• DO---�•
• The outoornes you want OOrnars to • Loo:rners lock the basic skills to work
ochi8VB are readily related to issues independently Of in small groups.
t,e,yor>el the classroorm. • Loom.GrS have -v poor tile<ocy skills.
• leamef.S hove sufficient prior • loo.rrb8rs do not ho\18 access. to the
knowledge lo guide their own looming. equiproont o, intomiotion tooy nood
• leame,s are-setf4n0tivafed and can to produce worthwhile do-fa from /their
learn with minimol assistance. r8S80rd-L
• Yo., womt to <?ncouroge loomoo to • You connot allow leameora sufficient
take a doop approach to learning. tim8 to oornp.lete the research tos-k.
• You want learners to IGom how to
enjoy learning.
• You wornt to «lCOI.Jrage laamers to be
independent learners.
• Yo., wont looming to be driven by !he
teamers' curiiosity.
PLANNING FOR AND USING INQUIRY AS A TEACHING
STRATEGY
Toe Inquiry process for school learners should be a carefully guided and structured
exp,ertence. it wl.11 not be sufficient to simply give learners a research question and
leave th.em to tlielr own <!evlces to find the answer. Instead, you wm have to plan
each pruase of the Inquiry carefully. You have ro prep-are the learners by making
sure that they have all the prerequisite skUls, or that the Inquiry task Is strutcrurect
In such a waythatt11e learners wlll ct.evelop these skills asthey work t11rought11e
process.
When planning to use Inquiry, the steps you follow will lbe sJmllar to those
described In the previous chapter on using problem solvlng as a reaching strategy.
You wtrn need to do the following,
1. Decide exactly what you want s rudents ro leani. oust as for any orherteachl11g
strategy, you need clearly stated ileamlng outcomes.)
2. Develop a suitable quesdon ( or a set of questions) tllar will be the focus of rhe
i
smdenrs· lnqutryand thatwlll helpthem ad1leve rle desired learning ourcomes.
(Th:e option of having learners develop their own questlons Is discussed later In
this chapter.)
3. Identify what prior knowledge and skllls the learners will need In order to
crmducc their research. If necessary, reach that prior knowledge. Tills may
Involve teaching for Inquiry (developing srudents' undersrandlng of the
sul>Ject) and teaching about Inquiry (developing students' understanding of
how to engage In Inquiry).
4. Plan the lesson In which yo11 wm Introduce learners ro tile Inquiry exercise.
l
Decide how you wl l explain what you wane them to learn and what you
expect. of chem durtng d1.elr Inquiry.
5. Plan how you wlll monitor learners· progress. This should Involve ar least th.e
following:
a. Identify the parts of-rhe inquiry exercise that are likely to cause the most
dlfftcul des for learners.
b. Decide what these difficulties might be.
c. Develop some strategies ifor minimising these difficulties.
6. Make sure that you ihave arranged for ieamers ro get approprtate access. to ti1e
resources they will need for t,helr Inquiry.
It ls probable that your learners 1vlll have :,act wme past experiences with projects,
but you should not assume that these ex�eriences have prepared them adequately
for learning through Inquiry. In facr, ithelr past expertences may have gJven them
a view of Inquiry that Is counter-productive. It Is, therefore, lmperarlve that you
prepare learners for their inquiry task by doing at least the following,
.i. Explain carefully to leamers why you are using this: teaching strategy and
what/how you expect they will! learn from it.
• Spell our your expocr.atlons and check that the learners understand aspocrs
such as when they w111 be doing rhe reseal'Ch, how much time tr wlll rake, what
son of rl1lngs they will be doing, what type of 'product' you expect them ro
produce, how you will assess their learning, whether you expect them to work
In teams or individually, and whar you will be dol11g while they are engaged in
their lnq;ulry. Remember that, even though your smdents may have previous
expertence ,�1th Inquiry-based teaming, t11ey are st111 essentially novices In 1he
field of srudy. so they wlll need careful guidance.
.i. Ensure tthar learners have the necessary communication and soc!al skills to
worl< together efJecdvely.
Perhaps the most important thing you ran do when prepartrug learners for their
research Is ro get them enthusiastic about the prospect of doing something
wonhwhlle. Toere Is no magic fonnula for doing this; you wtll have ro rake Imo
account the ages and abllltles of the learners. the subject. you are reaching, che
resources th:at are avallable, and so on. A, far as poss!lble, you should Involve che
learners in planning the inquiry, so thac. �1ey feel that they are doing something
that they want to do and that they consider word1whlle. It may be possible for you
ro motivate leamers by showing, them examples of research that has been dc,ne
by other learners. it ls preferable to use examples tnat have been generated by
learners you taught In the past, but if this Is nor possible you can often ftnd s.ulrable
examples on wellslres such as those listed at the end of this chapter.
Learners will usually need to work ·thro·1gh eight distlnca phases 111 d1elr Inquiry.
Tuey wUl have to:
I. ctarilfy r:he purpose of the inquiry so that d1ey understand exactly why they
are doing the research and what out.comes they are supposed to achieve. This
shollld be the focus of their Initial group discussion (If they are working In
groups) or reach:er conference (If they are working lnd.lvldually);
2. develop their Inquiry questlons (re:er ·ro the section Cenerati,,g inquiry
questions below);
3. develop an inquiry strategy (char ls, make plans ro achieve the ouocomes):
4. locate lnfom1at1on (or gat11er data) that wlU be 11Jred to answer the Inquiry
questions;
5. &lter, organLse, analyse and evaluate lnfonnadon or data;
6. develop an answer to the Inquiry questlon;
7. repon the results of their inquiry In an appropriate way; and
8. evaluate the effectlveness o.f their i11qulzy smtegles so thar they are better
prepared for their next inqulcy task.
7. Plan how you wlll assess what students lean1 from the inquiry (see Killen,
2005, for suggestions). Nore that this assessment should focus on the new
understandtngs that lear11ers have developed.
8. Plan how you will evaluate che l11qull)' activity (see suggestlons at the end of
this chapter).
To help learners do (hese things, you wltil have to provide a carefully strucmred
leanling environment, panlcularly If your !earners . have nor had much experience
with this learning strategy. TI1e minimum guidance you Will need ro give learners If
you wane th.em tto learn rnrough Inquiry Is:
& a well-defined and realistic Issue or problem to be Invesdgated:
• assistance with developing and/or refining their research questions:
• suggestions about how they nlight get. started (If necessary, help the learners
to divide a large research task Into a number of smaller components, each of
which appears ro the learners to be manageable):
• assistance with developing a research plan;
• a clear tlmeframe for the Inquiry (set deadllnes by which key parts of the task
must be completed):
• some self-checl<Jng guidelines so th:at !earners can monitor their progress
(schedule regular conferences betweeI: 1 you and each learner or eac·h group so
that: they can report on their progress);
• guidance on how to analyse and Interpret the lnfom1arton and/or data they
gad1er;
• suggestions about how they rnlgh.r present the results of their Inquiry;
• guidelines about parttclpal1on and collaborarton so chat g,roup members can
exchange lnfonnadon and work effectilvely towards group goals: and
& detalls (perhaps a mbrtc) co show learners how their learning wlll be assessed.
As die leamers are working on tthelr Inquiry cask, you will need oo monitor their
progress and encourage the learners to en.gage with rhe rask by:
& assuming ownersllip of tt1elr project and planning thoughtlully:
A recognising what needs to be done, assuming responslblltiy for their progress.
making declslons and getting on with the task;
& co-operating and dividing the tasks among group members so that they can
achieve more than mey would working alone:
& choosing a vartery of approaches to problems and being prepared to take
!ean1Ing rtslcs;
A using meracognltlve strategies to solve problems and to monitor their progress;
& being keen to discuss their progress with the teacher:. and
& persevering when rhey encounter dlffi.culrtes.
Generating inquiry questions
You have basically two choices regardlng ahe research quesctons that can be used ro
guide learner Inquiry: you can give the lean1ers the quest1l1n or have them develop
d1elr own. The main advanrage of having learners <1evelop their own research
questions Is that they will then be lnvestlgactng things that are or parrtcular Interest
to them. TI1e maln cllsadvanrdge ls that their self-generated research quesdons may
noc lead rhem ro, learn whar you want rhem ro learn (so they may not achieve rhe
required. outcomes).

y Activity: R-arch with limited resou�ces

Even if your school does not have many resources. such os books.equipment
or lnlernel access. you call slill use Inquiry as a teaching strategy. Sometimes
Jhe besl resources that learners have access to ore people in the community.
Develop a set of specific inslruclions Jo give to learners who are going to use
·oral hisfO(Y' as a fem, of inquiry.
 It Is. therefore, desirable for you to develop research questions rhat wlll guide
learners In the right learning dlrecrlon, but at the same time give them some
llex:tblllcy so that they wlll be mot1vated and engaged. Heckman. confer and Hakim
(1994:37) suggest that 'the most meaningful experiences are those that emerge
from the children ·s own narural Inquisitive questions·. Your challenge Is to create
a learning environment In which die learners· nanmll curtoslty can be channelled
Into Inquiry thatt wlll help them achieve the curriculum outcomes.
In the south African Cwriculum and Assessment Policy Stareme,us (CAPS) you
will find a section called Corutenr diat outtllnes the content learners are required ro
study In each subJec,t. You can use rhfis lnformacion to guide your selectllon of roplcs
for learner Inquiry. For example, In the CAPS for Life Sciences Grades 10-·12, one
of the suggested tnves!lganon topics ts Research and present ilJjormation 011 one
f
e the cancers. This must 1i1clude causes, prevalence, and treatmenc. !1Jjom1ation
may be presented verbally OT as a WTitten report. If you gtve learners this Inquiry
task exacdy as It Is written 1n die CAPS. you run the rtsk that leam.ers may not see
Its relevance ro tthe outcomes they are required ro achieve In the subject. They may
see It simply as an exercise In gathenng lttformaeton. rather !lian as an opportunity
ef
to deepen their understandlng o f The chemistry {ffe, whJC°h Is the broad topic
under which cancer Is studied. Without spe,ctfic guidance from the teacher, the
learners would be unlikely to try to make connections between the Inquiry topic
and currtcu!um outcomes such as develop scientjjic skills and ways q/scientfjic
thinking that enable rhem to see rflejfaws ;11 pseudo-science 1i1 popular media.
To focus the learners' inquiry on outcomes such as thls. you ,could gJve them die
Inquiry topl.c (as stated In the CAPS) and require them to present a reporr that
answered several specific questions. These could be questions such as: 'Why does
the cancer you have chosen to Investigate require more than. one fomn of treatment?'
or 'Why would tills cancer be unllkely ro respond to treamient based on diet alone?'
There Is llttle point In having lean1ers locate and um::rltlcally reproduce
lnfom1at1on. The Inquiry should encourage th.em to locate and use Information ro
deepen their understanding and ro produce direct evidence that they have learn.ed
things that are relevant t.o the curriculum outcomes.
one way or guiding le.amers· researcl1 wl1lle s1111 gtvtrug them ·die freedom to
follow their own Interests Is to use what f.akes. Pennington and Kn.odle refer to as
essential questions and foundation qU1esti-0ns (2002):
Ai. Jakes, Pennlngton and Knodle define an essential question as one 'that requires
learners ro make a decision or plan a course of actlon· (2002). such a questlon
might be: '\Vhat [lfesryle choices do l l1ave to make ro minimise the chance that
I will develop 'fype II diabetes?' This type of question requires learners to gather
Information. evaluate Ir, synthesise It and use It ro devefop a specific plan. If die
research task also re(!ulres learners ro make some fonn of public presematlon
of their lifestyle plan and Justify It, lliere wlll be further Incentive for them
to develop deep understanding. Essemtlal ,questions rake learners well beyond
answering questions such as: 'What Is 'fype II diabetes?'
.t. Jakes er al point our rl1at, In order to .answer essentlal quesdons, learners will
need to frame and answer foundation questions (tile '\Nhat Is ...?' questions).
Suen questions provide die factual foundation for answering rhe essential
question and he.Ip ro structure the ln.qutry so that learners know what they
have to researcl1. Jakes et al suggest that the foundation questions should be
developed by the learners and checked by the reacher before r.he inquiry starts
(2002).
There are many techniques avallable for helping learners to develop foundat:lon
questions. Jakes et al (2002) descdbe one approach that uses mlnd-nuapp.lng
software. Simpler tKhnlques: such as Questlon Dice (dlce wlth the words What?,
Who?, WIien?, Wlwre?, Why? and How?on rile faces) can also be qulte effectl.ve.
For the above example, rhls rechnlque might generate questions such as: '\.Yhar ls
Type II diabetes?', ·�Vho suffers from 1a·, ·when Is It mosr:llkely co occur?·, '\"lh. ere
In die communley ls lt most prevalent?', 'Why doesn't everyone suffer from lt?' or
'How can the risks of contracting Ir be minimised?' Of course, you could vary die
words on the dl.:e to help learners generate dJfferent questions, For example, you
could use Might?, !Viii?, Do?, Can?, ts? and Would? ro prompt learuers ro generate
que:stlons such as, ·oo au people with 1YJ)e II diabetes display obvious symptoms?'
You. cou'ld use tlVo dice together so that learners were requlred to generd�e questions
st.artlng With: 'Why would ... ? '\¥here can ...?' and so on. Once learners become
familiar with usting foundation questl·ons to guide their lngulry, you w[ll no longer
need rhe novelty of the dice. Learners can then be asked to generate their own
foundation questlons lndlvlduall y or In small groups. Tiie reacher wlll have to
daclde whether or not these foundation questions are shared wlth the class before
learuers srarr rhelr research.
VVhern discussing the use of the !nreraer as a tool for Inquiry, Jakes (2006)
eJ1phaslses that there 1s llnle i[lOlnt In basing Inquiry around a '\Vhar ls .... ?' quesrton
(such as 'Wihat Is cancer?'), as this 'Is licensing the srudenrs to move lnformal!lon
from point A ro point B without concern for lnteg,ddn_g discrete lnfom1adon pieces
lnto new knowledge or fresh Insights'. tr ls much better to pose a queslilon such as!
'How can you reduce the chances of conmtct1 ng cancer?', as thls requires smctems
to develop personal strategies and Jusdfy them.
le Is also Important for the foundation quest1ons to have some objective basis for
an answer. 'How did humans evolve?' c.an be answered through research; '\'Vhy
did , God create humans?' cannot because lt Is a falrh-basect question. Both types
of queselon are legltlrnare. but. the second ques!lom cannot be used as the basts for
lnquliy. A questfon such as ',Vhar do varl•)US rellglons say about why God created
humans?' could be app roprtate, because the answer dertved from inquiry c.an
have a facrual basis. Slmllarty, Inquiry should! nor. try to answer questions that are
based purely on opinion, such as, ·vras s11akespeare a good wrtrer?' 1111s quesl!lon
cannot be answered ob)ectlvely. However, a question such as: 'What slgnlficant
contrtbudons did Shakespeare make to Engl!sh llterarure?' can be answered through
obJectlve Inquiry.
Heckman, Confer and Hak:lm ('1994:36) make the valid point th.at 'adults rarely
lmag!ne the questions that lntrlgue ch.Ildren' and, therefore. lt ls easy for teachers to
overtook the potential research questions that children can generate for themselves.
They Illustrate that children as young as six years can pose quire complex questions
and be capa'ble of lnvesttgarlng them In systematic and rhorough ways. Theilr study
led them to follo•wlng conclusions,
,i. Children often have 'rheor1es' to explain rhlngs ln the world, an.d these theortes
are often verry different from rhe uncterstandlng teachers rhlnk chlldren have.
"- Children often have a knowledge base that 1s fur more extensive than teachers
expect
 y your
1. In
Activity: Generating Inquiry ques11ons
specialist leaching field. what are the advanloges and
disadvanroges of asltin{l leorners fo generate their own essential
questions?
2. What are the advantages and limilolions of having learners share their
foundation questions?
Learners' research skills
Your learners will not learn from lnqulry tasks unless d1ey have certain dtsposltlons
and research sknlls. Learners must want to learn. and they must have skills that
will enable them to do the following:
.-. Locate informatioru. Learners musr know what to look for and how r.o, find It.
"' Think logically. Inquiry requires a systematic search for answers that is driven
by logical reasonlng.
• Form hypotheses o:r research quesilions. Without this clear focus. Inquiry is
unlikely to h:elp tthem lean1.
"' Organise ideas and information. !Learners need ro be .able to use suitable
organising frameworks to help them focus thelr Inquiry and make sense of the
Infonnatton they gather.
These conclusions were reached from research conducted more than twenty years
ago, and in the intervening period the scope for -chlldren leamlng from television
and. the lnte, rnet has Increased dramatically- so the points these researchers make
are even more valid now. T he message from their study Is simple: Inquiry will
not be Interesting and meaningful for students unless It Is challenging for them
and unless Lt hellps them to become aware of and. reconstrncc !heir understanding.
To create challenging Inquiry projects, you need to look at the wor1d through the
eyes of your students and you should nor under-estimate the knowledge and die
diversity of !nreresrs that your learners can bring to che Inquiry process.
To foster learners· curtosicy and help diem ro pursue their interests, you need
to know what tthtngs they find lnrlitgutng, because It ls these ti.lings that have
the porend.al to be very useful triggers for learntng. To encourage learn er.; ro talk
about d1e thJngs rhey do nor understand, you can ask them to generdce staremenrs
starling with the phr.ise 'The r.hln_g I don't get is ... • To start with, you mttght want to
make tills a totally open. fun activity In which lean1ers might come up 1\/lth things
such as: Tile r11111g I don·tget Is wily the Ingredients labels on food always conmln
lists of things IJl<e 461 and 635 that no one understands'. or 'The thing I don ·t
get ts why McDonald's keep:s pu.ctlng gherkins on hamburgers when most people
throw them away'. You can. make a game of this acttvlcy to encourage learners
to raise questions. and then start to restnct learners so that their statements have
ro be about the subject you are t;eachlng. You can set aside some time In class for
discussing 111ese topics and select the most promising .as research toplcs.
It Is o�en useful ro establish research reams to lnvesdgare Issues d1ar arise
naturally In the conrext or 11.1s01J1ctlon (as dtstlncr from creating artlficlal research
projects). During normal lessons. students can be encouraged to generate quesdons
about the topic that can best be answered by accessing lnformatlon or resources
outside the classroom. A research ream (of two ro three students) can be given the
task of trylng ro find an answer to llne quesdon. and ireporr back l n a later lesson.
Udvart-Solner ('U996) suggests this as a useful srraregy for Involving st:udents with
dlsabilJ!iles In regular classroom actlvltles.
_.. iExtiract key ideas from wcltten materials. Wld1our this skill, lnquliy can
degenerate Into the mindless collection of·possibly useful resources.
.t. Identify trends in data. Learners need w be able ro look beyond the derails
of Individual pieces of dilta (whetller d1ey are numeric, grnphlcaJ. physical.
cexrual or something else) and see pal!tems an.d relaelonshlps.
_.. Draw conclusions. Ultimately, learners have to make sense of their .lnquliy
and decide what It means.
In some specialist fields, there wUI be add.Jtlonal research skllls that learners must
develop. For example, to conduct meanlngfnl historical research, learners must
lean1 how to:
• see the complexity In past clrcumsrances and not try to rectuc.e complex
hlsrortca.l evems to a single cause;
identify poEnts ofview and see how authors' personal views and biases have
.&.
shaped their lnterprettatlon of the htstorlcal. ·facts' being presented;
A seek multiple _perspecitlves that provide different lnterpretat1ons of past
events;
• evaluate the credibility of evidence and make Judgements about lrs reliability
and the ways In which the evidence h.as been used!; and
A appreciate the historical context and not use presen.t.-day values to bias the
Interpretation of past evenrs.
Presentatiion of inquiry findings
\Vhen deciding how learners should present the results of d1elr Inquiry (for example,
an oral or written report) the following factors should be taken Into account:
A 'What students (earn Is more lmpontant than rhe ·producr they produce. Therefore.
the [Presentations should hlglillgllt what they learned. nor simply show what
they did.
A The presentations should focus on learners· answers to the essendal quest1on
and on tJ1e learners· Justtficadon for arriving at those answers.
A The quallty of rhe presentatlons should b>e Judged on academic contenr (the
undersrandlng that the learners display) and not on the attractiveness of the
mode of presentation (eg poster, PowerPolnt presentation, web page, ere).
A If possible, the audience for rhe final product of significant ln.vesdgatlons should
be a relevant person (or group) beyond the classroom.
Sometimes It w[() be approprtare for the Inquiry results ro b>e p�esented as a written
report, essa_y, poster, web page or other stand-alone prodlucr thar ts meant to be
viewed without the student who developed It being present. At other times, it wllJ
be more appropriate to have students maike an oral report, perhaps supported by a
product such as a poster or PowerPolJlt presentadon.
TI1ere are considerable benefits In having learners demonstrate their learning by
presenting tllelr research findings to an audience beyond the classroom. (Recall
that this was mentlomed in the Chapter 3 dlscusslom of the Quality Teaching Model.)
1111s audience mJght be parents. comrnunJty members. other learners or rile world
community (via the Internee or sollile other fonn of publlcal!lon). TI1e audience
might also be am exremal 'Judge·. lf learners enter t11elr research In competitions
or present chem to a specialist audience - examples of webslres thaa you could
consider for these presentadons are listed ar: the end of this chaprer. This helps
learners ro develop a real sense that their research ts important ro others.
Structuring the learning experience for learners
When using learner research as a teaching strategy, you wUO need to give your
learners clear lnfonnatlon aiJouc whar they are required ro do and what your
expectali'lons are. Iflearners are working In groups., you could give tthem a handout
similar to the following:
GUIDELINES FOR GROUP INQUIRY
Lean1I ng outcomes: After completing this Inquiry cask, each member of your
team should be able ro
The main quescto� diatt your group wlll be crying to answer ls:

You w'Jll be working In groups of_ for die next_ periods/days/weeks. Use
the following guidelines ro help your group work through your research project
l. Discuss the rerearch question and make sure that everyo�e In your group
understands 111hat die research questlon means.
2. Make a 11st of specific questions that your group will need ro answer. (Uy
bralnstonnlng Ideas.)
3. Make a list of the tilings that your group w ill need tto do ro answer each of
these questlcu.s.
4. A!ITange the 11st In order (from the first thlrug your group wlll do to !:he last
thing you wlJ do).
5. Decide which members of your group wlll be responsible for each Item on
your list
6. Decide how you will help each member of your group learn about the Issues
that other team members are Invesdgatlng, and how you will help ea.ch
group member achieve the lean1Ing ourcomes.
7. Decide how you will present rhe results of your group's research.
8. Start gathering the Information your group will need to answer the research
IJlll'.<tl<>n.

9. Share the .I nformation .so that everyone Is sadsfied that die lnfomiatlon Is
what the group needs.
lo. Keep a slniple record ro show the progress your group has made.
II. Organise andior analyse the Information so that yonr group can answer the
main question.
12. Prepare a report of tl1e results of your research.
13. Evaluate tl1e research efforts of your group by coruslderlng how well you
were able ro answer the research question and how wern the group workeo
a s a team. Make a Use of the things tl1ar you would do differently next time
you work on an Inquiry task.
A note on plagiarism
While they are engaged In an Inquiry cask, your learners wlll obtain Information
from sources such as books, Journals or the In temer. It ls essential that you explain
to diem how d1ey can use this lnfom1adon without leaving themselves open
to accusations of plagiarism. Put simply, to avoid plagiarism the learners must
correcdy aciknowlooge any use of the word:. or Ideas of other people no matter
where �he learners foundl those words or Ideas.
USING ICT WITH INQUIRY
Web-based research creates some exclt1ng leamlng opportunities for borh
learners andl teachers, but It also poses som.e Interesting challenges. Before the
Internet exlsrect. teachers were alble ro use learner research as a very ·conrrolled'
reaching strategy. Often. the learners were engaged In llrerdtture-based research
where tlley were allocated topics and simply had ro find, summarnse and present.
lnfomiatlon on rhat toplc (and sometimes pretend It was all done by them and
not their parents!). Whatever topic learners were researching, the teach:er could be
reasonably confident that die lnfomiatlon that most learners located would come
from a fairly restricted range of sources - die school Ul>rary, the local public library,
newspapers. books (most likely encydopaedlas) that were avallable In tl'le learners'
honnes, combined with any tnformat1on provided to learners by the reacher. Wlth
the posslble exception of sonne or the lnfomiatlon In newspapers, the lnfomiatlon
obtained by learners was generally reliable. because It had been reviewed In
some w·ay before It was published. In most cases, the lnforn1atlon would also be
presenting a commonly accepted view of the topic being Investigated. Berause
of these con.dltlons, Jr was fairly easy for teachers ro be familiar wldi most of the
sources learners were us:lng and. therefore, It was relatively easy to derectt when
diey were not aeknowledglng the source of !'.heir Info nnatlon or when they were
mlsllnrerpretlng the lnfomiatlon, Of course, a downside of this slnrncton was that,
freq;uently, the I.earners all accessed the same sources and reached very similar
conclusions from their research. Very slgnlficandy, this literature-based approach. ro
re.search placed reamers In the position of being passive receivers of lnfom1aoon. At
besr, rhey could ct1t1que and synthesise the lnfom1atlon they found, but diey could
rarely lnterdct at all with the crea·rors of that Information.
\"/hen your learners obtain lnforrnat1on from a source (s:uch as books or the
Internet) they should carefully note the source of that lnfom1at!on and give credit
ro that source for any statements (quotes) or Ideas they use. It Is nor appropriate
for ·1eamers to say that they copied only a sentence here, or a paragraph there, or
that they put someone else's: Ideas In rhelr own words. Any unacknowledged use
of another person's words or Ideas Is plaglarls:m.
You should explain to your learners that you do nor expect th:em to come up with
lots of original ldeas. Ir ls okay for them ro use the Ideas of others, as long as they
acknowledge that d1ey are doing this. Using other people's Ideas Is a legitimate,
deslrdble and necessary method of pursuing kno,wledge and of comlng to cenns
w1t11 varying and often conn1cnng Icteas 111 a parucular field of lmowlectge. \Nllar Is
not acrepcable 1::-: for !earners to pretend that rite Ideas of od1er people are their own.
There are several widely accepted standard. ways of acknowledging the sources
of Information chat you use. You need to become famlllar wlrh one method, explain
It to your learners and Insist that they use It. 0Ite of die most common systems
used In cdu,anon Is die Amerlr.an Psycholog1cal Associal!lon (APA) system. It Is
die basis of the system used for rhe acknowledgements and references ln this book.
In this digital age. It ls also Important for srudencs co understand Issues relad!ng
co lntellecn1al property rights, fair use and copyright of non-prtnc materials (such
as Images). This w!ll help diem to stay within legal and ethical bounds when using
odier people's work and lt will also help them to protect rhe rtgh.cs co thelr own
creative works. Saltman (2011) provides useful lnfonnatlon on this Issue.
 The slruaclon ls now very different In many counnies. and It ls changing rapfdly
In South Af:rtca as more learners gaJn access to tile Internet rluough school. home
or publicly accessible lmernet. facilities. The Internet .. rather than the print rnaterlals
In che school llbrdiy, Is becoming the one-scop-shop for Information. While this
gready expands the opnons that teachers have for using ln�uliy as a reaching
strategy. it creates a need for srudenrs co develop new skllls and learning strategies.
In part1.cular. sructents have to develop appropr!ate skills for locatlng relevant
lnformatlon and suitable approaches ·to evaluating that Information.

Some new opportunities

When we look beyond the lntemet as simply being a source of !nfocmatilon. a range
of new oppommltles arlses for teachers to engage learners In Inquiry In ways that
were not avallatiJle to them previously. Por example:
• There are opportunlnes for learners to have direct access ro experts who can
answer specific questions via ·ask an. expert· sites - for example, see tlle ABC
url at the end of this chapter.
• Learners can Inreractt directly w1th learners In other geographical locations to
exchange Ideas or engage In Joint research projects. A useful starting point
ts http:/rw,vw.gfobalschoolner.org, where the Global schoolhouse Projects
Registry gives access to current. furure and arc.hived projects.
• Learners can. participate In real research projects In which the data they generate
are used by experienced academic or professional researchers (some examples
are listed at the end of this ch.apter) .
.A. Learners can become real researchers who !flUbBsh Information that ls of !merest
ro others. They can be asked ·to presem rhelr results as a web page rhat might,
for example.. comaln derails of their research findings. IJnks to supporting
Information. phorographs or video, and a blbllography. For an example, see the
Teachner url at the end of this chapter.
.A. Learners can use social network:lng -rools, such as Dllgo (http://www.dllgo.
com). co share the Information they are finding on the Incernec. 'YVlth this sodlal
bookmarking tool. teachers can set up special educator accounts to strucnire
the ways learners share lnfom1aclon.
• In p roJecrs such as the Global Kids' Online Leadership Program, srudents can
mix vln:ual-world technologies wld1 real-world challenges.
• Teachers can engage learners In carefully structured research expernences that
extend their learning well beyond that which could 1USually be achleved In
rradldonal a[Pproaches to learner research. One popular framework for such
sm1crured experlences ls WebQuesr.
WebQuests
A WebQuest Is a fom1 of strucntred lnqully In which the Information learners work
with comes IJ)rlmarlly from the lntemet. March defines a WebQuest as:
... a scaffolded learning structure that uses llnks to essential resources on the
World \Vlde 'Web and an aut11entfc task to motlvare students· lnvesdgatlon
of a central, open-ended question, development of lndlvldual experrlse
and participation In a final group process that artemprs to transfom1 newly
acquired Information Into a more sophisticated understanding. The best
WebQuesrs do this In a way that Inspires students to see rlcher thematic
relatlonsJllps, faCllllt'dce a contr1butilon to the real world of learning and reflect
on their own meracognlt:lve processes. (2009)
WebQuests typtcaay start by presenctng learners wldi a brief description of an
authentic slruation and a task (which mlght be a problem ro solve, a plan to
develop, a conclusion ro reach or a recommendatlon to make). The task Is d .eslgned
to motlvare leamers (because It Ls relevant ro their needs or Interests) and co help
diem bulld dlrecrly on their prior knowledge. lt Is also designed to help them work
co-operatlvely and lntegrare knowledge from a rnnge of sources. March (2009)
strongly advocates framing the task as an open-ended quesdon to ·create the
cognlctve dissonance that leads to lnvest1gatlon and �lmllatlon of a more rob11st
understanding·. WebQuesrs can ibe designed ro be completed In one or two class
periods or ro ext.end over a much longer period.
\A/ebQuests provide learners With a carefully srrucrured leam1t1g framework that
provides scaffolding and supporr yer. still faclllmtes self-dlrecred learning. Learners
use the Internet as the major resource for their task. through what March (2009)
calls ·a teacher's gentle orchestration of Internet expertences· that are designed to
help them develop 'cognJtlve Insights that yield Intrinsic nnodvadon ro learn'. The
teacher scalTolds the leamlng by providing careful Instructions and links to :specific
websites that have been thoroughly checked by the teacher co ensure that they will
provide suitable In formaoon In an lnterestlng way. The scaffolds that the teacher
provides guide the learners. encourage diem to thilnk critically and require chem to
reflect on their lean1lng. By providing learners with the urls (rather than simply
having them search. ror suitable Information) the reacher can help rhe learners
make better use of their tlme and encourage them ro analyse, assess and crttlgue
die lnfom1at!lon ·they find.
March suggests that sites chosen by the tteacher for the WebQuest. should be
current, authentic, controversial, powerful, relevant and media-rich. They should
also provide several different perspectives on the Issue being Investigated. The sltes
should provide rel!able and developm enrally appropriate lnfonnat!on.
\"lebQuests should be designed specifically r,o he!p learners develop th elr thinking
and problem-solving skills and to help them Integrate knowledge from various
fields and sources (recall that chis Is an lm(Xl1tant pan of the Quallcy Teachlng
Model In Chapter 3). Most lmporrdntEy, \VebQuestts should be see.n as a three-part
actlvlty: rhe buUdtng of understanding and expen1se by Individual learners. the
shat!ng of that understanding and the appl!cation of H In some collabordl!ve way.
They may be used as short-term [Projects or tong-term lnvesl!gal!ons.
Tiie \VebQuest model was orlglnally ct:evel.oped In 199 5 by Ben1Je Dodge and
Tom March at san Diego Stare University. They maintain a database of sample
WebQuests :at lrctp://www.webquest.org. The WebQuesrs on cills sire have been
checked and evaluated before d1ey are posted, and they are sorted accordlng co
viewers· rarlngs, so It Is easy to find good examples. The site also allows you co
create and submit \VebQuests. Other WebQuest sites are listed at die end of this
chapter. Ir. ls wise to read March (2009) before attempting to create a WebQuest (or
use one) because he explalns how the strategy has evolved since 1995 and points
our some of Its pltfulls.
WebQuests can provide learn.ers wlthl an Interesting and proctucrrve leamlng
experience. 'However, March emphasises that If die learning could be achieved Just
as effectively wldiour th:e Internet. then teachers should ·save die bandwldcil for
something better' (2009'). \VebQues!'S are simply another leamln,g tool and 'the
goal Is not for learners to do WebQuests forever or to bl!ndly Jump through these
new and Improved hoops, but ultimately ro fade use of such scaffolding so that In
die end what remaJns are self-lnldatect, expert learners· (March. 2009).
Some challenges
Lean1er;5 who have access to, the Internet now have ready access to an enonnous
amount of lnfom1adon that was not avaJlable ro learners Ju:st a few years ago. So It
Is much easier for learners to get derailed 111fon11at1011, to find different perspectives
on dssues, ro follow through Interesting leads, ro ,see how Ideas from one field of
srudy link co Ideas In ot:her '.fields, to trace Ideas back to their origin, and so on.
However, as Branham ( I 998) points out. on the Internet 'finished prose mixes
freely wltl1 conversation, art with advertising, and careful research with reckless
hearsay. lnfomratlon ls often published on che Web which no serious publisher
would rouch'. Therefore. learners can no longer assume that the lrufom1at1on they
find Is rellable (as they usually could when It was found In a traditional source such
as an encyclopaedia}. Consequently, teachers have to ensure that foarners have a
new range of research skills ro enable them to evaluate the lnfomnatlon rhey are
locattng. 111ese are, of course, useful skllls that are beneficial when evaluating
print-based ltnfonnation, but the need for learners w have t'.hese skllls Is now much
greater than It was when they were gath.er1ng infonnadon from sources d1at had
been evaluated pr1or to publlca!lon.
One of the new pr;oblems that has arisen with lntemet-b.ased lnfonna.rlon Is that
the sources are no longer stable. Whereas llbrarles usually kept books for many
years and, If necessary, could rrack down our-of-prim. materials, many sires come
and go rrom the Internet wlrhour fhere being any way to locare the lnfom1atlon that
they once contaJned. You need to make your learners aware of this problem and
help rl1em devise strdtegJes for ensurtng that It does not Jeopar<illse their research.

Y
1.
Activity: Evaluating lnformat1on found on the Internet
De11elop a set of guidelines that you could give to Intermediate Phase
learners to help lhem evalu:ole the inf01T1101ioo !hey find on the Internet.
2. Develop a sfmilar set of guidelines for Senior Pllose learners.
WHAT MIGHT GO WRONG WITH INQUIRY?
Whatever fonn of Inquiry you use, It will norn1ally require an extended period of
dme, and It \\10 probably Involve learners In worl< outside of normal classes. You
have ro be able to predict what dlfficul!les chis might cause for learners and plan to
avoid or minimise them. Here are a few suggestions:
.._ Perhaps the most common probflem Is learners nor knowing where to start.
When you first use this reaching sr:raregy, you wlll probably have to give
learners both th.e essenr.taJ research quesnon and ch.e foundation questions
referred to earlier In d1ls chapter.
.._ Learners may fall to see the connection between their lnqul:ry and broader
principles and th.eorles In the field of lnvesdgatlon. This problem Is caused by
lean1ers· lack of ,experience and knowledge. You can help by directing them to
appropriate readfngs (as was suggested in, the secnon on WebQuesrs earlier In
this chapter) .
The Increasing number of Web 2.0 appllcatilons (biogs, wlkls, podcasrlng, group
bookmarking and other tools) Is maklng It possible for teachers ro design more
responsive and Interactive WebQuesrs. The urls of sites char explain the use of
some of these tools are provided at the end of this. chapter.
• Learners may have difficulty locating appropriate Information. ro design their
research project or to Implement it. Uuless they are experienced with this fomi
of learning, you WIii have ro dtrecr ,hem to approprtare sources (recall that
·�vebQuests make a feature of this form of assLstanceJ.
• Learners may full to gather the rype of data/evidence they need to answer their
research question. Tl1is ts usually caused by a poor1y designed tnvestlga.tlon. To
minimise rhls problem. you can lnsls.1 rhar . learners get your a1pproval of their
lnquliy plan before they starr. gathering data.
• Learners may fall ro collect sufficient data/evidence ro draw valid conclusions.
This: may be because they are not motivated, because they are disorganised
or because tl'ley lT!ed to do too many things ln the tlme av-allable. 'il'o mlnlmlse
these problems. make sure that leame:s have the necessal)' skllls (such as lime
management skills) and help them W(lrk to a well-developed plan.
• Learners may have dlflicul ty dlstlr.gulshlng between lnforniation that Is
.accurate and lnfomiatlon that Is Inaccurate, or between ttnformatlon of high
or low quality (part1cularly If they find It on the lnremer). You should provide
specific guidelines ro help them decide wh.at lnformatlon to acoept and what to
reject.
• Learners may be careless or Inaccurate ln their observations. measurements
or other data gatherlng. Thi!> might rnsult fro111 poor expertmenral techniques
or from a lack of undersrancllng of t:1e 1111ponance of accuracy. To minimise
this problem, help leamers ro, understand the value of accuracy and help them
to develop appropriate ways of gathering data and recording derails of their
Information sour-ces.
A Learners may do llttle relevant analysts of the data they gather. and hence fall
·to see ln1ponrant trends In their data er full to ansv,er their research questions.
To mlnlnitse dils problem, you must give ·diem practice at analysing data, and
help diem ro understand that Inquiry Is much more than Just gatiherlng and
pres-entlng lnfomnadon (as they may have done In other sc'hool projects).
A Learners may be reluctant ro consider more tl1an one possible conclus.ton for
their Inquiry. This ls generally a result of lnexpertence. To minimise this problem.
you might have ro guide thenn quire directly to consider omer posslbllltles.
• Learners may have dlfficultles communicating the results of their Inquiry. To
mlnlmls.e this problem, you 111tghr have 10 gtve diem direct assistance w:ltl1
various fomis of communlcatlon, such as consrrucllng graphs.
• Learners may see the presentation of their research fi11dlngs (the report, oral
presentation. etc) as the main purpose of the research. rarher tlian seeing that
the knowledge and umdersrandlng they gain from the research ts vl1e prtmaiy
·purpose. You might need to repeatedly emphasise tthar what they learn Is more
Important than what they pro<luce, and you cenalnly have ro reflect this In the
way you assess die learners.
.t. In any research where the lean1ers use the lnte.rnet. there may be problems wttl1
their accessing Inappropriate sires, not being crttlcal of the ln.fom1at1on th;ey
find. being overloaded wlrh lnfonnatlon, and so on. Most of these problems can
be minimised by using the WebQuest structure described earlier.
 y
The
Acllvrtv: Not everyone agrees
article by Kirschner. Sweller and Clor1c (2C06) claims that leaching
strategies such as inquiry are incompatible with modern tneolies of cognition.
This v�w is chollengeo by Hmelo-Silver. Duncan ono Chinn (2007).
Review each ot these articles and explain how you could use inquiry in your
specialist field of teaching in a way that would avoid the concerns discussed
in these lwo articles.

REFLECTING ON THE SUCCESS OF YOUR INQUIRY STRATEGY

AS with the other re.aching soateg1es described b1 this book, your evaluadon of the
effectiveness of the strdtegy shottld focus on both the outcome and the process - what
learners learned and how d1ey learned ltt. To evaluate what learners leame(l, you shmuld
use appropr1ate assessment strategies (see Chapter 1.5 and KIiien, 200.5, ft)r guidelines
on assessment). Don't forget to consider wherner learners also teamed thlngi, that
you had nor plaruned. You should also derennlne whether any aspects of the sructents'
learning experience cottld be hnprovect the next dme you use this smttegy.
Because of the slmllarl·ctes between problem solving and Inquiry, you should first
ask yourself the questions that appear at the end of Chapter 1 o. and then ask the
followlng questions,
"' Did the learners l!ave sufficient research skills co engage meaningfully ln th.elr
Investigation? If not, which particular skllls were lacking?
"' Did the lleamers progress as quickly as you had planned and complete their
Inquiry on tlrne? If not, why not?
"' Was tlle main tnquliy question really suitable? Should t ile topic be broadened
or made more specific for furure Inquiry rasks?
• What dlfficulnes <ltd learners encounter when garhertng data? How could these
difficulties be overcome In future Inquiry tasks?
A Did (he learners enjoy the Inquiry task? If not, why not?
A Did you make rhe most of the products of the learners· research? Was there
some form of public display and recognition of their wcrk?
"' Did the lean1ers· research consollctate their earlier learning and/or provide a
useful foundation for the next phase of their learning?
A ·which srudenrs learned most from the lnquliy rdsk? Why?
A ·what changes should be made before using rhls strategy again?
REVIEW AND REFLECT ON YOUR LEARNING
Develop answers to each. of these questions and discuss your answers with another
student or with an experienced reacher,
t. What specific advantages does reaching through Inquiry have In your specialist.
area?
2. How can you help your sructenrs -ro understand d1at an lnqllltl)' task Is designed
to deepen their understanding?
3. In addition to the general research skills mentioned In this chapter, what specific
research skills will learners need In your specialist reaching area? (Refer to rhe
earlier exan1ple of specialist skills required for historical research.)
4. How could you modvare le arners ro engage In research that rakes several
weeks?
5. What experiences have you had trying to learn through Independent research?
How can you use thls experience w help you use research as a reaching
straregy?
USEFUL WEBSITES
• For exan.1ples of (}fans for tnqull)'-based lessons, see http://1Y\1•w.lessonplaner.com.
• For an example of an 'ask an expert' page, visit http: //www.abc.net.au/science/
expert..
• An example of a com:perttlon rhat.can encourage srudenrs to engage In research
ts the Science l'dlenc Search. at http://ww1v.sctencevtctol1a.eom.au/.
• TI1e Vtrrual Training Sutue, at http: //www.vcs.tntwre.ac.uk/, developed ·by the
University ofBrlsrol (UK), has a wide range ofrutorials ·that you can use to help
learners learn how ro do research on the Internet. It tncluctes a rurortal called
'Internet Detective· tl!Jat helps learners to eval111ate websites. That rurortal anso
has a very useful section on plagiarism, Including a quiz to allow learners to
check t11etr unctersrandtng of t his concept.
• The currtculum. Music and communtcy website, at h1:rp://ww1v.unc.edu/
leamnc/cmc/, provides a very useful model of how lean1er research .:an be
Incorporated Into the school curl1culun1.
• Exa: mples of Interesting 11•ays In which learners: can gather data for real research
projects can be found at :
• the GLOBE \\'eather montrortng program, at http://11'Ww.globe.gov; and
• the Werrtbee O(}en Range Zoo site, at http://w11n.v.zoo.org.au.
• The definitive WebQuest sire ts http: //webquest..org. 1\vo useful websites that
Include tools for creartng VJebQuesrs are hltlJ) ://wmv.webquesrdlrecr..com.au
and htq>,//w,vw.zunal.com.
• Some Interesting examples of fake websites that can be used to help learners
evaluate the Information ·the y find on the Ilnten1et can be found at htrp,/IIY\vw,
phllb.com/fakeslres.htm.
A The Onllne Education Database. http://oedb.org/ltbrarytfearurest1 Ot-web-20-
reachtng-rools, has many useful 'IIVeb 2.0 teaching roots, Including many rhat
can help learners with Internet-based research.
6 . Review three \VebQuests that could be used I n your spectaltsr ftelct of reaching.
Compare d1elr strengths and ,veaknesses, and then develop your own
VJe!bQuesr.
7 . Develop a handout, wlthi examples. rhat you could g1ve ro lnrermedtate Phase
or Senior Phase learners to help them understand the concept of plag1arlsm.
8 . If you are a Senlor Phase teacher education srudenr, Prepare two lesson plans
that would enable you to use Inquiry with a Grdde 7 class and a Grade 9 class
In your specialist teaching area.\<\That parrlcular difficulties mlghc learners have
when worklng lihrough these lnqulrtes?
9. If you are an Intermediate Phase reacher education student: Prepare two le5Son
plans that ,vould enable you ro use Inquiry with a Grdde 4 class. How \Vlll the
development stage of these learners Influence ho1v you guide their Inquiry?
10. Ho\1' can the \lse of learner researd1 pro)ecrs help you ro teach In ways rhatare
consistent 1vlth lhe prtndples. of Quality leach.Ing described In Chapter 37
.t. You can find lots of useful researchIdeas at http ://whyfiles.org/. There are also
reports of real research that lean1ers can use as models - most have a scientific
base and all are related to real news Items. A section of the sire glves specific
teaching suggestions and activlrles.
• For an example ofa research project from whlclllearners· work gets published on
the Internet, see hvrp://reachersnenvork.org/teachnet-lab/l'KLANE/pmaslow/
nlghr.htm
.t. Awfde variety ofprojects thatfoster Oeamer collaboration acrooscountries Is avallable
through die Global Schoolhouse Project at http://www.globalschoolner.org.
Using case study as a
teaching strategy

A case smdy ls a sroiy wlch a message - a narrative that describes an actual. or

reallsdc, situation ln which an lndJvldual or a group has to make a decision or solve
a problem. Most o�en, rh.e stories are ser In the past and focus on real people or real
evenrs. but ihey may be ser.111 the presentt and they caai descnl)e fictltlous things.
The use ,of case smd.les (sometln1es called clie case mecliod of teachlng) ls
basically a combination of inquiry and discussion. lt incorporates many of t11e
fearures and advantages of discussions, group work. c o -operdtlve learning and
Inquiry discussed in earlier chapters.
The strnregy can be used for short �oos of lnstructlon or over an extended pel1oct
of several weeks or more. In some cases (sud1 a s the Harvard Busb1ess School MBA
programme) It can be used as a fra,uework for an enlire course. This cotild be considered
the plnnade of the case study approach. and quire dearly It Is far removed from the
typical rumatton In which a reacher migJ1t u se one or two case smdles a year ro support
a programme In school. Fonunarely, It Is JJ05Slble to use many of th.e ideas developeo at
Harvard ro pl!an a11d use more modest approaches ro teaching and leamlng through case
studies. This chaprer explains how ithls can be ac·hteved.
When you have mastered the Ideas In d1ls chapter you will be able to,
..t. decide when ro use case smdy as .a teaching strategy:
A. develop guidelines to help learners learn through case study;
A. create a learning environment ln which sn1dents feel comfortable partlclpatlng
. . . .
. . .. .
• use case srudy ln conjunction \Vlth other teachlng strategies such as c o -
.
ln case studies regardless of their ablllty and cultural. ethnic or ot11er differences:

operddve lea ming: and

..t. evaluate rhe effeatveness ofyour case smdy strar.e.gles.

SOME IMPORTANT FEATURES ·OF CASE STUDY

Tl1ere are many different approaches ro the use of case study as a reaching straregy
(see Herreid. 2007). The approach discussed. In chis chapter ls often referred ro
as tl1e case method of teach:lng, or case-based pedagogy, and lt has three main
components: the case lrself, the learners· prepardtlon for engaging wlcl1 and
discussing the case. and the classroom dlscusscon. This process requires that
learners be given access to the case ln advance. so that they can (lndl.vldually or
ln groups) prepare for a detalled ,vhole-dass discussion. This discussion can take
many forms and utilise a11y of the techn iques described ln Chapter 7 .
It can be useful to categortse cases ln terms of rhetr completemess and openness.
and ln terms of the action required of the ilearners:
• Some case studies will be complete In the sense that they describe fully the
situation and Its real-life ,conclusion. In this sense, an iincompEete case Is one
that: describes real events up ro a point. but does nor Include the real outcome
of these events. For example, In a course on Environmental Science, a complete
case study might describe an on spill, its effects on rile environment and che
action tllatwas taken to dean up the environment, an Incomplete case study of
the same situation ml_ght stop short of desci11bln_g what action was taken to clean
up die environment Your choice of using complete or Incomplete case stud1es
wlll depend on what outcomes you want lean1ers to achieve. Complete case
srudles tend to focus on learners evall!ladng the ac.tlons of the people Involved
in the case. whereas lncomp lere case studies focus more on having learners
develop their own solutions ro the problems or Issues described In the case.
.._ some case studies are open In die sense tliat there are many pos.slble solutions or
actions that could be recommended; others are closed in the sense that there ls a
single best response (based on accepted theoiy or best practice). If you want to test
learners· understanding of well-defined facts and principles. yo:u wlil probably use a
closro case srudy. Ifyou want learners ro explore many posslbltlrtes and de.bare their
mertts. you wm smicture rhe case smdy as 1U1 open-ended one.
• There are r.vo basic ways to use case studies:
• The first Is to require learners ro analyse th.e case. describe aspects of it and
[Possibly debate the merits of the acdons taken by die people ln the case.
This descriptive/analytic approach :Is probably best used wlrJi complete
case studies.
• AI, alreruatlve Is co 1equ1Je le<1111e1s w gu wyoml aualyst:; autl suggt:,,Sl
solutions or co= of action. For this, you need an Incomplete case sntdy
rtl1at presents some type of <lllemma for which there Is no single correct answer.
Thinking about case studies In these different ways wlll help you to select or
develop case studies that best match the outcomes you want learners to achieve.
(Remember tha( rhe case sructy Is Just a means of helping srudenrs learn; It Is not
an end in Itself.) WhJchever approach. you take, the case svudy wlll engage learners
In a coUecelve analysis of a ·slice of reality' with a common purpose of gaining a
deeper understanding of the Issues Involved. Because the case Is describing a real
(or reallsttcJ slmarton, It may not have au rhe relevant lnfomiatton set out ln clear,
logical steps (as might be the case In a well-stmcmreo problem), Norwlll It necessarily
contain all the lnfo111nat1on tihat learners need to formulate their arguments (as Is
usually the case In role play). Rather, It wlll reBect the comp!exJtles, ambiguities
and. uncerraJntles of real sltuatlons. The case will not provide an analysis of die
situation ltdescrtbes -the learners are responsible for this analysis. The case study
wlll provide botln an lnrellecruaJ and emodonal exercise for learners, forcing che. m
to engage with complex problems and make critical decisions, thus preparing chem
for some of the realllles r.hey wlll face after their fom1al education.
TI1e pedagoglcal basts for tile case method of teaching Is veiy much a construcdvtsc
one. It.emphasises the Idea that learners need to engage I n active learning expe:rtences
(the pre-class preparation and the ln-dass dfscus:slon.) In order to challenge and
reconstruct their understandings. \Vell-snucrured cases both require students to take
d1is delliberare approach to learning and guide them In the process.
 Because case studies require learners to seek feasible ways of resolVing
contextualised realistic Issues, rhey do nor Involve the mechanical appllcadon of
theory designed ro produce a srelile rexrbook answer to a contrtved and slmpllfied
problem. Rather. they take advamage of �he Idea d1at real-life slgnlficant. problems
have no ·correct' answer. just ranges of possible answers. They also help learners ro
see that they can develop their understanding of theoiy and their problem-solving
skills by collaboratively working on reallstlc problems.
REASONS FOR USING CASE STUDY
The cas,e method of-reaching can provide a very ·nanmiJ' way of helping suidenrs
to learn by ·exploltlng the basic human capacity to leam from srortes· (Hage! &
Zullan, 1996: 1), and this seenu; to be a major reason why they :appeal to many
learners. You should consider using case studies In slmatlons wihere you might
normally use a class discussion or a [l)roblem-solvlng exercise or a learner-Inquiry
msk. Some of the speclfiic reasons for using case suidles are the following:
.-. Case snIdles off.er leam.ers opportunltles to grapple wl!l1 Issues, problems,
dilemmas and puzzles In ways that are engaging, challenglng and producctve.
ln an envlronmenr that Is safe bur where they can rake academic rlsks.
A Many real slruadons regularly confront workers with U[]fque problems. l11e
ability to solve those problems depends not only on an understanding of the
relevant theories. or a mastery of the relevant skills. but also on creactvlty
and Innovative thinking. case srudle.s can repllcate t11ese slmatlons and h:elp
develop learners· ablllty to deal with diem.
A The real-world orientation of the rnarertal, the dlrecr lnteracllon with! classmates
and the engagement In analys.lng open-ended questlons have numerous
benefits. They encourage learners to pre[Pare thoroughly for discussions, get
Involved In debares, consider alrernadve views. develop deeper awareness of
rhe ,complexlty of Issues and express (heir Ideas clearly.
.-. case srudles encourage learners ro reach a deeper understanding of conceprs
and Issues than they would from Just reading or listening to a lecture (Volpe,
2002). They help lean1ers to appredare the llmlred extent to wl1lch their current
theoredcal understandings enable t11em to resolve Ill-defined problems and
provide credible explanations of real events.
• case smdles. encourage Ceamers to rake responslbWty for their own leamlng
and to see rhe benefits of thinking about theoretlcal Issues before they are
discussed In class. This Is partlcularly lmportdnt with wnlor learners.
A AS well as developing knowledge.and understanding, case smctles help learners
ro develop good Judgement and improve their ability r.o think analydcally and
to present. their Ideas and opinions pe1SUaslvely and with convlcnon.
.-. case studies help ro make le.unlng relevant by engaging neamers In thinking
about contemporary (and often conrentlousJ Issues. 111Is helps learners to see
theo,y as a set of tools for solving lmpoitant. practlcal problems rdther t11an as
some abstrdct set of Ideas to be understood. remembered and possibly .applied
at some time In the fumre.
.-. The case melhod models the process of Inductive leamlng-from-expertence that
mosr people have to use durtng dlelr careers and t11elr personal !Ives. 1l1us, the
method helps prepare learners for lifelong teaming.
A Case smdles help learners to learn which theortes are appropriate for solvl!11g
which rypes of problems. 111Is Is an lmporranr. parr of helping learners to 'think
like a geographer' (or mathematician, or historian, ere) by viewing specific
problems or issues w'ltl1ln a broad and complex context.
• Case narratlves can portray slrnallions and dllemmas as they evolve over tinne,
thus aUowln_g learners to appreciate the lmporrance of ttme as a cornrexrual
factor In real problem solving (Kollalla & lilpplns. 2000).
• Because cases engage learners IJ!1 acdvely Identlfylng problems, consldertng
perspectives. maklng choices and Jus.ifylng their conclusions, they are more
likely ro challenge them to quesdon their beliefs, assumpdons and prejudices
than are teaching srr,uegtes such as direct InsmIct1on (Brady, 2003).
• Case scudles help lean1ers ro understand that real, complex problems have ro
be resolved �hrough caretill slltlng of lnlbrmatlon and patlent exploration of
Issues. They can also lllustrdte d1at real-world decisions often h.ave to be made
on the b.asls of limited lnfom1arton.
• case srudles can help learners ro develop their meracognltlve skills (awareness
and control of their thinking and !earning [Processes).
• Case sntdles can heJp learners appreciate how variables (pardcu:tarly those
controlled by humans) lnterdct in real situations.

The case method aJro provides opportunities for the teacher to deepen her/his
understanding. l:C often resultl'S In the teacher encountering fresh perspecclves on
old problems, because learners suggest things the reacher liad not thought of.
It can also give the reacher a chance ro test classic solwtions on new problems
(Bruner. 200'1 J. Deeper undersraindlng Is also likely to be a product of me reacher
dellberately trying to develop fresh ways of engagnng learners with Ideas rhat were
Introduced earller In :a course.
ISSUES TO CONSIDER BEFORE USING CASE STIIJDY
Because case sntdy requires booth Independent. preparation by learners (Individually
or In groups) and whole-class discussion, It presenrs the same general cl1allenges to
srudents and teachers as the discussion and Inquiry strategies descrfbed In chapters
7 and 1 1. In addition. you need ro rake the followlng potnr:s Into account:
• Approprtare case studies may not be avaJlable •offd1e shelf. You may have to
spend considerable time developing a case srudy that addresses Issues relevant
to the outcomes you want learners to achieve.
A Learners sometimes become frustrated because (as In real slruatlons) the
Information In rl1e case may be Incomplete or misleading.
• Learners who are uncomfortable with ambiguity and who like die teacher ro
provide chem with 'die right answers· may feel very uncomfortable with open­
ended case srudles.
• Class discussion of cases can be lndmldadng for some learner.;, espedlally If
their Ideas do not match those of other learners.
• Because of rhe time requl red for derailed analysis of cases, some learners (and
reachers) become concerned rhat too much time Is being devoted ro one aspect
of the course.
• Cases often engage learners at an emotive as well as cognldve level, and tills
can cause tension and allenacion.
A Case studies require learners to work from the particular to the generdl - to
understand what Is happening In a partlcular sllJUatlon and generalise from
d1ar. Some learners lind Ihls a dlflicult or frustrating way ro learn, preferrtng
Instead to work from broad principles down to specific examples.
 ---
At a glance

• The outcomes you want '8o:rn8<S to

achieve are reoclily rekrlocl to issues
I:
• Leom..ers lock the basic skills to wort
indepandenlly or h smofl groups.
boyond lho CIO$GIOOm. • LWll l,._,,S IIUVl:I 'A:lty µJUI fit-1.Muc.;y skills.
• Learners hove sufficient prior
• You cannot allow leoms1rs sufficOOt
knowledge lo guide their analysis of time to analyoo the case materials.
complex mat«iats.
• leorn.ers lack the background
• Learners ara setf.;notivated and c o n
knowledge necessary for intGi:rpreting
loom w.ith minimd ossistonoo. and rosolving the case.
• You want to build learners,.confidence
by showing ihe valoo of their individuol
solulioos lo proble1rn.
• You want to oooourage learners to 00
independent locimsrs.
• You wont to fa&fQf criticol lhinking.

PREPARING FOR AND USING CASE STUIDY AS A TEACHING

STRATEGY
There are many ways In whl.ch you can use case srudles. Your choice wUI depend
a great deal on the amount of expertence that you.r learners have had with whole­
class discussions, group work and other actlve learning strategies. One of the first
decisions you have r.o make Is whether you wlll use a case study to support what
leamers are learning In other ways (such as through direct lnsouctilon) or whet.her
It will be the prime vehicle for learning. In the ffirst Instance. you Will use the case to
Ulusrmte cyplcal Issues or dilemmas 111 much t11e same way that you might. use less
detailed examples to Ulustrate application ,of theory. 1l1e ca:ses you use will need to
be relatively short and straightforward. Volpe (2002) describes how you can use
newspaper artlcl es In this way as a stmctured lntroductloll to using more complex
case studies. If you want the case srudy to be the main vehicle for leamlng, then
you will. have to Involve leamers In the analysis of more substantial case srudles.
Most approaches ro the case met11od of ceachtng are base<: on class discussions,
and the remainder of this chapter eXjplores this approach. However, It Is possible
to replace the dlscussJc,n wlrh other forn1s of lnteractlon sud1 as debates o:r mock
trials.
There are four main steps In preparing to use a case smdy, namely:
1. deciding why and 1vhen to use a case smdy,
2. develop Ing or selecting rile case:
3. guiding the learners In their preparation for t11e discussion; and
4. preparlngyourselffor the classroom discussion.
Deciding to 1Use a case study
AS with all other teaching strategies. rhe effective use of case srudles requJres you
to have a particular purpose In mind when you select chis srraregy - your choice
of strategy should not be made before you are absol:utely :!ear about what you
want learners to learn and why yow want d:lem ro learn IL Your purpose mtght
be to exJX)se learners to complex real-world slmations, to develop their ability ro
work In reams whell solving problems or to l1elp them male connections l}etween
separate dlsclpllnes. Whatever It Is, your purpose must be clear to both you and Ille
lean1ers. Pur simply, the development (or selection) of cases and the application of
Ille srraregy must be ourcomes-drtven. 1111s also means rhac the case smdy muse
If you are using a case study to Illustrate the appllcadon of theory In real-world
contexts, die basic sreps are the following:
1. Present the case to learners after they have received lnsrruct!on on the relevant
theory.
2. Provide guidelines ro help the learners analyse the case, probe the underly! ng
Issues, select relevant t11eorles ro apply and suggest ways In which the issues
could be resolved.
3. Give the leil!mers dme to srudy the case and prepare for the cllass discussion.
4 . Gulde d1e class discussion so that leaniers generate several possible altematlive
solutions, consider the relative merits of these solutions and reach some level
of consensus.
5. Conclude tl1e discussion with an overview of the broader Issues raised by the
case.

These guidelines are elaborat.ed on In the following sections of thts chapter.

Developing or selecting the case
In some fields ofsmdy, there are large numbers of fomtal case studies avalla'ble •off
die shelf - see dte ,examples of useful websites at the end of this chapter. Other
mafor sources of materials t,hat tan be used for cases are Joumais. n ewspapers,
magazines. novels and videos. In some Instances, It Is best ro write your own
case from scratch. This niay be .a tlme-consumln,g exercise, but It allows you to
cusroml.se the case w your specific needs and to Incorporate some of your own
experiences Into the case srudy.
\>'Jherher you use cases developed by someone else or ,develop your own. you
have ro ensure that the case meelli your needs better [han an alrematlve reaching
strategy, otherwise .It wlll be a poor use of time. \Vhether you are selecdng or
develop Ing a case. Ir Is Important to consider the following criteria:
be placed purposefully l\1thln the framework or your course - Its timing must be
considered carefurny so that learners will see how I t Is helping them to develop d1elr
knowledge, undersrdndlng and skills.
There are two maHn reasons for using case srudles: to motivate learners ro le.am
dieory, and to Illustrate die application of theozy. If you are using a .:ase to motivate
leaniers to learn d1eory, the basic steps are the followJ.ng:
I. Present the case to lean1ers before they have received lnsm1ccton ,on the
relevant theory.
2. Provide guldellnes to help the learners prepare for tlhe class discussion and
make sure you emphasise what It ls that you want diem to learn.
3. Give the learners dme to study the case and prepare for the class discussion.
4. Guide the dass dlsrusslon. so that learners generate a list of questions that need to
be answered before the problem In �he case study can be resolved. These quest1ons
shottld focus on tilings sucJt as theories that need to be understood. causal
relationships d1ar need ro ·tie Investigated and ways of ga.lnlng necessary dara.
5. Conclude the dnscusslon with an overvtew of how these questions will be
answered !n subsequent lessons. In those future lessons. repeatedly rem! nct
learners of the Issues that were raised In the case study.
• Outcomes focus. The case must make a posltlve conrr.lburton to learners·
achievemenr of d1e oourse outcon1es. at m111st lead then1 Into the reqilllred deprJ1
of analysts and into the cypes of thinking that are reffectted in the outcomes. n1e
case must be an .Integral part of the course, not Just an Interesting dlstrdctlon.
• Interest. The leamers must see the case as relevant and Interesting. This
usually means that rhe case tells a story that readers can relate ro their own
experiences or to struanons that they believe they might face. tr also helps If
the case contains some controversy or con flier - an Issue at>Jut whtch learners
might reasonably be expected ro disagree. Interest ls also Influenced by rhe
style In which tt.e case ls written (Herreid, 2002).
• Recency. In most fields of srudy, current tssues w!IB probably be more e11gagHng
for lean1ers than historical cases. However; do not overlook t.lsr.ortcal cases that
have partlcular significance In your field of sn1dy.
• Rigour. The case must lead learners to a detailed situational ana!ysls and a
deep understtandlng of the context of the case. It should help rhem understand
rhe open-ended narure of the case Issues and encourage them to examine these
Issues from mulclple perspectives. The case should address lssmes d1at require
(or at least bene:it from) collaborative discussions.
• :oeciision focus. Tite case should lead the learners (firsc lndivldualJy and
-then as a group) to make a decision or propose a course of act.ton about some
tmponant Issue.
• Generality. Eacill case 1\111 be unique, bur each case should lead learners to
some conduslons rhac are generallsable to other (broader) contexts.
• Realism. Real problems rarely come cleamy defined and near.ly packaged like
typical textbook •exercises'; they are more ltkely to be complex and 111-deflned.
cases need to rellect this. The case should make Ir possible for learners ro ·be
dra1vn Into rbe drdma of dlffiC1Ult real-world sltuacions and de:lslons, and for the
reacher to be able ro pose quescions that will maximise !earners· undersrancllng
of these Issues. for cases to be reallscic, tl1ey need ro contain some lnfom1aclon
that can be used directly, some tnfonnarton that needs to be manlpularect or
transformed, and some Information that ls Irrelevant
• Len.gth. The aise should be lon_g enough to raise lnnponant Issues, supp,ly
essential lnfom1at1on and engage the leamers. Ho11•ever, cases that are roo long
or that contain too much flne derail may distract le:ame:rs fr.r,m t:he k.ey Issues.
A Readability. The Information In rhe case must be accessible ro the learners .. It
should be written In appropriate language and style. For furrher glllldance on
wrtdng readable-cases, see Herreid (I 999, 2002, 201 I).
V Activity: Evaluating a cas�
Use th.e list of useful websites al the end of this chapter to locale o case study
thal you coold use in your teaching specialisalion.
1. How well cloes ltlis case study meet the criteria that were outlined above?
2. How could you modify it to make if more suitable for your students?
3. How well does this case study meet the criteria for interest. igour. realism
end readability that were ouflined in the previolliS section?
Guiding the learners in their preparation for the discussion
This approach to teathing Is designed to deliberately involve sruden-rs In thoughtful
preparation for !earning and active engagement in learning. \¥hen you use case
studies, students must be active, self-directed learners- ti1elr engagement In leamn ng
wlll have ro Involve pre-reading, deltherare effons ro m1dersrand tnforrnarlon and
formulate points ofv1ew. and 1J10ughtful partlcJpatlon In classroom discussions. You
have to help students to take this approach r.o learning. The first step Is a slmlJlle
one: ex:plaln to students what you expect of them when they are preparing for
t11e discussions and !how you want them ro partlcl[Pate.
tt w!ll not be enough to Just tell the learners that you want th.em to read the
case before the class dtscussion. tf you want them to contribute productively and
develop deep understanding, you have co help them ro engage tnrellecmalUy 1vJrh
t11e .Ideas embedded In the case. You should give lean1ers gul.dellnes s uch as the
ones sh:owll! In rJ1e followlng example of learner preparation Instructions.
LEARNER PREPARATION FOR A •CASE STUDY ,DISCUSSION
You have been given materials for a c.ase stllldy that we wtlJ Ile dlsa1Sslng In olass on
____. lb prepare for that discussion, you are requlral to do the follo111ng:
t . Review the outcomes rllat you are trying to achieve by smdylng this case.
(These wtll be given In class.)
2. Skln1-read the case. pay1ng parttcular attention ro the lntroductton and
conclusion. Make a temrat1ve Jtsr ofrlle main Issues and ld.enttfy the declslon.s
that have to be made.
3. Read the focus questions (that have been given In class) so th.at you are
clear about the aim of rhe classroom discussion about the case srudy.
4. Reread ti1e case carefully and rework your lnlt1al list oftssues Into a concise
summary of rile main Issues and their lnreractlons. (You mtght find It useful
to construct a mind map.)
5. \'/rite a brnef statement of rile renratlve conclus1ons and! recommendlatlon.s
rh.at you h.ave reached. ldendfy both the short- aind long-tenn consequences
of your recomrnendartons.
6. Make a llst of the points that you wlll raise in the class discussion. Nore the
reasons why you will ralseeach poill!t (eg to seek clarification, to emphasise
the lm.porrance of some faoror. to support your conduslons).
7. Discuss your conduslons and recommendations with at least one fellow
stllldenr before the class discuss.Ion.

If learners are required to write as part. of their prepam£1on. they wlll be more
actively engaged In learrutng than If they simply read tile case. \.\�1erJ1er the wrlctlng
Is Just br1ef notes (as suggested above) or derailed answers to specific q;uestlons, Ir
will help learners to d1lnk about the Issues and organise th.elr Ideas.
Teacher preparation for the classroom discussion
You cannot expect srudenrs ro spend a lot of time preparing for a classroom
discussion unless they klnow thar you have done the same. ·srudents w1ll generally
prepare up to. but nor beyond, the standards of preparation of the Instructor· (Volpe.
2002:21).
 Tiie llrsr step In your preparation must be ro review the outcomes you wanr
learners ro achieve. If you are not absolutely clear about what you want diem ro
learn, then no case study Is going to help them learn lttJ When you set the case
sntdy reading rask for learners, you must tell them what outcomes you expect them
to achieve.
The next srep In your preparation should be a detailed analysis of the case. You
must th:oroughly undersrand all the ttssues and the web or relationships between
lllem, You must take the dme to clarify your understanding of t11e ttheoredcal basis
for all possible lnterpretatlons of these lss!lles and be able to Justify the conclusions
you would reach. Although you will not want to Impose your point of view on die
learners, you must be prepared to share your view with them.
An lrnporr,mt part of your prepar<1tlon w'III be the development of a set. of
questlons co focus tile class cllscussion. If the case conraJns subsrdntlal Issues and
a degree of controversy or dilemma, you wUI probably need only four or five key
questlons. These quescio ns should help learners to define the Important . aspects of
die problem, generate altematlves, reach a considered position and rellect on the
broader Issues raised by the case.
One of the reasons that case studies can be powerful learning tools Is that they
enable students to view specific cases as examples of broader Issues. For example,
a case study on industrial pollutton could be contextualised within the broader
questlon: 'How can a society encourage Its cltlr.ens to be socially responslille?' In
your preparation for the case study discussion you have to consider how you \\1ll
help learners to make these connections.
Guiding the classroom discussion
Toe general principles for effeclilve case discussions are the same as those for
any other whole-class discussion (see Chapter 7). The reacher has to .tnttlate the
<llscussl.on, keep the learners focused on the main Issues. challenge the learners
co lhlnk deeply, help the learners ro rerolve differences, remind learners of the
ouocomes th:ey are trying to achieve and brtng the discussion to a logical concnuston.
·However, there are several particular potnrs to nore when t11e discussion Is based on
a case srudy. These polnrs are discussed In the following sections.

The introduction
The learners will have prepared for rhe discussion by reading the case materials
and trying ro answer the focus questions. so you do not have to spend a large
.amount of lime setting the scene for the dlscussfon. However. Ir Is Important ro
remind learners brteHy of how tile case links to rh.e main Issues they are smdytng
.and where 1-t ls leading them.
The discussion
This ts not Just a sharing of Ideas. Nor ts It a process of learners presenting Ideas for
your approval. The learners must: be deliberately Involved Ln a Joint elfon to gain a
<leeper understandlng of the Issues embedded In the case. You mJght need to remind
learners of lihls point as t11ey rry to resolve the conflict or reach a decision. You need
to emphasise that the analysts of the case ts a group task and all learners should
feel free ro raise questlons or express doubts.
You should listen carefully co all contrlbudons and encourage learners ro
,elaborate and ro Justify or clarlf'.y their contrtbuttons when necessaiy_ You may
want co summarise the contttbudons by building up a mind map or 0owchan on
the board.
 re
In some cases, Ir wlll a(Pproprtare ro augment rhe class dl:scusslon with short
role plays thar enable the leaniers to engage more directly with the lssues ln the
case (a& discussed ln Chapter 13). lfyou are golng ro do chls. tJ1e case dlscusslon
wlll probably extend over several lessons.

Questioning
Questlonlng by the teacher plays an Important part ln guldlng the dlscusslon,
provided that you ask ol)!n questions, nor closed questions (closed questions are
ones that require Just a yes· or ·no· answer). Your questions should encourage
leaniers to consider all the Important Issues In the case, but they should not
give learners the Im presslon that you are nylng to guide the discussion to your
predetennined conclusion.
Your questlons might serre any of the foltowlng purposes:
A clarification {can you explain what you mean by that?);
A elaboratioru (Can you expand 011 char Idea?);
A generalisation (In what other situations might that principle apply?):
A structuring (\-Ylnat fa:ts need to be considered before we focus on the emotlonal
lssues?):
• comparison (How ls that different from . , . ?) ;
A substantiation (How could we Justify that assumption?);
A llnking {How do those two Ideas relate to each otherr,;
A engJ1gemerut (',Vhat would you do In that situation?);
A integration (\Vhat general principles mlgltt help us oo understand this
slruatlon?) ;
A consensus (Why mlght some people agree with that Idea?); or
A focus (How does that take us closer to a solmlon?).
Use your questions sparingly so that your Interventions are subtle and so that the
discussion d.oes !llOt become merely a question-and-answer session. Your questions
should keep the dlscusslon g"lng, notdomlna·re lt.
If the case Is partlcularly complex, or lf learners are unfamlllar with this approach to
learning, It ls advisable to begin cUass discussion with questions that require learners
to Identify and o rgantse lnfonnatlon. Once learners agree on relevant facts and start
to see how tliey relate to lhe main Issues, you can pose !111ore challenging questions.
summarising and closure
\-Veil-prepared cases may be so realistic that they cannot be resolved completely
ln a slngle dass discussion. However, you stl11 need to b:rtng tile discussion t<) a
sadsfylng conclusion. ,YPlcaHly, you might summarise the results of the discuss.ton
or you might ask students to do ttt. Either way, th:e summary should address both
die Issues In the case srudy and the processes that were used ro analyse Ir.
At this stage, your comments on the discussion process and the Interactions
between lea!fners can be helpful. partlallarly lf you plan l!O use the smaregy 111ld1
them again. Make your comments as specific as possible so that learners will rhlnk
alJuut what wurkw am! �Ill nut work 111 cl1eLI arne111µc:; co a11aly�e the=· Yout
conclud!ng comments shoul-d help the learners -ro see tllat ·the most Important
aspect of the whole exerdse Is their ablllcy to provide a strucrured approach to the
problem· (Volpe, 2002:24). A good conclusion wlll cyplcally highlight points of
agreement and unresolved Issues, emph!aslse die need to Interpret slmllar cases
USING ICT WITH CASE STUDIES
Cas-e studies: can be enhanced by the use of !CT by following at least these sreps:
1. Present the 1:ase lnfonnal1on ro sn1dents Ill! a fonnat that diey can access onllne
or via a mobile device. Ideally, r'hls will be l111 a forn1at that enables them to
hlghllght or ann:orare sectlons of the case mar.erlals. it could be fom1atred as a
relactvely short case smdy and a series of suppon1ng documents.
2. Give sructents time to locate further relevant Information onUne.
3. Encourage students to exchange Ideas wt·di a learning parnier or small group
as tthey prepare for the main dlscussion. This could be by email. a wiki, a
discussion site or a soclal media forum.
4. Encourage smdems ro post dtsn1sslon q\1esr1ons on an appropriate site for
others to consider before die main discussion.
5. Cornduct the main discussion onllne.
6. Post an onllne summary of the concluslons reached from tine discussion.
7. Provide an ongolng fomm ln which su1denrs can discuss the links between rile
case srudy and other things vhey are learnJng nn the course. This Is particularly
useful If you are using case s:tudles as a regular pa.rt of your course.
Consolidating what students learned from the case study
Leamers should see die conclusion of a case study as Just another seep towards
dielr ac·htevement of die currtculum outcomes. What they learned from die case
study should be Integrated with die other things diey have been learning In tthe
course, either by reinforcing that learning or by extending It.
You can heli> learners to corusolldare their learnlng by providing them with
guided oppornmtttes to reinforce what they learned from the case. This. could be a
follow-up assignment, preparation for a nnore complex case that builds on the one
diey have Just srudlect. or simply help In developing a personal summary of the key
polnrs they !earned from the -case.
REFLECTING ON THE SUCCESS OF YOUR CASE STUDY STR ATEGY
Because case studles: are designed to encourage learners ro grapple witl1 reaU issues,
die problems they describe will often be complex. and ambiguous_ such problems
from a sound rheorerlcal perspecdve, and help learners ro see rhar many real-world
ourromes are detern1lned by circumstance as much as IJy loglc. ideally, your closure
should end d1e discussion bur not end the learners· rhJnk!ng about the Issues.
--
Activity: Different perspecttves on case studies

1. Talk to on experienced leacher who has used case study as o teaching

strategy. What does she/he see as the major advantages and !imitations of
this strategy?
2. Talk to a teacher w'ho hos never used case study as a teaching strategy.
Ask the teacher wny she/he has never used case study.
3. ToJk to at least three learners (at a school or higher educatioo institution)
who have been involved in a case study.What did they like and dislike
about ii?
4. How will this exercise influence your app roach to using case study?
REVIEW AND REFLECT ON YOUR LEARNING
Develop answers ro each of rbese questions and discuss your answers with another
student or with an experienced teacher,
1. What particular beneBrs <lo you see In die use of case study In your speclall:St.
teaching Beld?
2. When using case smcty, what particular rypes of learning wm you emphasise?
3. How w!U you adapt your case studies to meet the needs of students with
dllferen t abUltle&?
4. How could you use case sru<ly as a means or helping learners to consolidate
their learning over a year?
5. How could you use case srudy as an .assessment tool?
6. How could you adapt the guidelines iin mis chapter so that you could engage
learners in a compur,er-t>ased case sru,Jy?
7. What learning theories provide the strongest support for the use of case study
as a teadling srraregy?
generally have no ·correct' answer. bur force learners to make choices and to Justify
those choices. The success of the exercise �hould be Judged In rern1s of the learners·
ablllcy co rec-ognl se and analy;se the complexlties of the problem and. to S\tbst.antiate
die positions diey take, rather than on their ablllty to solve die problem.
As with die other teachln_g strategies descr1becl In this book. your evaluacton
should f-ocus on both the product and the iiJrocess of the learning eplsode. You must
determine whether the learners achieved die leamlng outcomes that you set, bur
you must also derem1ine whether any aspects of the learners' :learning exper1ence
could be Improved the next time you use tt1Js strdtegy. ln particular. you should ask
the followlng evaluation questions:
A Did the !earners prepare for rile class discussion as: you requested? If not. why
not?
• ·was: die class discussion focused clearly on t'.he learning outcomes and were
these outcomes achieved?
• Did -rhe case establish a need for the learners to le.am things that they did not
already understand?
• Did ·rhe leamers ,engage lntellecntally ·,vltll rhe case, Immerse themselves In It
and behave as they might In a similar, rea:I situation? If not, why not?
• Did the case engage the leamers In 'dtlnkHng filke an h:lsrorlan· (or chemist, or
mathemat1clan. ere)?
A ·were the learners able to see the broader lmpllcatlons of the Issues raised In
the case?
• ·what spec!Bc llmiractons of rJie case study strategy were evident dur1.ng the
exercise? How will these dilngs slhape your future use of this strategy?
A To what extent cttd r.he case srudy,
• foster learners· crttlca! thinking;
• encourage learners to be responsible for their o•wn learning;
• help learners to develop a deep understanding of Important knowledge;
• help learners to achieve affective as well as cognlt1ve outcomes;
• engage the learners In examining their values and ass11mpl!ons:
- - - .
• heli> learners to develop a sense or the c.ornplexlty of real-world Issues;
• engage the learners 111 dynamic lmeractlons with one another: and
• develop the learners' collaborartve skl!ls?
8 . If you are preparing to reach In the Senior Phase: Prepare a lesson plan that
wo:uld enable y<.1u r,o use a case: study wlrh a Grade 8 class. How wtll you
encourage the learners co prepare for the class discussion?
9. If you are preparing ro teach In the lntem1edlate Phase, Prepare a lesson plan
chat would enable you rouse case smdy with a Grade 4! class. What makes this
a challenging task for you?
10. Ho,v can rhe use of case srudles help you ro reach Jn ways that are cmu;Jsrenr
with the principles o.f Quallty Teaching described Im Chapter 3?

USEFUL WEBSITES
• A wide range of case Ideas and case study examples Is avallable from the
Natlonal Centre for Case Study Toachlng In Science. at http://llbrary.bufTalo.
edtl/llbrartesJproJecrs/cases/case.luml.
• At http://\\'WW.worldvlslon.eom.au/Jesources/SchoolResources/Default.aspx,
you can find a range of resources for upper Primary and 10,ver Secondary
classes. It Includes up-ro-date cas:e sn1dles, graphs:, maps, charts, quizzes and
Ideas for Internet research.
• A versatile tool for creacing video-based cases (computer-based cases that
Incorporate Qulcktlme movies) Is available at http://W\Vlv.sca.sdsu.edu/
mathvldeo/ccllndex.html. le ls designed for reacher educators but could readily
be used by school teachers .
.t. The MERLOT (111ult1medla Educat1011al R�.so11rre for Leaming anct OnlJne
Teaching) \Vebslte. http://W\Vlv.merfot.org/merlot/lndex.hnn, has many useful
case studies and other reaching resources. You will have co Join to get access.
bur It Is free.
• For an example of a case study oased on a real slruarlon and real data (about
a conBlct between Industrial development and environmental concerns) see
http://\V1vw1.umn.edu/shlps/cases/ford/.
Using role play as a
teaching strategy

Leaming actlvlties In which one or more learners: are required to ·act' a part are
often referred ro as performance activities. They may be formal activities. (such
as a scl1pted play), free-flowing acllvlrJes (such as role play) . o r a mlxrure of
strucrnre and freedom (such as In slmulatloru games). These actlvltles: have one
very Important common feature: the l.eamers who are paltldpatlng are requJred to
l'dke on a role and pretend ro Ile something or someone other than themselves. Tile
exp,erlence of role play can transform lean1ers from passive rece[rvers of lnformarton
to acrtve creators of unctersramUn_g,
This chapter explains how role play can be used In many different ways, ranging
from whole-class actlvlties to small-group work. It can be used with leamers of
all ages and ca11 be an efl'ectllve way of ltelplng them learn In all subject areas. It
nonnally places teachers In a facllltarton role rather than a <Urea. teaching role, !Jut
sometimes teachers can be Involved directly In the role playing.
When you have mastered the Ideas In this chapter you will be able -ro:
• decide when to use role play as a strategy for helping learners ro achieve
particular learning our.comes;
A. prepare thoroughly and thoughtfully for teaching through role play;
A. create a learning environment In which learners feel comfortable partlclpatlng
In role play regardless of their cultur.al, ethnic, la11guage, learning style and
other differences;
A. Integrate role play with other reaching srraregtes such as rase smdy; and
A. evafluare the effectiveness of your role play strategl.es.
SOME IMPORTANT FEATURES OF ROLE PLAY
In !rs most common form, role playing Is an unrehearsed dramatlsallon In which
learners- Improvise behaviours to Illustrate how they think their assigned character
would speak and behave In a reall!stlc or hypothetical situation. The class Is
given gener.al l11fom1arton about the sltuat1on and each 'acror' ls given specific
lnfomiat!on .about his/her role or character. The learners are given dme ro assimilate
die Information about their roles and then each learner acts out the assigned role
In accordance with his/her lnterpreratlon of how the characcer wou:ld behave. This
cype of role play can provide an opportunity for learners to become deeply Involved
In thinking about how diey would react In real-world situations. Role play can
easily be designed to help learners undersramd the feellngs and perspectlves of
others by having them participate In seen.arias that Involve confllcc or dilemma.
frequently, this type of role playing directly Involves Just a few learners {rhe
actors). while the majority of the class observes an.ct analyses the Interactions
between the acrors. You can dlrecdy Involve more learners by using role play as
a group accivlty {with several groups role playing at vhe s.ame time). This has die
clear advantage of giving more learners a chance to demonstrate how ·they would
perform In a role, but It can Ulmlt your chances of having all members of the class
focus on specific Issues rhat arise from die role play. There are obviously loglstical
chaOlenges In having several role plays running simultaneously.
 A second form of role play can be used ro help learners develop specific skills
such as how to present tl1emselves effectively at an Interview, how to Introduce
themselves ro a srranger or how to ask for asslsrance ln. a foreign country. With this
approach, you might have several learners (or all learners) take turns at playing c:he
role so chart.hey can all pracctse tihelr skills and receive feedback.
Anod1er form of role playttng requires learners to take on speci!flc roles over a
longer pertod of ctme, frequently ln order to expertence what le mlglu be llke ro
work In a particular occupation. F'or example, Plavln (l 993) describes l1ow he gers
lean1ers In a Secondary Economics class to role-play aclulrs In selecred occupat1ons.
create personal budgets, and make savings and lnvesmient decisions. The general
prtnclples for usl ng tJ1ese three fom1s of role play are similar.
Palmer ('I 998: IO) describes a fourth fom1 of role play In which learners pretend
robe ·a11ythi11g ... either llvlng or non-llvtng·. He provides Interesting examples
from Science reachl ng ln which learners role-play things such as bats using
echolocation. McSharry and Jones (2000) refer to thls as analogy role play.
Davies (201 I) provides some examples of uslng d1ls fonn of role [Play ln Science
reaching. Engaging learners In this form of role play can be a very valuable way of
assessing their understanding.
Vvhichever fonn of role play ls used, the teacher ls responsible for planning,
organising, ractllratlng and monltorlng the role playing, and for guldlng the follow­
up discussions. In short, the reacher has to ensure that the rol.e play ls a leamlaig
experience, not simply an actlvlly.
Role play can be tthought of as a logical extension of the educational application
of play, games and simulations, although some writers suggest d1at simulation
ls a broader ten11 than role play. Most slmulartons are rule-based, and It cal\ be
argilled that role plays give lean1ers more freedom ro ·think and act. as they would
In real Ufe. This ts a point that. you w1II need to keep 111 mlnd when uslng role play
wlth learners who have experlence with computer-based gamJng and slmulatl.on.
Both slmuladons and role play can be v!ewed as arrempts ro represent reality -
sonnerhtng that _gives the experience of a real slru.atlon without the risks. Vvhether
we caDI l t simulation or role play doesn't really matter - we will be requlrtng learners
to pretend to be someone or something for the specific purpose of achieving a
clearly specified learning outc.ome.
Role play can be used as a means of achieving a wide variety of ouocomes,
lncludln.g acqulsldon of kno,vledge, .application of knowledge ro develop further
understanding and skills. and an:Itudlnal change. Role play that Involves learners
takt.ng on the roles of people Involved In conttoverslal slruations (such as polJdcians
and. conseivatlonlsts ln debate over the explolratlon of narural resources) ls a
partlcularty useful srraregy when you want learners �o Increase vhelr knowledge
and u ndersrandlaig l:>y:
_. reacting, researchlng, selecting and organls:lng relevant materials;
_. analysing and synrheslslng ln.formatlon;
_. discussing, arguing or debating dlfferent aspects of Issues or controversies:
_. derermlnlng appropriare and relevant behaviours In sodlal sltualilons;
_. drawing loglcal conclusions, and
_. maklng decisions or reaching ,compromises.
REASONS FOR USING ROLE PiLAY
There are several broad reasons for using role play. Plrst, role play can encourage
fonns of social lnreractlon that provide an Important stimulus for challenging learners·
existing beliefs, and this ts .a crucial firstsrep In changing t11e1rundersrandlng (Piaget,
1972), second, (heir use ls also supported by neo-Vygorsklans who suggest that.
'etTecrJve learning rakes place when teachers challenge learners wl!h problems that
are beyond their exi stlng level of experience .and facilitate the process of finding
die soludon to such problems' (Vincent & Shepherd. 199'8:2). Most lnnporomdy,
role play engages learners In actlvitles diar bring realism ro their learning and help
to llllake It relevant - an :Important characteristic of the type of Quality Teaching
described In Chapter 3.
\-Vhen used effectively, role play can achieve the following:
A. It can help the teacher to creare a !earning environment In which learners are
highly motivated and. Involved oecause of rhe re;;illsm and relevance of the
learning activities. tr transfonns the content they are studying from Infom1atlon
Into experience.
A. Role play can provide a clear focus for learning by em phasising the applfcaeton
of llnowiedge In real :ilrnattons rather �1an �1st the accumulatlon of lmowledge
for assessment p11.1rposes;
.._ By encouraging learners to look at Issues from new perspectives. role play can
help, learners to appreciate the complexlty of real problems.
A. Role play can proVIdelearners with op!X)rrunlttesro develop a range of comrnunlcatlon
and soda! tnreraalon skills (eg listening. d1Inklng. speaking. compromise, oo­
operadon) at the same time as they are mastering the course content.
..,. iBecause It Is a safe environment, role play can encourage !earners to express
feelings :and points of view d1at they might tie unwHllng to express In real
slruatlons. This encourages learners to think crltlcaJly and creaavely. Through
these experiences, they can gain a better undersrandlng of their own values and
attltudes and come to appreciate the conseq11.1ences of d1elr values-based actlons .
..,. iBecause role play requires active engagement In !earning, It helps learners
to appreciate the value of partldparton. ratl1er than Just hoping ro learn by
absorptlon. Because this kind of leamlng Involves the whoCe person (lnttellecc.
feeling and bodily senses) It rends to be .experienced more deeply and
remembered longer (Brookfield, 2006) .
..,. iRole play can help learners ro undersr.and the feellngs and arttrudes of others.
as leamers are ex.perlenclng sltuatl.ons rat11er than Just hearing or reading about
them, This helps them ro undersmnd that there are c.ausal relationships between
people's 'behaviour and the outcomes of events (see Drake & Corbin. 1993, for
examples In History teaching). This understanding Is enhanced because tile
consequences of behaviours can oe Immediately observed and evaluated.
.A. [)urtng debriefing sessions, role play gives learners pracil1ce In generalising from
a particular slruarJon, and appreclatlng rhac thelr biases and preconceptions wm
Influence d1elr generallsacions .
..,. iRole play can show learners that skllls rltey learn separately (such as
communlcadon sl<Jlls and problem-solvlng skllls) often ·n eed to be combined ro
accomplish real-world tasks .
..6. Through role play learners can develop self-confidence, self-esteem and self­
Image.
ISSUES TO CONSIDER BEFORE USING ROLE PLAY
Role play Is. generally not an efficient way to teach procedural knowledge (such
as lhow to solve a calcuUus problem). In .addition, the use of this strategy can be
critfclsed on die grounds that It:
.t. can over-simplify die slruatton being Investlgated so that learners overlook
some Important teaming;
• usually consumes large amounrs of time (but don"t forger that It Is more
lmponant for learners to lean, than It Is for chem to ·cover' content quickly):
.t. may be very successfuO or a total fa!lure depending on tile :attitudes or
personalft1es of rhe participating learners: .and
• can cause learners to become emotionally over-Involved In, the slruat1on being
Investigated.
• By encouraging learners ro rake a deep approach to leam:lng, role play helps
·rl1em to umders!3ind that complex problems rarely bave simple solut'.lons.
• Role play can encourage learners to draw on their prlor knowledge and co
.actively restrucrure their understanding - both of which have strong Influences
-on leamlng (\¥lllls, 2 006 J .
.;. Through. role play learners can explore historical or rontemporaiy sltuatlons
In which there are contllct111ig emotions, different points of View, biases, or
problems caused by ddfferences In rnce. age. gender, religion, nationality or ethnic
background, and so on. Learners becon1e more aware of dl!Terences in points of
view and their consequences, and more sensitive to the feelings of or.hers.
• Role play can develop learners· cltlzenshlp skllls by showing bor:h the successful
.and unsuccessful methods that people use tto solve Inter-group and 1n rerpersonaJ
problems.
• Teachers can develop role plays specEficaUly designed to help learners resolve
conflicts tha� have arisen In vl1e classroom or that rJ1ey may have e-ncountered
elsewhere (Pnuzman. t 994).
• By engaitng In role p:tay, llearners can practise �aklng action on their own behalf
.and on behalf of others In real-world situations.
• Role play can help lean1ers whose first language ls not the language of
lnstruccion to tmdersrand Important concepts that are difficult for them to
understand through verbal explanations.
• Throughi role play, learners can be glve111 valuable opporrun!des ro use borh
their exper1ence and Imagination to ·explore values and Issues that are highly
relevam to their own needs and cuEmre, In their own language, and with
sttmulatlon and Instant feedback from. their peers' (Dracup, 2008).
• Role play can help students to understand concepts that cannot easily be
dem.onsrrared In a real sln1atton. See Davies (2009) for examples from science.
• Role play can provide teachers wld1 lrnfomnal assessment opportunltles.
Whatever your reasons for using perform ance actlvltles (Including role play), It Is
viral that they are Integrated. Imo your overaUI teaching programm.e an.d diat they
are not seen by lean1ers merely as rewards or fill-Ins. This will nor be possible
unless you are alJsohurely clear about what outcomes you are trying to achieve wld1
each of your tea{:hlng straregtes.
If role play Is to be realistic, the actors must be deeply involved. The following are
therefore requisites:
• Role playlng, needs a :supportive classroom atmosphere In which learners fee( free
co explore ideas and express their views (the Quality 'leaching Model emphasises
diat dits should happen regardless of die reaching strategy being used).
• Learners must l>e well prepared, because they wlll find Ir dlffi.culr ro rake on
roles for which they have little prior knowledge or experience. or for which
ttey have not been thoroughly briefed. Learners who are not well prepare:! for
role playing may not take lt.sertously. They may tend to 'ham up' the roles and
fcrger that rhey are supposed to be trying ro learn.
• The reacher must expeor thar sometimes the role playing wlll not take the
direction one hopes. It may get bogged clown or It may go olf in unexpecred
directions
.t. The reacher niust help the learners ro feel at ease In their roles, perhaps through
rt.e use of wam1-up exercises.
Role play can be particularly challenging If the learners are very young. Simpson
and McDonald (200-0) lllustrate tllls well wltll their description of using role pllay
with kindergarten children - the children changed some parts of the story line In

.......
'Chicken Little' because they did not like lihe Idea of rhe fox earing the chickens!
At a glance
1' 5a.,
,..
• The outcomes you want OOmers • LGO:rners lack the confidencG and
I•) cchie'le are �t demonsllofed �ic skiDs to tal(e on roles.
trough some type of penom,ance. • Direct instruction wiU be more eff.ective.
• iaamGtS ho\lQ thG eonfidilt>CQ to • LElOmers W'ho are observing a l ck the
pe,form in front of their peers. skillsto anotysa and '8am from the
• 'iou walilt to,encourage IOCJmer.s to acfivities they are wotching.
explore a range of ways of dealing
\llith realistic situations.
• w want lgomgrs lo 19om how to
enjoy k>oming.
• 'iOu wamr to oemonstrate he
t cnt1ca1
role of human decisions in real
Stuations.

Some other common problems are the fol!,)wlng:

.t. Writing the brief and defining the roles can be a very time-consuming Job for
the reacher.
.t. Because role plays require learners to give their own lnterpreratlons of d1elr roles,
no single role play will ever be the same twice. This makes It a ,challenging straregy
for reach.ers to use and one that can be stressful for Inexperienced teachers..
.t. Some learners wHII be reluctant ro pardcipate In role pla:y.
.t. Some learners wnll not be able to play their role In a ,credible way. and this might
distort the message rhac ls conveyed.
• Role plays rllat Involve physical acctvuy for t:tie whole Cllass can become unruly,
panilcularly If the students have to learn new rules for tthelr participation.
• Leaming die rules ofpartlclpadon can distract the smdents from what they are
supposed to be learnlng.
• Deb rtefing ls ex.rremely lmporranr, bur may nor be taken seriously by the
lear!llers.
PREPARING FOR AND USING ROILE PLAY
Role play can be a very useful way co Introduce a topic of srudy, because Jr can provide
learners with a broad overview of die Issues ro be examined, and motivate them ro
beoome Involved In learning. It Is also a powerful way ofengaging learners with topll:s
!hat have been Introduced In more convenoonal ways (sucJ1 as direct ill!Slflla:loru).
Role play can also be a satlslylng way ro conclude a unit of srudy, consolidating the
Issues that have gone before. However, one of the pitfalls of using role plays .Is that
th1w ran �r.omP. P.ntP.rr�lnlne P.nds 1n thP.mSP.IVP.S, rMhP.r th,m VP.hlr.lP.s for lp;imfng.
wtll11 this In mind, you should decide to use a role play only when you believe It Is the
most effecllve way of he·lplng learners achieve some particular leamlng outcome5,
rather thar. because you think It might enterraln the learners.
\'\lhen learners are engaged ln any form of perfonnance actl\1tles, your prime
role ls that of director. Therefore. you must be thoroughly conversant with all
aspecrs of the acdvlt:y. ln.:ludlng Its purpose, rJ1e sequence of evenrs that will occur.
the roles tie players are ro rake. the type of Interactions rhar are likely ro occur
and the learning ourcomes rhat are expected. When planning to use role play, your
preparation will :need to tndude the follow:lng:
• Decldewhatlean1lng outcomes are to IJ.e achieved by rJ1ose learners panldparlng
directly In rile activity (le the role players).
A Decide what learning outcomes are ro be achieved. by those learners who are
Involved lndlrecliy (observing, Judging, nore taking, ere).
• Prepare the resource materials for the direct participants and the other learners.
• se1ecr.1he learners who will be dlrecdy Involved and brtef them on 11lelr roles.
A Explain (O the oci1er learners what you expect them to do during the perfonnance.
A Decide how you will assess ci1e learners.
Any fonn of dramatic activity In the classroom, Including role play, will place new
and. challenging demands upon learners. !How readlly they accept these challenges
wlll depem. upon their ages. personaUtJes and self-confidence. rhelr previous
expertence wtth slmllar actlv!tles. and your management of lhe leamlrug Sruacton.
For some learners, any fom1. of performance activity wlll be a threatening and/or
embarrassb1.g experience thatt they w[JI neld1er enjoy nor learn from. These feellngs
may come from the learners· attlntdes towards:
.._ Just being watched by their peers:
• using their voices In front of peers;
.t. using body movements and posture, facial expressions and gesrnres char are
nor. ·narural' to them; and/or
A being J.1dged by their peers.
In many cases. you wlll nor know why the learners are reluctant or feel embarrassed.
because you wlll not know whar past experiences they have had or why tltelr self­
concept Is low. However, with a little ,thought you can mlntmtse these problems by:
A explaining to all. lean1ers that It Is natural to feel a lttrle app:rehenslve about
performing In public:
.t. lntrodu:lng learners gradually to performance acdvldes as a way of leamln.g;
..t. Involvln.g au learners 111 your Initial att,emprs ro us.e role play (If possible,
Involving the less co nfident leamers In suppon roles);
• encouraging all learners and pralslng their efl'orts rarJ1er than concent@rlng on
the qual1ty of their perfom1ance;
A encouraging learners ro make ·publlc' contrtbutlons durlng group work and
whole-class discussions; and
A bulldlng learners· confidence and role playing skills through onllne role plays.
Obviously, it would be unwise to select learners to participate In a role play when you
know that they wlll become stressed or embarrassed. Remember, and emphasise to
your learners. that what all students learn ts more lmporrant than the quallt:y of the
performance of those directly Involved.
On some occasions, you may I.le able t:o make a recording (vldoo or audio) of a
role play. This can be in.valuable when you are debriefing the learners and when
you are helping them to consolldate what they learned through the activity. It also
provides a useful record of !11.e learners· perfonnance, which can be compared with
their perfom1ance in a slmllar sltuacion at a later date. You need to be aware that
video or audio record.Ing can place considerable stress on rile pe.rformers, ·partlcularly
If they are not accustomed to seeing or hearing recordings of themselves. One
solution ro this dlfliculty Is r.o use audio and vtdeo recorders .as a nonnal part of
your reaching, so that learners c:an adjust to tllem gradually. Another soludon Is to
seek volunreers to parrlctpate, rather tharu nominating them. Remember that If you
are videotaping learners, you may need their tparenrs· permission.

y Activity: Reluctant Jearnetrs

1. Moke a list af reaSO/ls why you would prefer {or not piefer) fo let learners
select 1he 1opics toc role plays.
2. Compare your list with 1hal of another learner who is studying with you.

=-- Why do you have different views?

To use role play effectively, you will need to go through at least the following steps.
5tep 1: Select or develop tfle role play scenalio
Your pr1me conslderadons must be the leamtng outcomes that you want your
leameis to achJ.eve, the needs of your learners, and rhelr characteristics (such
as their developmental smges and cultural backgrounds). The frdllleworl< that
you select or develop for the role play must fadllrare learning without placing
unnecessary demands or stress on the learners.
The event ro be played our must be credible co the learners. Brookfield (1990)
suggests that the best sources of raw matertan for role plays are the real concerns,
problems and dll.emmas of !lie learners, so you need to develop role plays that relate
these ro the course outcomes. You can also use reaU-world problems associated with
the subject In !11e ways desclibed In Chapter 12 on case srudies. ny co make c.he
sen:lng reallsrlc. You ,viii find useful role play Ideas on the websites listed at the end
of this chapter.
step 2: /-lave the to-le play scenario reviewed
The two most common pitfalls In wrl·tlng role plays are Including too much detail
and not giving enough derail. If you Include too much detail, me exercise becomes
a scripted play or restricts the learners so that they .are not free co ·creatie d1elr
own aud1entlc representation of a real-life event from which they can learn
something lrnpo rtanr' (Brookfield, t 990: l 25). If there Is Insufficient Information,
the pardclpants wlll have to guess what ro do because they will have no ·reel' for
their character or the slruatlon. To avoid rllese pitfalls, you should ask a colleag.ue
to review a draft of your role play scenario and give you feedback.
A paniclpatlve role of any sort helP5 d1e audience maln-rdln attendon and Interest In
the role play. It also helps brtng addltlonal Insights Into the discussion and analysis of
the role playing expel1ence. As a result, all leanners wUI learn more from the acdvlty.
Step 3: Tell the learners what they will be doing and why
You cannot hope to .achieve wort11whlle 1€fillllng omcomes from role playing If the
learners are ,confused about what they are doing or why they are doing It. You miUSt
help them co understand that lt. ls a leamlng expertence, not.just enrerralnment. and d1at
you have organise:! tile acdvltles lbr a paJtlcular reason. You can start by oudhllng the
purpo5e of die role play, emphasising how ir,ie focal Issue or problem Is relevan.t to the
learners. Often, It Will Ile posslbJe ro arouse their Interest and draw their attention to what
you want rllem oo learn by sl10I1�ng them some fom1 of stimulus matertaEs such as a
drawing or photograph, a letter, an object or a newspaper headline, or by having them
watch a short Video or review some lnformaion on rhe Internet.

Step 4; select participants and explain meir roles

To enact realistic role plays, you must be careful to select. appropriate learners to
play each role. If they are not very famlllar with this fom1 of learning, or If many
of them are reluctant to perform In publl:, Jr mlghr be a good Idea ro start with
collilpetent and respected. peer leaders. then later Involve the lean,ers who are shy
or less skilful. However, you need ro be aware that selecting able and outgoung
learners may disadvantage or discourage some less able or less confident learners.
Once the pan:ldpants have been selected, you need to explain their roles carefully.
For those unfamlllar wid1 role plaiy, It Is often useful to prepare role cards that J1,lve
concise outllnes of each character and some hints about how t11e selected actor
mlg;hr approach his/Iler role.
Im some role plays, It w!II be appropnate to provide the learners with mmlmal
Infom1at1on about th.elr roles and require them to collect derailed Information about
the role through their own research. This can be p·ardcularly appropl1ate If you are
using an onllne role play. It Is usually not necessary for tl1e whole class to know all
the detalls of rile roles: they Just need co have sufficient lnfomiatton ro appreciate
die context of the role play.

Step 5: Explain what you expect from the audience

The learners must understand th.at the role play Hs being presented as a stimulus
for their learning, not Just to entertain them. It should be an actilve leamlng process
for the audience as well as the actors. Some of the techniques that you can use to
encourage audience engagement are the following:
i. Hlghllght some of the specific points that you want the audlence to look for.
• 3uggest that each learner identifies with, or tliles ro eX!l)Cl1ence the feelings of,
one of the actors.
• Divide tile audience into groups and make each group responsible for observing
some aspect. of the acl11on and giving their Inr.erpreration of each actor's
motivations and behaviours during t11a subsequent discussion of t11e role play.
• Nominate learners who wlll be required co re-enact the role play, possibly wlrll
a different lnt.erp reratton of some of the Issues.
• Expialn how you will assess the learners after the role play.
step 6: Give learners time ro prepare
If you have provided learners with all the background lnforn1at1on they need for
!heir Individual roles, you have to give them tlme to review this lnforrnatlon and
think about how they wlill use It to get Into chardcter. The learners may need to ask
you some questions about their character or �eek your advice on their lnlt1al Ideas
about how to play their part. If the learners are wnfused or rel\Ktant, you need to
know about this: before the role play commences.
If learners have to do d1elr own research before the role play starts, you will
need to give them dme ro do dlis. and you may have to help them develop research
plans and find resources.

step 7: Guide the enactment

When the role players and audience are ready, you have to lnlctare th:e actlon so that
the learners can assume their ro1es and commence Interacting with one amother.
One way of addlng Interest to tile role play Is ro provide some of the players wlrh
con.fllcllng role tnformadon, so that the reacdons they get from fellow i(llayers are
torally unexpected. This can make the role play more realistic and force the players
to think on their feet.
Because tthe role players are expressing th:elr own Ideas and feelings (nor the
Ideas expressed ln a script), you may find that rome learners become Involved
l
emotionally or lead the role p!ay In a d.lrectlon tlar Is not producaive. If tl1ls happens.
you should •free,.e· the action so that the players and the observers have a chance
to reflect on what ls happening and refocus on the Issues about which they should
be learning. When you believe that die role p:lay has achieved Its purpose (eg the
Issues have been explored suffidendy, the behavioural skills have been practised
sufficiently, or some Impasse has been reached) you need ro srop rhe action.

Step B: Discuss. evaluate and debrief

After a role play, tl1e follow-up discussion and debriefing serve several Important
functlons. Most Importantly, dtscussto11 helps rhe learners to reBect on and
consolidate their learning, It helps the actors to come our of their roles, and It
helps all learners ro gain a better understanding of role play as a teaming strategy.
Toe necessltty for deilrtelimg Is Illustrated veiy well In the report. by OToole, Dunn
and 1\1rner (2005), who discuss the tension of meraxts (the stare of belonging
slmultaneously to rwo dltferent worlds - In this case. !he real world and the role
play world).
As well as a general debriefing In which you will encourage learners to reAect
on what happened and draw actent1on to any over-slrnplllicat1on or Inappropriate
acdons, lt Is useful tto focus separate parts of the debriefing on rhe actors and on
the observers.
To prompt reflectlon by the actors, you can ask questions sucll as the following:
• How did Ir feel ro play this role?
• How do you feel now?
• What do you think you learned from this role play?
• Do you thlnik t:11at your act1ons and reactions, and those of the other players.
were reallsdc?
• ½'hat Issues do you think remain unresolved?
• Could other approaches to resolvtng the Issues have been more effective, more
realistic or more satisfying to you?
Of course, the depth of reflection d1ar you can expect from learners during tl1e
debrte6ng will depend on their maturity. You may be able to engage both the actors
and the observers In rellectlng on d1elr learning by Inviting die observers to ask
die actors questl.ons abouc their actions and the reasoning cl1at led to rh0se actions.
You can also give the acrors a chance to ask questtons of the audience, particularly
to help the actors understand why the audience reacted In particular ways. FtnalBy,
you might get. learners co refl.ecr furch.er on what they lean1ed by writing a r,oumaJ
entJy, as discussed In Chapter 14.
Step 9: Assess the toomers' looming
This can be done In any of the usual w.ays that suit the our.comes you wanood
lean1ers to achieve. Where the outcomes are tnrangtllles (as are many rypes of
communication sklllsJ you can make your assessments during the role play.
You can engage the observers In reflection on their teaming by asking quesdons
such as the following:
.i. \Vhat do you think were the key points or actlons ln this role play?
.&. What did you learn from this role play?
• How reallstlc was the situation portrayed tin tl1.ls role play?
• Did anything happen that you were n<1t expecting?
• What would you have liked to see In the role play that did !llOt oocur?
• Did the role !Play chaUenge any of yotu bellefs'.l
SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR USING ROLE PLAY
TI1ere ls a considerable amount of llterarure avallable about role playing. TI1e
followlng sl1orc examples are given to spaII< your lmagfnarton.

Role play with young children

Children can be Involved In role play from a veiy early age, bur perhaps not In the
fom1aJ ways described above (Rogers & Evans, 2008), Bergen (2002) presents
a strong case for using what she labels as high-quality pretend play with very
young children. She condudes that:
... ti1ere ls a growing body of evidence supporting tile many connections
ibetween cognldve competence and high-q111allty pretend play. If children lack
opporrunitles to experience such play, their long-rerm capacltfes relaood ro
meracog:nltlon, problem solving, and social cognition, as well as to academic
areas such as literacy, mathematics, and science, may be diminished. (2002)
Almon (2006) also discusses the Importance of role play In early chlldhood
development.

y Activity: case study vel$uS role play

In case study. learners read abeul and discuss situa1ions and the actions of
people who were involved. In iole play; the learners ore in situations and hmie
to take actions.
How does this change the learning experience?
 Rice (2014) provides a detailed Justification for allowing chlldren to engage In
unsrructured play Jru early cl11ldhood settings, to prepare them for more strucmred
lean1lng such as guided role play. \Vid1 young children, you can assign particular
roles {such as shopkeeper and customer) but you will need ro explain tl1e roles
orally rather rll!an Un wrttlng. What.ever activities you choo.se. try to srrucrure
chem ro dellberdtely develop the children's imagination, language skills and social
skills. You can then progress to helptng the children learn how to solve problems,
see rlllngs from dJO'erent perspectives, think In t'.he absrract and bulld their self­
confidence.
Foreign language and second language teaching
Role play In foreign language or second language classes can provide lnteresrt!llg
and challenging ways for smdents to use the new language and to Integrate
language leamlng with !earning about other cultures (Kodotchlgova, 2002;
Peterson & COlrrane. 2003). 1!11e simplest fonn of role play Its ro provide the players
w1th cue cards on which you have Indicated what they are required to do (eg a,sk
a SITdnger for directions). so that all the learner has to think about Is the language.
You. can progress from this to the use of cue cards with minimal directions d1at
encourage learners co ex:plore the posslbfillctes of t11e role In a more spontaneous
manner. Leblanc (2001) makes rhe Jruteresting obs:ervadon that role plays can help
foreign language learners to ,develop a broad range of learning srraregles that can
be applled In ocher !earning contexts.

Teaching language and lileralure

Role plays are very useful ways of helping students develop their language skills In
ways ch.at emphasise the Importance o f communlcatlon, but that. also help snidents
to develop d1elr vocabulary and the! r understanding of grammar. They can a!so
help learners to understand conoepts sucil1 as narrative. Noggle (2.005) describes
an lnnovadve approach ro teaching llterdture via a web-based role play. She claims
char Jc gave leamers 'deepe:r un:derstandlng of character, tl1eme. lan_guage a!lld
historical perspectlve· of the novel they were studying d1an !tad previously been
achievoo through tradlt1onal !eachlng methods.
Teaching Sctence
Novel Ideas for using role playing In Science are described by Duveen and Solomon
(19 94) {focusing on evollutlon). by Spain < 1992) (properrtes of chemical elements).
and. by Stencel and IJ.arkoff ( 1993) {protein S)'111thesls). McSharry and Jones {2000)
provide numerous examples of how Science teachers can use different fom1s of role
play to achieve specific Science outcomes, Including an example called 'Nuclear
power In my backyard'. Hlllcox (2006) ,describes how to teach ecology through
role play. M11ls (no date) provides derailed gu:ldellaies !for a mock Oial In which die
theories of Charles Darwin and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck are contested. This extended
role play engages learners In detailed research so that they can be convincing In
d1el.r roles. and so that they can question and evaluate the 'e\1dence" presented.
Elliot (2010) describes how short role plays can be used In conjunction with direct
lnsm1ct1on.
Teaching History
Role play ls a useful strategy for having learners Investigate how historical characters
behaved, how hEstorlcal evenrs unfolded, or what happened at pivotal moments ln
history. It can a!so l>e used In more elaborate ways. For example, OTuole. Dunn
and 1\1mer (2005: I) report on a study chat requtreo eleven- and twelve-year-old
learuers to engage ln a derailed role play that required them to ·problematlse tl1e
narure of hlst:Jrlcal ·m1tl1" through active engagement In a dramatic worid that
uses web based media, Images a11d recounts ro support Immersion In the event'.
Lean1ers were put In a position where ithey were not only lnvestlgatlillg an hlstortcal
event (the climbing of Everest) but were also enacling lr and developing a computer
ga1111e based on the roplc.
One of the strengths of this strategy ls that lt enables srudenrs ro appreciate rl1e
muldple pers�ecit:lves from which any hlsrortu:al event. can be Interpreted. Maloy
and LaR:oche 12010:58) found that when students engaged. In role play, 'the factors
and forces that motivate !hlsrorlcal people ro rake certain actions are rendered more
understandable', and abstract Ideas became more real to srudenrs. Hcw , ever, they
cautioned thar lf the srudents had nor learned enough about their hlsrorlcal roles
before engaging In the role play, rhe resulting Inaccuracies and misrepresentations
took addldonal class time to e:xplaJn and correct. Perhaps their most lmporranr point
ls chat ·role-plays are not ends ln themselves, but ways ro engage srudenrs more
deeply ill questioning historical material' (201 0:58).
Integrating cross-curricular studies
Role plays based on real �uescan bean Ideal avenue rorhelptngstudents ro In tegrate
their leamln,g across several ;&ubJecrs. Baldwin ('1998) Is an excellent resource !for
reaching about generics and related Ussues. She describes how and why her role
play was developed, provides all the necessary background infonnation for learners
and. gives guidance for Implementing the role play. In addition to Investigating the
science of hillman genetics, 1111s role play also helps learners to ex[l)lore rile moral
and. ethlcal Issues surrounding t11e way Individuals and soctecy deal with genetic
disorders. This very comprehensive role play ls lllilked ro the reaching of English,
Science. Health, An and Drama. le also raises thought-provoking quesrlons such
as: "Who has the right to know what ls written ln romeone·s genes?'
Using !!'Ole play as an assessment tool
An obvious appllcado n of role play as an assessment tool .ls ln :slruatlons where learners
have ro be able to demonstrate tasks (or panlcular skills) ln realistic situations. There
can be numecous appllcarlons of this In vocationally oriented courses (eg having
learners In a m;pltaluty course play t11e roles of employees In a resta\ilrant).
Role play can also be tire! as .an oral examination alr.ernairlve ln .foreign
language clas;es. \"1len discussing the use o f role play as an assessment tool In
ESL teaching, Beale (2006) suggests that such tests can have ltlgh valkllry because
they rest. real-life oral skills. 'but at the rust of rellabUlty of me.asurement due ro
t11e unp redictability or testees' responses·. Because rh.e learners are nor foUlowl!ng
a script, they wlll need clear crltelia to ensure that they attempt to demonstrate all
the knowledge and skills that rile teacher wants to assess.
USING ICT WITH ROLE PLAY
Bender (2005) reinforces the point that 'learning has value when smdents assume
greater responslbUlty over the process, and when they are challenged to think and
reflect deeply about slgnlficant facts rather than Just memor1ze them·. She claims
that these outcomes can Ile a1:hleved through either synchronous or asynchronous
onllne role plays, and! gives examples of using role iIJlay ro help studenm understand
specific situations (such .as a workplace conHEct) and ,ro conduct literary analysis.
She explains the process of preparing sruden� for the role play, nnonltor1ng d1elr
performance and guiding the online discussion of parrlclpants and other class
members, and she also ,gives guldeltnes for assessing srudenrs· contr1bu!1ons co
onllne role plays. She concludes vharsynchronous role plays (with the participants
responding In real ttn1e) have the benefitof lmn1edlacy- the sntdents haive r.o think
and respond quickly, and chis adds reallsm. However, asynchronous perfornnances
In wh!c.ln students respond at different ttnnes give students the opportunity ro be
refleccive and deliberate, which may help them to more deeply understand t11elr
characters' behaviour and motlvaitlons.
Integrating role play with other strategies
Most of-this chapter has described role playing slruatlons In which a smaU number of
lean1ers act and the other members of die class observe and later become Involved
In discussion. Role play can also be used In small groups, eld1er 1vlth each group
engaging In their version. of t11e same role :play or with different groups engaging In
different role plays. v\�1en used In ro:nJunctlon with group work, role play !has die
general advantages and llmltacions that \Vere described In Chapter 8.
You can also use role play'lng as a way of deveioplng the skllls and dispositions
necessary for learners to learn rhrough other teaching strateg!es. For example. co
help learners prepare for lean.ling In groups, you could develop a role play In wltlch
lean1ers play both constructive and dysfunctional roles during a group task. This
couid help learners understand how successful !earning depends on the acdons and
attitudes of the group members.
A very deraUed account of an onllne irole play and Its theoretical foundations
(�1cludlmg neuroscience and consrrucdvlsm) Is given In Fannon (2002). She
atten1pred to devise a !earning sltuadon In whlch learners were required ro • engage
In a process of tmrerpretlng each lndlvtctual's chlnklng and declslon-rnilktng wlvhln
a social context, and then respond elfectlvely' (2002:9). Her report. lllusrraces h .ow
a well-strucrured role play can guide learners ro • construct their meanlngs from a
range of resources and llll the process reconstruct their exlselng schema· (2002: 'I 1).

y AcHvtty: Design a role play

1. Search the Internet to find ltiree examples of role plays lllal focus on
one of the learning outcomes you want your learners to achieve. (Some
potentially useful sties are fisted al the end of this chapter.)
2. Compare the features of the three role plays. Wool Clo they have in
common? How ore they different?
3. Use the best feolures of these three role plays to design your own role ploy.
 Dracup (2008) describes a role play that blendled onllne preparation wlth face­
to-fuce activities. She descrtbes the benefits (such as prepartng and ortentlng die
students) and limitations (such as Intensive reaching support needed) of this
approach. Prensky (2008:65) argues that t:he alren1atlve perspecdves that can
be attained 'through Increasingly sophisticated digital role playing· i:an make a
stgralficam conrrtbutl.on t,;i students' knowCedge, understanding and wisdom,
There are numerous role playing games available for computers, mobile devices
and gamJng consoles. some are sul table for developing srudenrs· thlnklng and
decision-making skllls {Klopfer, Osrerwell, Groff & Haas, 2009), but Royle (2008)
cautions that. co be an effective academic learning ex.pertence t11e game needs to
be designed specifically ro Incorporate identified learning goals. He claims tbat
suocessful leam:lng games are tl1ose In which 'the soucrure and narranve of �he
game provide cl1e purpose for leamJng, meaningful problems to solve. and an
Immediate motivation for pursuing the knowledge required'. Warters (2014) gives
a detailed account of the characteristics needed in onllne games (Including role
play) ro make them effective educat!onaU tools. He emphaslres the Importance of
the lean1er's motivation.
Par a range of examples ,of how to lncorporar.e !CT Into role play with young
chltdren. refer to Drake {2002) or SlraJ-Blatchford and Morgan {2009). Par a
detailed acc,;iunr of how JCT ts used In a11 AitstraUan Primary school (Including In
role play). refer to Shaw (201 l).
REFLECTING ON THE SUCCESS OF YOUR ROLE PLAY AClilVITIES
As usual, the first queslilon you need ro ask yourself ls: 'Did rhe lean1ers learn
what I wanted them to learn?' Because ro1e play Is qulte different from most other
teaching strategies, It will be useful to ask ,the followlng questions In adcl!tlon to the
evaluanon questions that you Uliually ask.
.., Did all learners understand why I used this reaching strategy?
.., How well did rhe perfom1ers explore tile slniatlon from theUr characters· points
of view?
.., ·were the lean1ers able ro come our of ithelr roles ea.stly?
• Did the perfonners and the observers take the lesson seriously?
.A. ·1v,, 11at different benefits did the perfonners and die observers achieve?
.., ·would the outcomes of the 0esson have been any different If I had chosen
-different learners as the perfom1ers?
• How could the resource materials be 1111proved ro enable the perfonners to gain
better Insight Into their roles?
.., ·were the outcomes achieved by the learners worth die extrd ·time and effort
required to make die lesson successful?
• If the role play addressed Issues of values and ethics. were leamers open-
mlndeo and wtlltng ro change their beliefs?
.., Is chis role pUay suitable for adapratlon to an onllne role play?

Self- and peer assessment

Lean1ers can provide you with valuable feedback about rhelr experiences of role
play. The following example fonn Illustrates one way of getting this feedback.
 My experience of role play (actor)
Please complete the following sentences to tell me how you felt while y-0u
were pan:ldpaltlng In the role play. This w111 help me tto make these leamlng
experiences more productive In future.
When I was playing the role of
I generally felt

l11e most dtfficult t'.hlng for me to do was

The easiest part for me was

l think the role play would have been more useful If

l11e main things I learned from this role play were

My exper!lence of role play (aud!lence member)

Please complete the folnowtng senrences to tell me how you felr while you were
watching the role play. This wlll h.elp me to make these learning expel'lences
more productive In furure.
When l was watching the role play l felt

l11e part that made me think th.e most was

I think the role play would have been more useful If

l11e main things I learned fmm tills role play were

REVIEW AND REFLECT ON YOUR LEARNING

Develop answers to each of these questions and discuss your answers with another
srudent or with an experienced teacher:
1. How can you ensure d1at role play actlvldes benefit all your learners. not just
the perfom1ers7
2. How could you use snucmred role play wtlh young chlldren In a way rhac
would build on t heir natural tendency to play and tto create scenarios that grow
out of their interests?
h
3. W.att theories of learning support the use of role play as a reaching strategy?
4. Role plays can l>e designed to reach learners something new or ro give neamers
an opportunity to practise what they have learned. \Vhat are ,the advantages
and llmltatlons of each approach?
5. Which learners are llkely to react most posttlvely ro learning through role play?
6. \'/hly ls a follow-up activity or debrteling lmporrant after a role play?
7. If you are preparlng to teach tin the Senior Phase: Prepare two lesson plans that
would enable you co use role play wUrh a Grade 8 class and a Grade 1 o class
tn your spectallst teaching area. For one lesson, plan ro directly Involve all the
learners. For the other lesson, plan to have some learners as an audience.
USEFUL WEBSITES
• A large number of examples of using role play for reaching English
(Including derailed Instructions and ·role carets') are a,va!lable at http://W\l'W,
teachlngengllsh.org.uk.
• Useful resources. for role play (and od1er ceachtng strdtegles) are available at
http://11,ww.sparklebox.eo.uk/.
• A general guide for developing onllne role plays ls avaJlable ar http ://1V11•w.
leamlng,deslgns.uow.edu .au/guldes/lndex. hrm.
• The Australian Arademy of science provides a good example of .a role play
(on the callclvlrus controversy) and a lot of support marerlal for teachers ar
http://1vww.sclence.0rg.au/nova/OO t 1001 acr.hrm. There are also suggestions
for !nregrdtlng the role play 1vlth orher teaching strategies.
• The derailed role play called 'Retrying Gallloo' (http://11�1rw1.umn.edu/shlps/
case.s/gallleo.hnuJ can be useo by Soc ology,
i Sclenc.e or History ;re,achers ro
demonsrrare ho1v difficult It Is to understand a new theory or ro overturn an old
rheory which has become part of society's way of thinking.
8. If you are prepartng ro reach In t'.he lnten11edlate Phase, Prepare a lesson pl.an
that would enable you to use role play with a Grade 4 class. \Vhat are th.e main
challenges lean1ers 1vlll race ,vhen learning In this way?
9. Ho,v can the use ofrole play help you ro teacl1 In 1vays that are conslstennvlth
the prtnclples of Quallty 'Teaching described In Chapter 3?
 Using writing as a
teaching strategy

Learners ca11J be asked to write for two very dl:fferenr reasons: il11 demonstrate
their learning and to help them learn. We are all familiar with the first situation -
being asked to write answers to questions In exams or asslgnmenrs. Although this
form of writing may help learners to leam, th.at Is not Its prime pu rposie. To make
lean1Ing the prtrne purpose of wrttlng, we have ro rake a very dlfferentt approach.
We have to guide learners· wrttlng so that It. illecomes a deliberate attempt by the
learners to understand. remember, explore and extend the things d1ey are leamlng,
and a vehlc:le for Im proving their lea.ming processes. This fonn of wrltlng Is often
referred. to as writing-to-learn. It can be used In many situations where leamers
could benefit from d1lnknng deeply about what they are learning or wl1y tl1ey are
learning It.
This chapter outlines several ways In which you can engage learners In wrlti!llg
as a del.lberace learning strategy.
When you have mastered the ideas In d1Js chapter, you will be able to:
.t. decide when to use wrtctng as a teach1ng strategy;
.t.. develop guidelines to help learners learn through writing:
• Integrate leamlng-throug·h-wrlrlng activities with other reaching strategies; and
• eva:Juare the effectiveness of your learnlng-through-wrttlng strategies.
TYPES OF LEARNER WRITING
All the reaching strategies described In this book emphasise the Importance of
actl.vely engaglnlg learners b1 die learning process so vhar they are encouraged ro
think about. manipulate and use the Ideas. that they are encoun terlng. ,Vrltlng can
be used In varlo1Us ways ro facllltare this engagement.
The most Important Issue with learner writing Is that It must be m.lndful, not
mlndles.s. If !earners are mlndfltl of ll1elr writing, d1ey will not only be aware of
what they are 1vrtdng, but they wlll also be thinking about why they are writing
and how It Is helping them to learn. \A/rttlng that engages learners In a deliberate
attempt to leam wlll help tllem focus on d1e Important aspects of what they are
writing, so that d1ey consciously make writing a leamJng tool that helps diem to
be metacognltlve.
\"/Ith praccice, you will be able to engage learners In many different fonns of
writing, each designed to Improve some particular aspect. of their leamlng. l11e
following are some useful forrms of w!rltlng,
• Descriptive: Learners describe something as they see tc or experience lr.
• Expository:: Learners arrempr to explab1 something.
• cause and effect: Learners ·ny to explain why something happened.
• Compare and contrast: Learners describe slmllarttles and differences between
things.
.t. Persuasive; Learners wlire ro convince someone else of a point of view.
.t.. Narrative: Learners cell a st,ory about chetr experlence.s or the experiences of
someone else.
• Creative: Leamers are expressing Ideas and tihoughts In an Imaginative way.
IMPORTANT POINTS ABOUT USING WRITING AS A TEACHING
STRATiEGV
At Its simplest level, recording lnfonnarJon. In wr11!lng provides learners with
a memory prompt - something tllat they can use at a later dme to help them
reconstruct important Ideas ci1at they encountered while learning. !However, It can
be much more; Ir can be the process by which learners analyse and organise Ideas
so chat they develop a deep undersrdndlng. The pr1nclpal argumenrs for using
wrttlng as a dellberam reaching strategy are the followlng:
• Language skills are an Important part of lean1lng In all subjects, so Ir makes
sense to helrp learners develop these skills through sysrematlc and conslstenr
practice and application.
• There Is researcll evidence that c:lassroom wrttlng-r0-leam. ac!lvltles can have
a direct and significant Impact on learner achievement (Meiers, 2007). In their
meta-analysis, Bangert-Drowns, Hurl.ey and vVUkinson (2004) suggested that
the longer tl1e per1od of rune over which wrttlng activities were spread and
repeated, the greater their elfecr on leamlng. They found tl1at writing acdvltles
that explicitly required learners ro be meracognltlve were partlcularl.y effective.
• Carefully structured wilting actlvUtles can engage learners [n ways of thinking
about the subject that are deliberately designed to lead to deeper understanding.
They encourage sntdenrs ro use their prior knowledge, to synthesise and
Integrate new ln.fom,atlon In meaningful ways. and to focus on reladonshlps
as well as derdlls. Willis (2006J provides a n.eurologlcal explanation for why
these ac.tivltles are beneficial, claiming that the more lnfonnatlon Is deliberately
manlpuflated by the learner, die better Ir Is understood and remembered.
• wn11ng encourages learners -ro rake a <1eep (ratller than surface) approac11 ro
leannlng; rhar Is. to lnremlonally seek meaning, ro oy ro relare new conceprs
ro exlsl1ng knowledge, to ldenltfy themes and ro crltlca□y evaluate new
lnfonnadon. It can be a very useful way to help lean1ers focus on persistent
dlffi•cultles and 1111isooncept101.1s and to Im.prove their ablllcy to tl1lnk cr1rtcally
(Bean, 2011 J.
& Writing encourages learners to express the.Ir understanding 'In d1elr own words'
rather than simply frying to remember someone else's words. Tills process
of O[Jlantslng Isolated pieces of leamlng Into a meaningful whole Is a crucial
aspect of developing deep 11nderstandlng {Wlllls, 2000J, This process nor only
externalises a learner's understal!ldlng, It also makes learners more aware of
what they do and do nor kno-w.
• Wilting encourages learners to question their own understanding and to srrlive
for dar1cy ln thetr thinking and expressloru.
& Leaming ts a Journey of discovery of new Ideas and the Importance of those
ideas. Writing can be a powerful ttool In helplr!g leamers ro make thls Journey,
partilcularty when the writing act1ivlt1es engage learners ln active constrnctlon
of the meaning of concepts. As learners wr1te, they often develop awareness of
new Ideas, concepts and relationships that: tl1ey did not have before they began
writing (Albert, 2000a, 2000b).
Each of these fonns of wrttlng can be produced under a range of different
circumstances; ihls chapter will focus on. Just three: nore raking, focused wr1t:tng
activities for consolidation and revision, and learner Journals. The list of useful
websites at the end of this chapter provide Information about several aspecrs of
writing not covered in rhJs chapter.
PREPARING FOR AND USING WRITING AS A TEACHING
STRATEGY
The basic Idea Is to use writing as a tool forenhancing leamlng. '1111erefore. yol1 have
to ask: 'What do I wane the leamers to learn .and what type of wrl.tlng 1,111 help?'
So, as with all other teaching srrategles, you have to keep reminding yourself tbat
you have ro structure and guide rhe learners· expertences 111 ways that rake account
of what you know about leamlng. For example. we know that learners learn better
when they are lnooresred In what. they are learning. so you muse make the writing
topl.c relevant to them.
Of course, the types of writing that you can use to help smdenrs learn and the
benefits they wlll gain from It are moderated by the students' writing abllltles. You
call!nor expect a writing exercise r.o help stlildems deepen their understanding If their
lack of wrltlng abUlty Is: causing them excessive stress, but wrltlng practl ce and
guidance can Improve this slmatlon.
A. Language use and text production take place within dlsclpllnary language
communities: wdtlng In History, for l:lstance. looks different. ls directed at a
different audience and Is produced for a series of dlfferem plllrposes than Is
wrltJng In S.:lence. Production of their own wrltlng Is a very useful tool for
helping learners to master t11e specialised fonns of language that are used In
different: disciplines, because it can help learners to understand Ifie reasons for
these differences. O'Toole (2000) provides a range of examples of how writing
can help learners cope with and master rhe speotallsed language of Science:
many of his suggestions can ibe readltJ adapted to other dlsclpllnes.
A. One of the major benefits of learner wrltlng Is that It provides a record of their
l<nowleclge an<l unelerstan<lmg that the teacher can review at letsure to see how
well learners understand. The teacher can then use this Infom1at:1on to guide
Insrrucaonal planning decisions .
.a. Journal wrltlng can encourage learners ro explore their understanding and
,express their Ideas without concern for the formal requirements of wrltlng (eg
referencing). Thl.s enables the learners to concentrate on their learning rather
than on Incldenral rechnlcal Issues. As learners explore new understanding
through Journals, they I.Jecome more confident In raking lnrellecrual risks
(Yeoman, 1995). 111ey also become more aware of tllelr bellefs, values and
biases
.a. Joumalwrltlugthatdocun1entsleamlngexperlences (suchasasclenceexperlment
or an historical Investigation) helps learners to practise documenting processes
In professional ways and using t11e thought processes that professionals muse.
cultivate.

At a glance

• You want learners to toke a deep • LGOinetS have nof ye! dE>JGlopocl lhG
approach fo looming. sett-cfiscipline necessary for learning in
.. You want learners Jo see the this way.
importancG ol oonngcnng icloos lo • too=s· wming skms arG so P00I that
construct new IGVGls of understanding. it witl be a barrier to lleo:mjng.
• You want learners to identify the limi:ts • You ca,not albw learn,ers suflicien·t
ol 1heir unde!sfanding. fime lo comp!Gle Iha wrinng lask.
• You want to help Joo:rners review and
consolidate looir learning.
 In die followir1g sections, we consider thrre special uses of wntlng as a reachlng
srraregy, namely note raking, \\'litlng for consolldadon and rev1slon, and joumal wr11ing.

Note taking (writing on the run)

In many reaming slruactons, learners are expecred ro rake nores, eJcher under direct
reacher guidance or illy using their own Jlllgement about what to wr1te. Notes rJ1at
yarn rake dm!ng a lecture at university fall lnro the latter category. such note taking
Is seldom a cel!berate attempt to I.earn: It Is more likely robe an arrempr.by learners
to record su:liclenr tinfonnarton to remind them later of what they are supposed
to be leamlng, so that they can react. study and prepare for examinations. Unless
die 1ean1ers are proficient nore takers, an(! unless the teacher deliberately provides
dme for learners to think about their writing, notes ralcen 'on the run· 1\Jlll i>robably
provide no rnore than a sketchy record of what the learner thought th:e lmporrant
points might be.
To make uote mklng a useful leanilng expelience, the reacher must encourage
and faclllrate lea.ruing rather than mere recording. This wlll not happen If learners
are slmtply copying lnfonnadon from rhe board or a Powerpolnr presentafilon
without thinking aoout the Information and processnng nt. If you wane learners·
note rak:lng to be an lmpormnt. part of the:r Jearnlmg, you have to accept th.at mere
copying of inforn1adon does little to facilitate leamJng. You have to engage learners
In ()Urposeful analysis of what t11ey are writing. You have ro engage learners In
making connections and seeing relatlonshlps between apparendy disconnected
facts and Ideas, reiattng new lnforma.tlon to their pr1or learning and applying their
new undersranddng nn m.eanl.ngful ways. Por these tl1ilngs ro happen, you have to
give learners time to rhtnk about what they are wr1rlng and you have ro he:lp them
structure rhelr notes.
in a Mathematics class, for example. !: learners simply copy an example from
the board, It \11tn probably contlibute lltde to thelr learning. ltue, the lnfom1adlon
might be in their books for diem ro lihlnk about later, bur how much better would
It be to get diem thlnl<lng about It as they write? 1111s can be achieved by using
techniques :;uch as encouragtng learners to .annorare rhe example as they write
It. These annora:llons can be slm![)le and personalised (eg 'Thl.s remind; me of the
example we did last week' or 'Here I had trouble because I confused ... with .. .').
The learners might. learn even more If tne teacher created more thlnklng time by
having the example on a handout wl.th si,ace for the learners to annotate It as the
teacher explained each step. The lime that would otherwise be taken up with die
leaniers sim?IY copying the example Is then available for the learners to think
about the pdnclples and processes that are Illustrated in the example.
For srudent note ·mklng to be an effective learning rool, the Information tiley
record must be accurate and tr m usr be organised In ways thatt make sense to the
srudents. Neither will occur unless learners l1ave tlme to make useful notes, and
unless the teacher makes note raking easier by providing verbal or visual structure
ro the lnfonnatlon that learners are expected oo record.
lfhe teacl1er will often nor have time ro check the notes that learners have
recordoo, although It ls cerm!nly a good idea ro do dils as often as possible. A less
dme-consuming compromise ls to have learners check the notes of a parmer. \Vfillls
(2006:6) descr1bes the benefits of this activity as follows:
• Errors can be Identified.
• Learners are alerted to things they missed .
• The checking engages learners long enough for new lnfom1atlon to pass from
awareness to working memory.

y Activity: Helping learners to take better notes

1. Prepare o set of guidelines for learners to help lh-em take effective notes
durtng lessons in -your speciolisl leaching area.
2. How are these guidelines different from the guidelines you would gi-.e lo
teacher education students at a universi1y?

Writing for consolidation and revision

As well as thinking about their learning during note raking, learners need time to
reflect on what rhey have learned, revise the Ideas tllat are nor well understood,
consolidate the andlvlctual pieces of their learning lnro a meaningful whole. a11d
Identify gaps In their understand! ng, Bean emphasises mar: • [t�o deepen studerurs·
d1lnklng, teachers need to build Into their courses ti.me, space. tools, and mottvarton
for explordtory thinking· (2011:8). Wrltl!ng rhat Is deliberately designed to help
smdents integrate new lnfom1adon with ·what they already understand is such a
tool, and It has a greater impact. on their l.ean11ng rhan recording Isolated pieces of
Information during note taking. You have to create opportunities for this learning
bod1 In dass and elsewhere.
If your learners are not accustomed to using wrltl!ng as a delrberare leamJng
srraregy, you wUI have to ease them Into lt gently. A useful starting point Is to
slm[llly get them to summarise the things d1ey have been learning by completlng
sentences that you srart; for example: The sequence for mixing these chemicals
Is Important because .. .'. 'M,acberh·s reason for ... was .. .', 'A possible response
to the dilemma fared by tl1ese politicians would be ...'. When learners boolme
comfortable with using this Forni of wll1l1ng to help them thlnk about. what rlley are
lean1lng, you can ex:tend. the Idea and aslc learners ro write paragraphs.
The process of writing paragraphs on very specific Issues helps learners ro
develop the skills of oiganlsing their ideas. developing loglcal lines of reasoning,
sup;porrtng arguments with examples, Judging t11elr o,wn levels of understanding
and reworking rihelr Ideas. As d1ey develop these skllls, they will find It easier to
move ro more substantial pieces of writing.
You can build these consolidation segments lnr.o each lesson and have learners
write about their leanllng In rhe following ways:
1. At the beginning of the lesson, give learners three minutes to write a.nsw·ers
to questions such as the following,
.t. What was rile main tiling I learned last lesson?
• \Vhat ts a pract1cal appllcatlo111 or tthe Ideas we studied last lesson?
• What confused me last lesson and! wl1at dcct I <ilo about 1(1
• \Vhat do I expect to learn this lesson?
• \Vhat do I already know about today·s top.le?

This Its a _good way to assess how much learners undersrood and retained from
the previous lesson.
2. Throughout the lesson, give learners time to wrtre answers co questions such
as:
Ji. How can I describe that concept In. my own words?
A How do these Ideas relate to nny personal experiences outside scil1ool?
.t. What are the main steps In solving problems such as these?
• What am I co nfused about'/
• \Vhere ts this lesson leading?
This ls a good way ro help lean1ers stay focused.
3. To\1•ards the end of the lesson. give leam1ers three mlnures ro write answers
to questions such as:
• \Vhat were the main Ideas In this lesson?
• What do I need to do to understand these Ideas better?
This ls a good way to encourage learners to reflect on what they have learned.
As learners !become a ccustomed to using these 11'11tlng activities to help thell1l learn.
·the activities w!U be seen as Just a normal part of each lesson. The sliUdents 111111 also
come to reaJJse that the writing activities are changln,g the way they think. about
the tl1lngs they are learning. Of course, all 111rtt1ng activities must be customised
to suit the needs and abilities of Individual students. One way of doing this Is to
use graphic organisers (such, as lftowcharts) to help learners scaffold their ,vrttlng
(Klein, 201 OJ.
If you periodically review the notes that lean1ers are wilting, It Will give you a
dear plcrure of how well learners are learning and what difficulties they are having.
You should nor overlook the use of wrt.tlng outside of class as a way of further
.engaging learners ln learning. I am aware that ti's hard enough ro get lea111ers to
do anything academic outside of class, let alone engage In some serious 1vrtt1ng,
bur maybe r.hat's because a lot of the things learners are asl<ed -ro do for homework
seean rather pointless to tthem. And, let's face It, If you give learners homework that
ca111 be done wld1 a last-mlruute cut-and-paste of fragments or cexc found on the
·internet, you can't expect coo much academic engagement.
If you wane learners to learn through writing, you have co make the ,1,r1t1ng
tasks relevant and m.eanlngful for them: lihe r.asks have co require some sustained
.effort (at a11 age-appropriate level) and you have to engage the learners In ,vnrtng
the way that professionals write. At, a minimum. this means wrttlng for a specific
purpose that they see as worthwhile, and nott expecting that tile first draft will be
the final product. You have ro requtre learners to write drdfts, rellect on those drafts
and modify them (preferably on the bas.ls of feedback from you or their peers).
lt ls only through revision that learners can express their ideas clearly, construct
convincing arguments, develop their reasont11g skills and develop confidence In
their ability to 111rtte .veil and learn from rhelr writing.
\¥hen learners are wliltlng co develop and consolidate their understanding, you
should not restrict them ro prose. and you should not. restrict them ro description
and refllectlon. Some Ideas to consider ln addition to having learners write standard
paragraphs or extended prose are ouillnect ln die following table:
Tobie 14.l: Fonns .qfwriting that promote dj/ferent types ef/ean1fng

Types of leoming to be developed or

Possible fonn of writing
consolidated

Understanding of ooncepts or principles • �raphroSG of given lex'!

• Diagrams, charts 01 graphs to illustrate
concept or princip'IG

Ability to describe • Captions on diagrams or pictures

• Advooisemenls
• �

Ability to inform • �ters

• lnvilations
• Sctipts tor news bfooocosts
• Announcem,ents for 100 'classified'
section of a newspaper

Ability to predict or hypolhGsise • Sentence, completi:on

• Story completion
• Developrmenl ,o1 queslions to,r research
or investigation
• Seit-assessment al looming

A!bility to make comparisons • Diagrams, charts cxr graphs

• Comparison fables

A!bility to persuade • leff8fs (eg le- lo newspaper)

• Notes for o debo!e
• Advertisements

You will have ro model each of these fonns ofwrttlng and explain to learners flow
they can learn by wr1tlng In rhese ways. You wtll also need ro provide scaffolding
and. other forms of support to help learners develop their wrtt! ng skllls . Later, you
can reduce the scaffolding and encourage learners to explore tl1elr own ways of
writing for learning. Don't furget that all wrll1ng needs co have a clear purpose
(and audience) lf It Is to help lean1ers learn. F'or much of the learners· wrlcing, you
wUI be the audience - learners will be writing so that they can show you how well
d1ey understand what they ihave been leamnng. However, If rllere Is an exremaJ
audience (such as when learners are writing a letter ro a newspaper) tl1ere Is much
more lncenrlve for learners to lean1 and ro express rllear understanding clearly.
Vvhatever form of writing learners are engaged In, you want them to see It as
an lmportant step In tllelr learning, nor Jusr a demonstrarlon of their learning. You
also want diem to reflect on what they write and evaluare how well their ·wrlrlng
achieved Its purpose and how much It helped tllem ro learn.
AS learners become accusromed to 1vt11in_g (as opposed ro nore tal<lng), you have ro
decide whether the wrtdng activities 11'111 be Isolated! and unrelated ro one another, or
linked ro fonn a coherent series of activities d1at gradually build learners· unde�ndlng
of substantive Issues. You also have ro decide h.ow you want learners ro organise and
keep trdtk of their writing - d1fs Is where )ournal.s and ponfoll05 can be useful.
Journal writing
Journals are a S]leclal form of writing-to-learn. Broadly speaklrug, Joumals are
collections of writings that are ke!)( In chronological order. They are normally written
close to the time of the events that they a:re describing, but tilts. ls not essenllal.
Journals can rake many fonns and have many d1fferem purposes, but their usual
function Is to help learners make personal sense of their experiences and connect
what they are sntdylng at the time with their previous learning and with their world
hP.yond sr.hool. Journals also hP.1p IP.amP.rs ro P.xprp_,;_s rhP.lr rhonehrs anrl feP.lln2,s
about their learning processes, and [!1ls can help them to be meracognltlve and co
rake control of their learning.
Journals are an effecdve way of helping learners to consolidate their learning
and to Identify gaps .In their understanding. l11ls leamlng Is enhanced If they have
opportu nltles for sharing the.Ir developing understanding with others. This can be
done In a structured way as follows:
1. Select a specific topic or Issue that yoa1 Intend ro focus on 1111 your next lesson.
For example, an English teacher mlglir be plannlrug a lesson on the difference
between analogies and metaphors.
2. Ask learners ro wnre a brtef account of rJ1elr undersrandlng of this tss;ue (no
more than 200 words) In their leammg Journal (either In class or ar home).
This writing could be guided by a question such as: '\Vilar do you chink Is the
dllference between an analogy and a metaphm?'
3. At die start of the lesson, give !earr.ers five minutes to share their wrldng.
Monitor this sharing and! Identify ewe or three key polnrs tliat you can use ro
establish a illnk between die learners prior understanding: and the Ideas that
you wm explore In tihe lesson.
By using ex,erclses such as this, you enco:urage the leamers to use dielr Jou1!11als as
a record of tthelr develop.Ing understanding. Reviewing dielr j(}umal entries can be
an Important part of srudlents' learning Jot.:rneys.
One of the quesdons that you wlll have to grapple with when engaging learners
In journal wrttlng is: 'How much srmcrure should I glver A suitable answer
might be: 'As much as learners need ro help them lean1, bur not so much that
It sctHes chelr learning·, When learners first srart \tsln,g Journals, they might need
considerable guidance, bur as d1ey start to understand how d1elr writing Is helping
them to learn, they wlll i()robably want to chart d1elr own direction. You wiU then
be able to guide them with re!advely open-ended casks that enable t1iem to develop
their understanding of theodes and co111:eprs by exploring new Ideas that have
Immediate relevance to them. Learners who embrace this form oflearnlng wlll soon
develop personal preferences for Journal keeping and wlll not need much guidance.
One of the great !benefits of Joum.als Is that they provide a pemianent record
of the patterns and themes In learners' experiences. When learners revisit their
Journal enmes and s01ve to ldendfy and Interpret these patterns and rllemes,
they come oo a !better understanding of their role as a learner. Thls helps them ro
become reflective learners, wldi the skllls and disposition ro con.tlnually Inquire
Into their leamlng processes an.d Into the factors that facl1ltate or Inhibit their
leannlng. Through their Joumal entries. they can explore their acl1011s. t:hlnk.lng
and understanding, and questlon their attl'.lldes and values. In short, a Journal can
help learners to examlne what they know. what they feel, what they do and why
they do It.
 Learners· Journals wtll probably contain two different types of witting: de&ertpdve
and. introspective.
i. Their descriptive writing will record things that happened, what they thought
about rhem and what they felt about them.
2. Through lntrospecitive writing learners can analyse .and questlon these
events, thoughts and feelings. It Is this analysis and questioning (reflection)
that wlll help them to make meaningful connections among the conceiJ)ts and
Ideas that they are exploring, and illelp them to understand themselves as
learners. However. I earners might need considerable guidance ro achieve d1ls
level of self-reflectlon.
One of the fhlngs that learners can learn through Journal writing Is that there Is
an Important difference between problem solving and problem. setting (or problem
posing). If you simply present learners wlt.h well-defined problems (say, In a
Physics lesson) then they can try to solve them, and from that experience they
might learn something about problem solving and perhaiJ)s something about the
theory on which the problem was based. However, In the real world, problems are
rarely well defined. 1!11ey are more llkely ro appear as slmatlons cllar are puzzling,
troubling or uncertain In some way. In these slmat1ons, people have to decide
what th:e real problem Is before they try to solve Ir. l n definlng
. die problem. rhey
select the aspects of·d1e stmatlon to which they wdll pay ac:rent1on and they Impose
on It a frame of reference that is based on their values, 'bellefs and expertences.
Journal wrtrlng can help learners ro pract1se these techniques by providing a non­
threatening env1ronment in which tiO explore rllelr Ideas. By reflecting on their
journal entries, rhey w!ll come to understand llow and why they frame problems
In a pamcular way. They will start ro see patterns in the way they llTy to solve
problems. and identify aspects of the![ learning that they need �o understand better
in order to be more effective problem solvers.
All fomis of Jounial wntlng work best (to help lean1ers learn) when the reacil1er
provides clear guidelines and closely monl.rors how learners are using d1eir Journals.
To help learners develop their understanding through Journal wrldng, you could
suggest that d1ey make regular Joumal entries prompted by ques!lons such as:
_.. \Vhat are my Ieanllng goals?
• What thlngs do! tmdersranct well?
A What d1lngs do E find challenging?
If Ieamers are IJ'repared to snare their Journal wrttlng with you, t-helr answers to
such quest1ons wlll provide you with valuable ideas about how to help thern leant

y Acttvtty: Self-evaluatlo:n of writing

Learners will need help with each stage of learning how to learn through
writing.As often as possible. you should read what they are wriling and give
them feedback.You should also encourage leomers 10 discuss their writing
with othefs. Eventually, you want the learners to be able to make their own
evaluations of what they write - judging for themselves whether it really does
show the depth of thei1 understanding, whether the ideas are well organised.
whether the message is clear. and so on. However. it may be unreasonable to
expect your learners lo be able to make these evaluations without guidance
(at least until they 'have had consiclerable praclice).
1. Develop a set of guidelines that will help lea mers to evaluale lheir own
efforts at writing to learn.
2 . ComfJ(lre your guideliAes with those developed by a fellow 1eome1. How
and why are they different?
MOTIVATING LEARNERS TO WRITE
You cannot expect rhat your learners wlll be enthusiastic abour wrltlng-ro-learn If
d1ey are not acoustomed to It, partlcuOarly In subjects such as Math.ematlcs, where
wrttlng is often nor seen by them as a ·normal' part of learning. To motivate learners
ro wrt:e (long enough for them co srarr to see the benefits of It} you might need ro
ny some of the following:
.._ Encourage learners to write about tilings they find Interesting.
.._ Give learners op!)Omt11lt1e-s to wrtte about things chat they rhlnk they understand
well.
• Have learners ,vrtre about challenging things, not Just basic things.
• Encourage different fonns of wrttlng (such as multimedia presentations, biogs
and wlkils).
USING ICT AS A WRITING TOOL
A detailed r1eannent of how ro use computers as part of your wr1tlng-ro-leam
srraregy Is beyond the scope of this book. However, some of che i(lOsslbUltles are
die following:
• Have learners use a word processor as a replacement for pencil and paper.
Bocause this makes It much easier for learners ro edit their rexc. tr encourages
them ro com mtt. their thoughts ro wrlt1ng and to revise their writing.
• Have learners use the Internet as a source of Ideas and ro provide lnfomiatlon
or supporting evidence for their wr1Clng.
• Use a wlkl as a framework for collectlve wrttlng to help learners collabordtlvely
develop their understanding.
• Establish a framework for collective Journal wrttlng. For example, YeoJ1an
( t 995) descri bes an experiment I n which a reacher created an Imaginary cafe
In which learners met to discuss Issues related to their study. lVllen asking and
responding t.o one anotl1er's quest1ons, the learners rr1ed to use the unfamUlar
tennlnology of their subject. as much as possible, wHth the result d1ar d1elr
understanding of this terminology and of the subject. as a whole Improved.
.._ Encourage learners to use appropriate socLal media to wr1te about th:elr learning
expetlences.
• Use _graphics ro pr0\1de the stimulus for leamer wrtting. Ellis and O'Rourke (2008)
d�rlbe :a process by which technology and visual lmageiy can be 111c-0rporatoo 111
,an aud1entlc way ro enhance learner engagement w1t11 the wrttlng process. It &arrs
with. learners analysing an ln1age and using an element of the lmage as ,he stimulus
for their writing. It oliers an Interesting approach co use w1d1 senior learners.
.._ Help learners to create e-portfoUos In whllcll they collect and organise digital
anefacrs {text, Images. audio, video} ro document their learning Joumeys for
possible sharing with other learners or an audience beyond the dassroom.
Abram! et al (2008) discuss how e-portfollos can enhance learner self­
regulatlon. and they outline s:ome of tJ1e practlcal dlfficult1es In using th.em.
However you dedde to use !CT to encourdge or assist learner writing, be aware !'.hat
It w.111 create severdl Issues that you will have to d.eal with. I call d1ese issues:
• ·cur-and-paste fever: a wtlllngness on the part of leamrus to cur and pasre
anyt11lng rhat looks remotely useful, even If they have not read It c arefully;
• ·srelllng blindness·: a false sense of security basoo on absol\tte mist In ·die
spell-checker: and
• ·format fetish': where the message gets lost In tl1e fancy rype and pretty pictures.
REFLECTING ON THE SUCCESS OF YOUR LEARNER WRITING
STRATEGY
As with the other teaching strategies ctescriboo in this book, your evaluation of this
·strategy should focus on borh the product and the process. You must determine
whether Ille lean1ers achtevect Ute leamtng outcomes that you set, but you must
also determine whether any aspeccs of the learners· learning experience c-0uld be
Imp roved the next time you use this strategy. To ,do this, you might ask yourself
que.stlons such as the following:
.._ Did the learners engage with the writing task at more ll1a11 a superficial lev�I?
lf nor.. why?
.._ Which learners were enthusiastic about wrlt1ng-ro-learn. and which learners
were not? \¥hy?
._ \Vhat techniques did you use that provided useful guidance to the learners?
._ Did the learners believe they were \VTlcing about worthwhile Issues?
• \Vhat unexpected responses did you get from learners?
.6. \\/hat particular advantages and llml'latlons of writing-to-learn were evident
during this exercise? How Will {hese t11I11gs shape your rurure use of this strategy?
• Model g-0od writilng prdctlces for your learners, bur look beyond the technlcal
aspeccs of their wrt.dng when providing feedback {paniculairly on journal
en01esJ
._ Be satisfied with learners writing shot:t pieces until llley develop confidence to
write lengthier pieces.
._ Help the learners ro understand rhar die quall'ty of their wntlng Is determined
by how well It helps them to �mdcrstand. not by Its length.
T
..t. Give lea!rners encouraging feedback on their w ltlng.
..t. Encourage learners to revisit t11Ings they have written weeks or months earlier
so rhat they can see how rllelr undersramdlng and their writing ablllry have
developed.
• Enc-0urage learners to write for an audence other than you .
.._ Lead by example - show students how you use different types of writing to
Improve your own understanding. see Briley (2007) for aru example.
• Enoourage senior students ro contr1buce to onllne lean1lng communities. See
Brdvo & Young (201 1) for an example.
A� �cu(l.euts !Jewrne rnure oornfoird!Jle v.lch w1ltl11g, you QIJ, rnuve w tlle JLexc
stage of encouragjng them to explore more sophisticated ways of expressing their
understanding. An Important parr.ofrhts process Is forsructenrs ro see how publlsl1ed
authors use careful word choices to expre!S rhelr Ideas. Some simple exercises that
can asslst even young learners In this proces.s are described by Raslnsk (2011).

y AcHvlly: Do yoo ever write badly?

Good no,.etists. speech wliters. joumo'lists end song wrtters do not always wrtte well
-ot first.Then the{ re.vnte lhe'{ see revision as a cenlral part of the wliting process
Learners should also be encourage<! to write in this wav. Their first draft should
be jus.t that - a draft. Drafts are simply wol1cs in progress: they ore records of
evolving ideas.
1. How can you get this message across fa your learners?
2. How con you help !learners to learn from their own tentative writing efforts?
3. Dewlap an example based on your own writing.
REVIEW AND REFLECT ON YOUR LEARNING
Develop answers to each of these questions and discuss your answers with another
srndent or with an experlenced reacher:
1. In your speclallsr teaching area, what are the advantages of having students
wrt re-to-learn?
2. v,11at specific things can you do to help learners make ef.fectrve nores wl11le
you are reaching?
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of having learners share with you
the things they write In �heir learning Journals?
4. \'/hat advant'dges and dlsadvant'dges are there In having studenrs keep
electronic learning journals?
5. Keep a learning Journal for a four-week period during your reacher education
programme.
a. \'lhar made this a cllalle:nglng rask for you?
b. Ho,v ,viii you use this experience to h.elp your srn.denrs benefit from
keeping learning Journals?
6. If you are a senior P:l1ase reacher educat1on srudent: Prepar,e a lesson plan that
would enable you to use wrttlng as a teaching strdtegy with a Grade 8 class In
your specialist teach.Ing area. \A/hat important choices did you have to make?
7. If you are an lnrern1ectlare Phase reacher education srndenr: Prepare two lesson
plans rhar would enable you ro use writing, as a teaching strategy In t·wo
dllferen t leanllng
• areas with a Grade 4 class. Ho,v will you modvace learners
to engage with these tasks?
8. How can the use of wrtctng as a reaching strategy help you to reach In ways that
are consistent with the principles of Quall(}' 'leaching descrtbed In Chapter 3?
USEFUL WEBSITES
• Structured approaches to help learners develop their wrttlng skills (In tile
conttexr of reachlmg reading in the mlddle years) are described on the Australian
Deparrn1ent of Education, Science and Tullnlng site, http://www.myreact.org/
gulde_readlng.ht:m.
• An onllne roof for helping learners to structure rheHr writing and develop a few
key Ideas Into a meaningful essay Is available at llttp://www.oommarch.com/
electragulde/.
• The \VAC Clearinghouse provides a wide variety of writing-to-learn actJvlttes ar
http://wac.colosrate.edu/lndex.cfm.
• The Purdue Onllne \-Vrttlng Lab, at http://owl.engllsh.purdue.edu/, provld.es free
writing resources. Including many for Grade 7-12 teachers.
• for an example of how Australian Grade 3-4 students used a \11kl to develop
their creative wrt·ling skills. Visit h.ttp://terryrherennlsball.wlklspaces:.com/.
• Have your learners· abillcies ro learn from their wrtltlng Improved over d:1e term
or year? If nor. why nor?
• Do you pracctse what you preach? How often do you show learners examples
of your own efforts at wrndng-to-learn?
Assessment principles

Chapters I ro 14 are designed to help you esrabllsh .a foundatlon. of kno\vlectge

and skills so that you can plaru and deliver Instruction d1at wUJ help learners
achieve specific learning ouroomes that are consistent wid1 the requirements of the
curriculum and Assessment PolicyStatements (CAPS). In rhis chapter, we explore
some of tl1e basic prtnclples of assessment so that you can d.etennlne how well
lean1ers. achJeve d1ese outcomes.
\'Vlrh the excepdon of the final examination at the end ofGrade 12. all assessment.in
South Afr1can schools is internal. The NationalProtocoljbrAssessment. Grades R-f2
and the National Policy PertainIi& to the Programme a1Id Promotion Requiren,ents
qf rhe National Clmicuu1m Statement Grade.s R-12 require teachers ro develop
assessInent tasks, mark ti1e learners· work, detenntne what level of achievement has
been obtained, record! and report their assessment decisions amd detenntne whether or
not part11cular learners have satisfied the requirements for promotion or progression.
for these reacher actlvltles to be of any value at all. they must be earned our In
accordance w1th the basic prtnciples of good assessment practice.
TI1is chapter does not provide a recipe for wrtcing particular rypes of assessment
rasks. Rather, It concenrrates on the fundamental prnnciples of assessment and
describes how they should guide the assessment decisions rllat reachers haNe ·to
make. Some guidance on the types of assessment that are appropriate in each
subject are given In rhe CAPS.
\Vhen you have mastered the Meas iru this chapter you wlll be able to:
• explain fhe meaning .of key concepts In assessmeIu. (such as validity, reltabtlli:y
and fairness):
• explain why It ts tmponanr. ro use assessment procedures that are capable of
producing rellable evidence from which valld inferences can be drawn about
learners" knowledge and undersrdnding;
• explain the purposes of fom1at1ve, summatlve, fonnal and Infom1al assessment;
• debate the advantages and limlratlons of norm-referenced, -cnrerton-referenced
and standards-referenced approaches to assessment: and
• develop and use e!Tecdve systems for r&ordlng and reporting learner
achievement.
WHY DO WE ASSESS LEARNERS?
When you read the National Protocol.for Assess,nenc Grades R-12 and the
National Poliry Pertaining to the Programrne and Pro,r1otion Requirements qf
tile.National Curriculum State1na1cGrades R-12 you might initially think tflat t'he
main reason for :assessing learners Is to satisfy a set of .admlnlstratlve requirements
tl1at can be sumrnarl sed as:
• generating evtdence ofle.an1er perfom1ance so chat It. can be recorded and repo1ted;
• allocadng marks that can be translated Into achievement levels: and
• determining which learners are ready to progress to the next grade.
Closer examination of these documents wlll reveal that asses.sment should also
serve oliher purposes. namely:
• providing meanlngful Indicators ofwhar learners know, und.ersrand and can do
at tl1e tlme of assessment (ll1at Is. derermtnlng how well leamers have achteved
partlcular leamtng outcomes);
• enabllng teachers to evaluate learners· progress and Identify gaps In leamecs·
knowledge and s:ktlls;
• enabling teachers ro prov.Ide feedback ro learners;
• providing a basis for repo rrtng learner achievement. to parents; and
• helping teachers ro Identify ways of Improving thetr teaching.
When used appropriately, assessment ,can also:
• extend learners· understanding;
..a. encourage learners ro put effort Into thetr learning:
• help• reacher.; to diagnose specific learner dlfficultles;
• help teachers to detennine what things need to be revised or re-r.aught; and
• help• teachers to Identify l>arrters to learning.
None of these purposes can be achieved. unless the methods of assessment, the
condldons under which assessment rakes place and the lnterprerarlon of learners'
performance are all approprtare_ To put tr simply, for assessment to serve Its
purpose (s). educators must use approprtare forms of assessment and tlley muse.
mtntmts,e che factors that could lead ro mtstnterpreracton of leamers· responses co
assessment tasks. Only then will die assessment produce reliable and rrustworchy
lnfom1at1on that educators can use In their declslon-makln.g.
SCHOOL-BASED ASSESSMENT

The National Protocol.for Assessment Grades R-12 and the National Policy
Pertaimiig to rile Programme and Promotion Requirements e the National
f
Curriculum Statement Grades R-12 outline the school-based assessment (SBA)
regime that ls to be u sed In all grades and all subjects. The only external assessment
that occurs Is at me end of Grade 12. For SBA, teachers are required to use a
combtnarton of fomiartve and summatlve assessment TI1e balance wlll dttfer from
grade to grade, and ls described In the CAPS for each subject. The requirements are
very prescrlptlve, as shown Im the foll owing example for Mathematics grades 4 - 6.

Minimum r@Qulrements for formal assessment: Intermediate Phase

Mathematics
Number
Minimlll1il requirements per tenn
Fonnsof of tasks Weighting
Assessments
Temt I lemt2 Term3 Term4 peryeor
Tests 1 1 1 3
Examinations 1 1
Assignment 1 1
SBA 751'.
lnVGOtigation 1 1
Projecf 1 1
Total 2 2 2 2 s·
End of
251'.
.
tho VQOI 1
Examination
• "lo.be completed bd'Olr me End of die year Exaaunaaoo
. •,

Figure 15. t: Example q/SBA requireme111s (Deparmumt '?/Basic Educadon,

20!!d·294)
The CAPS require the assessment tasks ro be appropriate to the age and
developmental level of !lie learners. to oover rlie con tent of rlie subject, to ca:ter
for a range of cognitive levels and abilities of learners, and for teachers ro use
approprtate rnblilcs and memoranda for markJng. The detalled requirements vaiy
from subject to subject, but the broad reqU1lrements are for teachers ro:
• gather valid and reliable lnfonnation .about the perfom1ance of the learner on
an ongolng basis:
• use clearly defmecl crt(erta when gathering tthls evidence and making Judgements
about It;
• use a variety of methods. tools, techniques and contexts:
• record the fmdlngs Un a manner that enables each team.er·s progress ro be
tracked: and
• re!)(blt on each learner's progress in a specified format.

The basic Idea behind SBA Is quire simple. Educators are required to make
regular and frequent assessmenrs of learners' progress so that they have more
comprehensive and retlable -0ara on which to base Important decisions such as
whether or nor leaniers progress from one grade ro the nexr. The main fearnres of
SBA are the followlng:
• It reduces t11e Importance of formal examlnatCons, because they now llecome
Just one of many ways In which learners can be assessed .
..t. It Introduces the Idea of assessment for learning In addrnon ro assessment of
learning.
• It encourages educators ro assess learners regularly and ro use die l:nfomiatlon
d1ey gather to Infom1 the.Ir reaching decisions.
• It encourages educators to adapt their teaching practices to suit the needs of
lndtvldual learners.
• It places value on educators' Informal assessment of learners' progress.
• It encourages educators ro use a wJde variety of assessment tasks, Including
tasks that cannot be used under examlnatlon conditions.
• It emphasises that assessment should bea transparent process In whfch learners
understand when and why rlley are b.elng assessed.
• It creates a need for educators to keep derailed .and a<X:urare records of learne-rs·
progress.
• It encourages learners to assess their own work.
The main differences between good assessmem pracdces and poor assessment
practlces can be described In terms of three very Important conceprs, reliability,
validity and fairness. These pI111clples should be the foundation of au .approaches
to assessment Unfo rrunarely, they receive Uttle mention l:n the National Proracof
/or11ssess111e11tGracte.s R-12 and the NationalPolicyPen«i11i11gtQ tile Programme
andPromotion Require,nents q/tile National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12.
However, d1ey are menliloned In some of the CAPS. usually with statements such
as ·moderation refers ro the process that ensures that the assessment tasks are
fair. val!d and rellable' (Depamuenr of Basic Educarton, 20·1 1 d ,297). Beatuse
t11ese principles are so lmpo11anr, they should be used to guide tlhe development
of all assessment tasks, me Judgements that are made about all de:monstradons of
leanllng, and all reporting of learners' achlevemenrs. These principles and several
odier Important assessment concepts are <lescrlbed In the f:ollowlng seclions.
RELIABIUlY
In a strict m.easuren1ent sense, rellablllty refers ro ·the degree to which tesi scores
are free from errors of measurement' (American Ectucadonal Research Assoclatl.on.
American Psychological Association & National CouncU on �1easurement In
Education, '1985,8). There are several statlsllcal procedures that can be used to
estimate the reliability of a test, l>ut before considering them, we w"Jll reflect on tthe
everyday meaning of t11e concept of reUablllt:y.
someof!l1e synonyms for reliability are dependablllcy, conslsrency, predlcrablllty.
nustworrhlness. sral>lllty and certainty. I can say, for ex.ample. that my car ls rellalble
because I can depend on It behaving In a consistent way - It always starts when I
tun1 the key and slows down. when I apply the brakes. l'rom this general notion of
reliability, \1'e ger the Idea that 'if a rest ls measuring something consistently, it ls
considered reliable' (CUnnlngham, 1998,33). Obviously, v11e want our assessment
procedures to be reliable, because Inconsistent results (due to various sources of
error In the way we ti)' to measure learners' achievements) have lnttle meaning or
value. enreliable results do nor provide a good basis for tiylng to achieve any of tthe
purpose; of assessment llsrect eariler In th:s chapter. If the way you assess learners
Is unreliable, you wllJ not know whether learners have achteved the outcomes, you
will nor be able to provide useful feedback ro learners and! you w!ll not be able to
use the results to Improve your reaching.
Uf something l's causing an assessment (Ogive unreliable results, some (or all) of
the following might occur,
"' A teamer might respond dtfferendy ro the assessment o n t\l'O occasions. even If
the learner's knowledge or uncters:candlng ihas not changed In the tlme between
the assessments.
..e. 1\vo learners with equivalent knowl�dge and undersrandlng mlghr perform
differently on rhe assessment task.
..e. 1\vo m arkers might make different Judgements about the same lean1er's
perfom1ance on the asses:smenr.
"' Learners ml_gllt. res[X)nd dUTerendy ro parts of the assessment chat were
supposed ro measure che san1e leamtng outcome.
If any cf these tlllngs occur, the assessment results wlll nor provide lnfom1atlon
from whtch we can draw valid conclusions about learners· understanding or skills -
because we wlll not know whlch result or which lnterpreradon ro believe.
TI1ere are several useful sratlsrtcal proce,jures available for checking the reliability
of rests cassessmentrasks In which there are numerous quesrtons). These procedures
are particularly suited to rests chat use relatlvely large numbers of objective tesc
Items (such as muldple-cholce quescions). All the statistical methods of estimating
rellablllty are based on t11e ldlea that, when learners rake a rest., rhetr perfom1ance
will always be .influenced by random factors rhac are beyond rhelr control and

y Activity: From policy to pracnce

What are the practical difficulties of implementing the government policy on
SBA?
 oe
beyond the 1:oncrol of the educator. These factors will things such as flucu1actons
In the nnood of the foamer or tempordry fatigue. As a result, learners· rest scores
will be different from the true score they would ger If none of these extraneous
factors 1.nlluenced their rest perfonnance. 111e difference between a leamer·s actual
score and hl.s/her rheoretlcal real score (the score that would result If none ofth.ese
random factors influenced perfonnance) ls called an ·error' score. The error may be
elth.er positive or negative; learners may obtain a score that ls higher or lower than
their theoretlcal real score.
TI1e presence of ·errors· produces vartaillce In learners· rest scores - the greater
the error, the greater t11e vartanc:e. The four wmmon approac:he.s to determining
rest reliability are all based on the Idea that the amount of valiance In rest scores
that can be attrlibuted to real dlfferences .among individuals can oe estimated by
correlad.ng sets of test scores. This provides the basis for cakula ting reliability oo­
efficlents. The four met11octs ofestlmartng relttablllry differ In rem1s ofwhar scores
are coffelared; hence, d1ey produce dlffer:ent estimates of rellabillty for the same
test. The four common methods of calculating retilabtnlty co-efliclenrs are usually
referred to as,
I. the repeated measures method;
2. the equivalent fom1s mernoct;
3. the split-halves method; and
4. the lnten1al consistency method.
At a very baislc level, we can thln.k of all these methods as being based on the Idea
that, lf you measure learners' understanding of the same thing on two occasions
and calculate a correlatlon co-efficient for the two sets of scores. a high positive
correlation s.uggesrs ·that the methods ofrueasuremenc are reliable.
These methods of measur1ng rel!ablllty are not very practical. for most educators,
w I will nor go Into detail about them. However, the Important thing for educators
ro reallse is that. no marrer how they resr learners. t11ere wlll always be some
measurement errors, and practical steps need ro be taken ro minimise these errors
w d1at edtUcarors can have some confidence that the resting Is producing useful
Information. The main points ro consfder when you arce trying ro develop a reliable
assessment task are the following:
"' The number of items. 'Jests with a very small number of questions rend ro
be unreliable, partlallarly when t11e questions are short (for example rnultlple­
cholce questllons) and when d1ey measure only a small numlJoer of aspects of
-rl1e consmIct being rested.. As the number of quest1ons In a rest Is Increased, t11e
-cest provides a better sample of each !earner's knowledge and undersrandlng.
It does chis by, firstly, allowing a greater range of our.comes ro be resred and.
secondly, by allowing greater depth of restlng of each oufcome. Longer rests
.also reduce the .Influence of chance !factors, such as learners making simple
mistakes. Of course. Ifthe test ts too long, this wlll lnrroctuce other factors rihat
reduce rellalJolllty (such as teamer fatigue).
"' The difficulty of the items. If the questions are roo difficult, learners may have
limited opportunities to demonstrate what they have learned. They nn.ay also
be discouraged and not attempt certaln questions. Of course, lf the quesdons
are too easy, they will give only limited In fonnatlon ab our learners· knowledge
and understandlng. In general, It Is a good Idea to have some questions 1'.hat
are relatively ea,sy (to encourage learners), some that are quire difficult (ro
challenge learners) and a range of others In-between. Tests should be srrucrurect
so that the most difficult questions come towards t,he end of the test (otherwise
some learners wut give u p after attem.ptlng Just a few questions).
• Test it,em discrimination. If you look at learners· results o n a11Jy question on a
test, you should find d1at learners who ha,ve a high level of understanding are
answering rhe question correctly and learners wllh a low level ofunderstandfing
are answering the question Incorrectly. In orher words, lihe question Is
discriminating (showing a difference) between learners with different levels of
understanding. Questions thar do not dlscrtmlnate very well between learners
who have different levels. of umdersrandlng rend to reduce rest rrellablllty.
• The opportunit;y for guessing. The more opportunities tlhere are for learners
ro guess the answers to questions, the less retlable the test results. (llue/false
questions are very unrellable for this reason.)
• The wording of the questions and Instructions. lfleamers do notlmdersrand
exacrly what !hey are require<! ro do (perhaps because of confusing wording of
rhe question, or missing i nfom1at1on) the rest results 11111 be unrella'.ble.
• The test environment. If the test environment hinders learners· ability ro
display their learning (for example, by being t:oo noisy) the test results wlll be
unreliable.
• The interpretation of the learners' answers. Judgements abour learnnng
can be e:tther objectlve or sub)ecttve, depending on the extent ro which learners·
demonstrations of !earning need to be Interpreted by the marker. For example,
mult1ple-cholce questions require lltde tnrerpretatlon; essays require high levels
of Interpretation. The more subjective the marking, the gr.eater scope there Is
for vartatlons In lnterpreratlon ofleamers· responses, hence rhe less rellable the
test_
• The clarity and! col!llple.teness of marking guides. Wltllout comprehensive
marking guides, It ls dlfliculr to get consist.ency In marking, even when there Is
only one marker. Inconsistencies 1n marking reduce rest reUablilty.
Reliability alone Is nor suflidenr., as a rest could consistently measure someth:lng
char Is unlmporr.anr or unrelated ro the learning outcomes. For example, learners'
responses to muldple-cholce quesdons can be Influenced 1•ezy sr10ngly by d1elr
reading ablllry, so a poor reader might consistently score poorly even t11ough he/she
had. a reasonable understandlng of th:e. su b)ect matrer being rested. For a particular
assessment rask. ro provide useful lnfonnatlon, Ir must be reliable. bur It must also
allow defensible Judgements co be made about learners· undersrdndlng. Hence the
need for an .addltlonal criterion for judging the quality of our assessment tasks and
pract1ces - the crlrerton known as validity. T11ls criterion Is discussed In the next
section.

y Acllvlly: Rellablllty

What do the Naffonal Protocol tor Assessment Grades R- 12 and the CAPS for
your teaching subject have to say about the issue of reliability of assessment?

VALIDITY
Val!{!lty ts often defined as the exrent ro which ·a rest measures what Ir Is meanr
ro measure· (HIii, 1981,22). Or, as Brady and Kennedy (2001:55) put It, 'when
assessment casks measure what educators wanr them to measure. they are said
ro be valid tasks·. There ls some appeal In. the simplicity of these defi.nltlons.
because they can serve as a useful starting point for dJscusslons abou1 test Items
or assessment tasks, particularly In outcomes-based education, where the educator
can ask; ·1s chis Item resting the outcome I want co tesr1· However. tltis simple
view of validity as being an inherent property of an item or test can be
misleading. The detailed rcruons for this claim arc explained In Killen (2003b)
and. Killen (2005); Just a br1ef explanation will be given here.
\oVhen an educator assesses learners, rh:e assessment. process produces data (the
learners· answers to questions). These data have to be Interpreted by the educaror
so tliat he/she can infer something about ,each learner's knowledge. understanding
or skills.. For example. If the educator bemeves diat a learner :has given a correct
answer to a question. the: educator waJ probably Infer (that Is, draw the conclusion)
that the learner has understood whatever rhe question was resting. If the educa,or
draws tfle correct comcluslon (thait Is, If th.e learner really dJd understand whatever
d1e question wa:s resting), ,ve can sa_y that the educator drew a v.atid inference
from the evtdence.
If the whole assessment process (from writing t.he questions co reporting learners·
achievement) enables educarors ·ro draw correct and Justifiable conclusions about
learners· knowledge, und.erstandlng and skU!s, then we can say that the assessment
process has validity. For this to occur, the fol10111ng things must happen:
• The conttent of the rest or assessment rasK musr be relevant to the outcomes
diar.are being tesred. For example, If you ask learners questions aboutvolcanoes.
you can11ot use their ans1vers ro draw valid Inferences about their knowledge of
rivers. \\/hen the rest ls nor In the learner's first language. It can easily become
a resr of language slctlls rather th. an a test of con rent ik.nowledge. 1fhls Idea ls
conslste11t 1vlth the slmp!e definition of validity given at the beginning of tlils
section and ts usually referred ro a s face validity (the ldea diat die assessment
seems ro measure what It Is supposed to measure) .
.,.. The con(ent of the rest must be sufficlendy rep:resentative of the content that
learners are expected ro understand. For example, If learners are expecred ro
understand ten t hings and you test ody two of tl1ose dilngs, then you cannot
draw valid Inferences about learners· und.erstandlng of the odier etght things.
/\sscssrr.cnro that address an appropriate range of conrent can be ccscrtbcd as
having content validity.
• The results of any assessment should mot be c:onsl<leroo In lscianon. The
assessor should compare each learner's results 1vlth other assessment tasks
(attempted ar about the same t1n1e) tihat were measuring similar ll1lngs. This
gives an lndlcatlon of the concurrent validity of the test.
• \Vhen !lie rest ls supposed ro Ile measuring a consm1cr such as problem-solving
abll.lty, Ir Is lmporrant ro give leaniers severdl different oppoltllnltle5 to display
their unders:rdndlng. Comparing learners· results on these different tests gives
an Indication or the convergent validity of the task.
• Most Importantly, the educator must make correct judgements abcut learners'
ans11•ers. For example, when marking an essay. die educaror must read It
carefully and ny ro undersramd exactly what. die learner Is saying, rather than
Just skimming through the essay looking for key words.
TI1e practice of thlnklng .about dJITere:nt aspects ofvalldlty as separate entitles was
common until the mld-! 980s and has persisted In many modem texts. For example,
Brady and Kennedy {2001) dlsdngulsh between 6ve separate aspects of valldlcy
{content valldlty, construct validity, oonsequentlal validity, concurrent valldlcy and
prec!lctlve valldlty). The problem here Is not chat valldlty Is being considered as
mullldlmenslonal, but that the basic Idea might be lost In the detail. It ls more
productive t:o think of valldlty as a snngle concept, but nott a simplistic one. These
points wUI be Illustrated by way of an example.
Consider a slruatlon In which a high school Mathematics educaror develops a rest
to measure learners' ablllly to solve simple algebraic equations (6ndlng the value of
x In equations such as 3x + .5 � 20 or !- 3 � 1). From rhe perspecllve provided
by Brady and Kennedy {2001), rihe resrcoulct have:
A content validity: th.e questions could be linked to the cunrtculum content;
A construct validity: questions could be designed to Indicate learners· conceptual
understanding of basic algebra:
A concurr,ent validity: learners' results on the test could be similar to their results
on other algebra assessment tasks completed at about the same ·nme: and
• _predictive vali<lity: past experience might Indicate rhac learners· perfonnance
on this test would be lndlcatlve of the results they mlght olnaln on later algebra
'tests.
However, equations such asf- 3 = ½ requlre leam.ers to be ab'le to work. with
fractions: so learners who understand the algebrdlc processes bur who cannot
operate with fractlons wlll score poorly on such questions. So, no matter how
well rite test assesses the algebraic knowledge of some learners nn d1e class, the
measures of va!Jdlty described above may be l11approprtare ways of consldertng the
results of rile learners who do nor perfonn well on me test. It matters llttle that die
test Is aligned \1�t11 the curriculum content, since some leamers may be Incapable
of demo nscracing their understanding of that. content because they do not have the
necessaiy arithmetic ability t o deal wltl1 fractions. It Is highly llkely that learners·
results on this rest will li>e similar ro their results on other tests t'hat rely on the
same pdor knowledge. The apparent concurrent valldlty and predictive validity
w!U nor be due ro the learneifS' knowledge of algebra. but ro tthe learners· lack of
understanding of fractions.
The above analys.ls does not mean that the test will be of no value, but It does
hlghllght an ex:rremely Important Issue. No matter how we cry to distinguish
between different types of validity {construct valldlty, conrent validity, and so on).
it is simply inappropriate to say that a test item or assessment task. is
valid i.n some absolute sense. Rather, we should tl1Jnk of valldlty In terms of the
de6nltlon provided by rite American Educational Research Assocladorn, American
Psychological Association and the Nallonal council on Measurement In Education
(1985:94), namely that validity Is a unitary concept that refers to the ·degree to
which a cel1t'.aln Inference from a test ls approprlate and meaningful'_ The 1999
version of rJ1ese standards puts It this way: '[V]alldlty refe:rs ro tile degree to
which evidence and theory support the lnrer prerattons of rest scores· {American
Educational Research Association, Amerlcan Psychological Association & National
Council on Measuremenr In Education, 1999:9).
 From. this. perspective, assessment tasks themselves can never be valid or Invalid:
It ls the assessment-based inferences we make that are valid or Invalid. Or, as
Wlllam (2000: 108) purs It: 'Mallctlry Is not a property of a test .at all, bu-ta property
of t11e conduslons that we draw on the basis of the test results'. This dlts.tlnctlon ls
Important, beca\ilSe It addresses one of die fundamental challeng.es of education - the
challenge of developing assessment Instruments that allow educators to draw valld
Inferences a.bout rhe exrenr ro which lean1ers have achieved cun1culum 0utcomes.
It Is also extrem.e ly Important from the perspecttve of the Quallly Teacihlng Model
described In Chapter 3 - we have to be able ro drdw valld Inferences about leamlng
In order to derem1Jne whether learners are achieving the deep understanding that
we warut them ro achieve.
In the example above., the Inference that learners who score high marks on the
test have a good understanding ofbastc algebra may be valid; however, the In Ference
d1at learners who score low marks on the rest have a poor knowledge of algebra
may be Jnvalld because the particular rest Items Just happen ro Involve arithmetic
operations that they cannot perfonn. . AS Messick (1989:42) points out, all that
can be claimed about low scorers Is that they did not perfonn the task successfully
and 'there Is no basis 111 test performance per se for lnterpretlng low scores as
refleccive of Incompetence'. Before such an Inference can be made, It ls necessary co
dlscount other plaustible explanations for t'.he low scores. The factors t11ac can lead to
Irrelevant variance In rest perfomnance might Include anxlery, fatigue, Inattention.
low motivation. Umlred language proficiency or (as ln the above example) lack of
specific prior knowledge that Is not Intentionally oelng rested.
The message here Is s1mple, but It Is frequently overlooked: you cannot valldare
a rest; you can only validate the inferences that are drawn from learners· results
on die test. Assessment tasks simply give teachers data (such. as test scores). It ls
t11e lmerpretarlon of that lnfonnatlon that may or may nor be valid.
One of the major coI1sequences of consldertng valldlly to be a function of the
Inferences drawn by the ectm:aror, rather tharu being a property of rhe rest Items. Is
that It places the responsibility for valldlty squarely with the educator who makes
the Inferences. No longer can an educator claim to be using a valld assessment task
simply because It ls dearly l!nke<il to the currtculum content, because someone else
has used rile rest and decided that It Is valid, or because lt gives results slmUar to
d1ose obtained from other assessment tasks. Instead, educ.arors must question the
valldlty of the Inferences they are making as a result of having used: the assessment
task. This Is a change In focUIS from the question • Is my rest valid?" to the question
'Am I making Jusrlftable Inferences and decisions on the basis of the assessment
evldenc,e I ll!ave gathered?' TI1e cilallenge Is nor to develop valid assessment tasks.
bur ro develop assessment tasks that will gene·rare evlde.noe from whlc:h valld
Inferences can be drawn about the achievements of all lean1ers.
To draw valid lnterences about learners· aollltles ttom Ille results of assessment
tasks, teachers must:
"' take lnro account the characterlstl.cs of rhe leao1ers (for example their language
proficiency);
.4 Interpret the lean1ers· responses appropriately; a:nd
"' not extrapolate from rhe assessment results to draw Inferences about leamlng
rhar has not been rested.
Toe CAIPS require reache.rs ro make Judgements about learners· achJevements and
to convert those Judgements to marks. Specif i ed rdnges of marks are then converted
ro levels of competence: fr o m 'Nor achieved' (0-29 marks) co ·outsrand1ng
ach!evemenf (80-100 marks). If a reacher draws Incorrect Inferences about a
lean1er·s knowledge or understanding, rhen Inappropriate marks wlll be given
to t11ar learner. Thls could result In vhe learner belng Jnapproprlarely classified as
having achJeved (or not achieved) a .certain level of competence. This could have
very ser1ous consequences for rhe lean1er, because learners who do not meet the
mandated levels of achievement : In sufficient subjects do n:ot quallfy for promotion
ro t11e next grade.
To avoid this Injustice, teachers have oo ensure that they make valld Inferences
about lean1ers' achievem enrs. and that !lie marks they allocate on every assessment
rdsk rellecr. the levels of competence described in the seven-point ranng srales In
the CAPS. This ls n.ot p,osslille unless the teacher can analyse each assessment
task and describe (In words rather t11an numbers) the difference b-etween
low-quallry and high-quallty achievement of that task. In fact, the reacher needs
to be able to descr1be the difference bel\veen non-achievement, elen1e11tary
achievement., moderate achievement, adequate achievement, sub<stantlal
achievement., merltorlous achievement and outstanding achCevement on every
assessment task. H!avlng done that, the teacher then needs ro be able to Interpret.
lean1ers' answers (or Judge the products they produce) and make valid Inferences
about how each learner's perfomuance translates co a description of competence.
Defin.lng the level or standard of a.:hlevement of a non-trivial lean1Jng outcome
ls a complex process that can be approached In several different ways .. One useful
approac h ls to apply TheTdxo1101ny forLean1lng,Teachttng and Assessing (Anderson
& Krathwohl, 2001) rJ1at was descrtbed In Chapter 4. This taxonmny can help
educaro:rs ro clartfy outcomes and ro sln1pllfy the process of aligning outcomes,
teaching strategies and assessment. It emphasises, for example. that lean11ing that
requires analysis of facrual knowledge must be ass,essed quire differently from
lean1lng that requires appl!callon ofprocedurd! knowl edge. Aligning the assessment
procedures \Vlth the required learning Is essential Ifvalid Inferences are (O be drawn
about learners' responses. However, this Is not sufficient; It Is al:so necessary co
consider the possible levels of achievement of the outcome - the different levels
of oomperence mentioned above. The standards-referenced assessment fran1ework
descr1bed la.rer l n this chapter and the SOLO taxonomy (Biggs & Collls, I 982)
described by Klllen and Hattlngh (2004} are botl1 useful for this purpose. Either
mer.hod wllJ provide a detalled description of multiple levels of achievement of the
same learning outcome, thus helping to define the focus for assessment tasks and
the basis for the inferences we make .about learning.
Befo�e we can draw approprtate Inferences about learning from assessmenc
casks that are d.eslgned ro elicit a range of responses from learners, ,ve have to
clarify what It means to learn and understand the things we are trying ro assess.
Put simply, you cannot assess what you cannot define. This presents a pan:lcular
challenge lf whatt we want learners ro learn Is complex or a&stract It Is, for example,
much more difficult ro define wllat we mean by ·understanding die prtncnples of
-currlailum design· than It Is to define what we mean by 'be!ng able ro perfom1
simple arlrhmetlc operadons'. \Vhen we attempt to define whar we want lean1ers to
lean1, we may decide d1at understanding ts the capacity to use explanarozy concepts
creatlveUy, the capacity to think logically, the capacity to tackle new problems or
the <lllillty co re-. lnrerprec objective l<nowlectge, to mention Just a rew posslllllltles.
Quite dearly, different educators' beliefs about what It means ·ro ·undersrand' will
.Influence the way they try ro help learners co understand, how they attempt to
assess learners' uncilersrandlng, and what Inferences they draw from learners·
atrempts ro demonstrate ll1elr undersrandlng.
Jusc. as there cannot !Joe a ·yes/no· cterem1Inat1on about wl1ether a learner has
achieved an ouocome that ls nor rrtvlal, there can.not be a 'yes/no' dettermlnatfon
of whether an Inference drawn from assessment-generated evidence ls valld ln
some absolute sense. Ratther, we need to consider the factors rllat wlll enhance the
llkelllhood that valid Inferences wUI be draivn, and try to minimise those factors that
are likely ro dlmlinlsh the validity of our In rerences. This process should involve the
followlrug:
1. Start wtrh a conslderdtlon of the approprtareness of the learning outcomes.
2. TI1ls should be followed by a consideration of the exrent to which rihe learning
op!)Ortunltles made It possible for le.a:mers ro achieve these outcomes to hl_gh
levels of proficiency.
3. Next. the a�me1u tasks sho:ulct Ille evaluated tn tem1s of their ouroome
relevarnce and coverage and rhenr porenlllal to provtde useful evld.ence abour
the consm1crs that they are designed to measure,
4. Finally, the evidence produced fron1 these rasks should be lnrerprered In
defensible ways.
Ir ls only when all the above elements are ln place and aligned that the Inferences
drawn about learners· achievements have the pot,entlal ro be valid.
'I'he Important challenge for educators Is not to construct reliable and valld
rest !rems per se. but ro construct rest Items. administer r.ests, mark the tests and
lnte rprec resulrs In ways that wlll allow coruslsrenr. valid Inferences to l)e made
about learnlng, If tills challenge ls nor addressed, educators wm be Lgnoling the
single mosr lmporramt purpose of assess1111ent - helping them ro make appropriate
lnstructlonal decisions.
FAIRNESS. EQUALITY AND !EQUITY
Faln1ess In asse.5Sment should be considered from at least three perspectives, We
should constder the falrness of:
1. what we ask leamers to do ro den1onsrrate their leamEng;
2. our Judgements about the quality of I earners· perfonnance: and
3. the educational decisions we make as a result of these Judgements.

y Actlvlty:Volldlty
What do lhe National Protocol tor Asses-s-me11t Grades R-12 and the CM'S tor
your leaching subject have to say about the issue of validi1Y of assessment?
Therefore. the approach and methods used ro assure fairness wiU depend very
much on what Lam ( 1995: I J refers to as 'two antlthetlcal vfews of falme:ss, namely
equ.allty and equity'.
If our attempts ro achieve fairness In assessment focus on equality. then we will
be concerned primarily with assessing all learners In die same 'standardised' way­
using the same asses:sment tasks and methods. admlnlsrerlng the tasks in rhe same
way and In the same rime, marklng lru a conslsrenr way and tnrerprecing the results
consistently. There ls mertc In this approach. tiJut there are also pltfalls. The maJor
problem Is that some or tthese standardised procedures may be biased In tavour or
some learners and biased against other groups of learners. For example, If the rests
are multlple-cholce questions, they can unlntendonalJy favour die learners wiho
happen to be ·rest wise· {able to make educated guesses about the correct answer
basro on the structure of the questloruJ, O,her factors such as language proficiency
and llfe expertences can also result In bias, because they Inadvertently give some
learners an 111nfalr advantage.
\A/hen the assessment tasks are perfonnance assessments, which require
educaro:rs ro make Judgements about learner knowledge and skllls based on
t
observa ion of learner behaviours or lnspectlon of the products they produce, there
are nun1erous sources of potential bias:
A Performance assessments require learners ro use both ltngulstlc and conrenr­
related skills. The differences in perfom1amce of native speakers of rile language
of assessment will be lnl!luenced primarily by their knowledge of the content,
their famlllar1ty with the type of test and their modvacion to complete the
assessment task (Linn, Baker & Dunbar, 1 991 ). Learners whose first language
Is not the language of lnstmctlon wlll often be at a dlsadvanr.age because of
their poor language skills.
A In addltilon, learners may differ widely In t.lielr ability handle complex
(O
problems and tasks t.hat demand higher-order thinking skills (Baker & O'Neil,
l 996).
• Learners· meracognlave skills may equip them very differently for conducClng
self-eval.uadon, monitoring thinking, and preparing and presen11ng work with
resp,ect ro evaluaitlon criteria.
A The learners' culrural backgrounds may Influence the way they approach
problem solving (Hambleton & Murphy, 1992.).
• The learners· socJal skllls, personality and communtcatlon skills may Influence
how they present, discuss, argue, debate and verbalise their thoughts (Lam,
199.5).
The abovementloned sourcesofblas wUI be com pounded If there ls any Incompatibility
In language and culture between assessors and learners (Lam, t 995).
If our attempts to achieve fairness In assessment focus on equity, then we will
be concerned primarlily with tailoring assessment to the needs of Individual learners.
We wlll rry ro allow for differences In learners' backgrounds (ethnicity, gender,
cultural experience, language proficiency, cognitive scyle, tnreresr.s, special ablllrtes,
and so on) so char any ,:wo .lndtvlduals of eq1tal ablllty who rake a rest will have
the same probablllty of success regardless o f their personal char:acrerlstlcs. This
wlll lead us to using dlfferen t approaches to assessment for different learners (for
example, having some learners complete a project while others wrtre a rest). It may
also mean that we give learners some choice about the content of their assessment
tasks. 'When learners have dlfficulli'les (such as limited language proficiency).
d1ls wU! lead to using different administrative arrangements for assessment tasks
(peirhal)'s allowlng some learners. longer to complete a rest). Flnatly, It may mean
that we have to be more Hexilble In the way we Judge the quality of learners· work,
perhaps Ignoring the quallty of their wrttren exprffiSlon wl1en t11e Intention Is ro rest
understanding rather than language skllls.
Lam (1995:2) Justifies thlls a!Pproach to falmess on tihe basis that ·assessing
smdents using metltods and admlnlstrncton procedures most approprtate ro them·
minimises bias that could occur l>ecause of ·construct-Irrelevant factors that
can lnlllblt. smdent ·pe rformance·. Lam advocates procedures such as usiJng oral
(rather than written) tests for learners with poor language skills. asking quesdons
In tihe learner's nadve language and, If necessary, adjusting scoring and grddlng
procedures Individually, !based on learner background and prtor achievement.
1111s approach to falmess Is more easily achle1red with perfonnance assessment
than with tradltlonal paper-and-pencil tests. Appropriate [Performance assess1111ent
can provide learners with rtch, relevant and engaging tasks that provide room for
learner choice and whlcl.1 can be varied r.o suit tile expertence. skills and Interests
of Individual learners. Bue this lndlvldua!tsation comes at a prtce - It Is extremely
dlffi.cult to develop several altemar.lve assessment tasks that are funct1011ally
equivalent (that test t11e same outcomes ar the same level). Procedures for equating
scores from disparate assessments are also problematic (catterall, Mehrens, Ryan,
Flores & Rul>ln, 1998).
Designing assessments ro enhance equity requires consclendous red1lnklng -
not just of what we assess and how we do It. bur also of how different lndJvtduals
and gro11ps are affected by t11e assessment procedures we use. The challenge here
ls ro devlse assessment ·tasks wtth sufficient Oexiblllty to gJve learners a sense of
accomplJshmenr, ro challenge die upper reaches of every leamer"s understanding and
to provide a window Into each learner's thlnlclng. To do this. you may have to permit
learners muldple entry and exit points IJ1J assessment msks, and allow learners to
respond In ways that reflect different levels of knowledge or sophistication. However,
there are no guaranttees that such assessments w11f be falrer to every learner, tthat
every leamer wrn perfom1 better on these assessments, or that differences between
rnlrural, Ungulst!c and socloeconomlc grou!Ps will disappear.
Equlry lmplles that every learner must have an opportunliry ro learn the
Important knowledge and skUls tihat are assessed, and learners cannot be assessed
falr!y on content that they have not had an oppornmlty ro learn. Assessments ,can
contrtbure to learners· opporrunltles to learn Important things only lf rhey are based
on standards that reflect high exl)'ectadons for all learners: there can be no equity
In assessment as long as excellence ls not demanded of all. If we want excellence.
die level of expectation must be set high enough so that, with effort and good
Instruction, every learner will learn Important knowledge and skills.
l'rom die :above discussion, It can be seen d1at d1ere ls no simple way of assuring
that assessment tasks, and the Inferences drawn rrom learners' perfom1ance
on those tasks. are fair. Achlevlng a balance between equallty and equity, and
between rellabllltty and valldlty, wUI never be slmple. However, '[l]f we are ro draw
reasonably good conclusions about w·hat our learners have learned, It ls Imperative
that we make our assessmen rs - and our uses of the results - as fair as possible
for as many learners as possible' (Suskle, 2000:1). Portunately, there ls a number
of reasonably straightforward (but. In some cases. il1me-consumlng) things rhatcan
be done In an attempt to achJeve falr111ess: In learner assessment They lncl111de die
followln_g procedures:
A. Start your planning, teachlng and assessment with a cl.ear set of outcomes.
.i.. Align (match) assessment tasks with the outcomes that you are trying to assess.
• Make your assessment process clear and rransparent. Learners must know why
they are being assessed, what outcomes they are suppo.sect ro ibe demonsrratl ng
.and how their efforts w!U be Judged. In parncular. learners must understand
the assessment criteria that you will use - these criteria must therefore be clear
and unambiguous. Learners must belleve rhat these criteria for success are
.attainable; otl1erwlse they will nor put any effort Into rhe asses.5menr task.
.A. Give all learners equal opporumttles ro demonsrrare how well they have
achieved the outcomes.
A. Develop detailed marking guides or rubrics so that you are clear about what
you are assessing, and gI,,e them to the learners at the time you give them che
assessment task. Give learners an opportunlty to clarify anything they do not
understand, so that tihey will then know exactly what you expect of them and
how you will dlscingulsh berween hlgh-quallty work and Iow-quallty work. For
example, If you expect learners to write c reat[lvely, develop logical arguments
or vlew .an Issue from several per.spectlves. don·t assume t'.hil!t they know that
you have diese expectatlons. Tell the learners what you expect them to <lo and
describe how you wrnl Judge their work.
A Do not use any fonn of assessment that will unduly !benefit or disadvantage
any group of learners. The learners· ethnlc lry, gender, age, dls:ablllty, and so on
must be consldere<I.
A. Ellmlnatre all obvious. sources of bias (for example Inappropriate language and
gender-biased or ethnlclty-blased content) from your assessment tasks.
• Base your assessment Judgements on as many dtfferenc measures and as many
different kln.ds of measures as posslb]e. No assessment method Is perfect, and
you need ro recogntse che llmtratlons of whatever measures you use, such. as
'the limited capacity of multiple-choice questions ro provide reliable evidence
of le.amers· ability to use higher-order thinking processes. You also need ro
recogntse that d1ere wIII be some errors, no marrer what .assessment. method
you use. To be fair to learners, you have to tty to mlnlmlse t'.hese errors and
llmltatlons
.._ Teach your learners how ro attempt different types of assessment tasks. Do not
assume tthat ·they will know how to write high-quality essays, answer m111ltlpfo­
,cholce qmesl1ons effectively, prepare a porcfollo or complete a laboratory report
A Consider how learners will react ro each assessment task. Jus.t because you think
It Is a wonderful task. does not mean tthat It will engage lean1.ers sufficiently to
give you an accurate ptcrure of their learnIng. If an assessment task Is roo simple
or boring, learners wlll probably nor be enchuslasttc about It :and will nor engage
wlthi It sufficiently ro demonstrate the limits of rhelr learning. If an assessment
msk appears to be too difficult, sonne learners w1ll not attempt Ir at all .
.., Open your assessment tasks to scruciny by your peers. Before examlinatlon
papers or major assessmem casks are finalised, t.hey should be checked !by
.an educator who was not Involved In developIng rhem. This ()erso:n can offer
,commen ts abol!lt rhe allgnment between the questions and the our.comes. the
level of the quescions., and the time lt Is llkely w rake learners to answer diem.
.._ Marl< die learners' work without nodn_g which leamer's work you are marking.
This. will minimise the tendency for you to give excessively high marks to
learners who usually perforn1 well or excessively low marks to learners who
usually perfonn poorly.
• Esrabllsh simple appeal mechantsms so that learners can readily seek clarification
of how their worik was assessed and, If necessary, request that .It be remarked.
• Do not use nonn-referenclng {see later In this chapter). ASs:essnnent tasks .
marking and reporting should be designed to evaluate and repo:t the learning
of lndlvldu,J learners.; they should not be designed. to compare learners.
• Always evaluate your assessment tasks, taking Into account boti1 the learners·
results and their reactlons to the task. ny ro fi:nd our why :learners did poorly/
well on the task.
FORMAL AND INFORMAL ASSESSMENT
Formal assessment occurs when reach.ers give learners substantial assessment
tasks and make oflic!al records of the results. These results fom1 part of the evidence
used ro decide ll!hether or not learners have mer die requirements for progression
or promotion. Tile rypes of assessment tasks ·to be used In each suiject and grade
are spec:lfied In rhe CAPS and will fonn part of the r.eachers yeally asseSiSmenc pl.an.
All fonnal assessments occur ar a predetem1lned time and require rhe reacher to
prepare a derails)d marking guide and give adequa.re feedback ro leamers. Learners
should be Informed In advance of all fom1al assessment:s, paltlcularly rests and
examtnatlorns. so that they can prepare for them.
Informal assessment can occur ar any time during reaching and learners do
not necessarily have to be aware that they are being assessed (the teacher may
be simply ollse'.Vlng the learners as they complete a leanllng activity). Informal
assessment doES not necessarily require learners to produce a p:roduct {such as
written evldenc:! of whar they have learned). The reacher's lnfomial assessments
could 1>e based on <11scussIons wtth moIvIduaJ learners or ol>servanons made dunng
das.s discussions. It Is nor. esseIHial to record details of l1.1fom1aJ assessments. as
they do nor have ro be reported. However. teachers may choose ro keep such
records (O help t11en1 plan lnterventlcms for learners who are havlngdlflicultles, or
simply liO help then1 reflect on their teaching.

y Acttvlty.: Informal assessment

1. Br,iefly deiclibe al least five different ways in which you could irloimally
assess leomers in your :specialist teaching area.
2. How would you ensure that these assessments were reliable and that you
were diowing validl conclusions from them?
FORMATIVE AND SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT
If we assess learners at the end of a course of InsmIct1on (for example, With an
end-of-year exam) we c.all this summatiive .assessment, because It .Is Intended
ro provide a summation of learners· achievements. If these aissess:nents are fair
and reliable, ¼1=' mlghr be able ro drnw some valld conclusions about learners·
knowledge, understanding and skills. However, doing that at the end of the course
Is of limited value, as we cannot use the lnfom1atlon to help the lea.mers learn
anything more.

y
Who!
AcHvlty: Fairness

specific guidelines are given in file Naffonol Protocol tor Assessment

G<ades I?- 12 and the CAPS tor your teaching subject to ensure that teachers
consider the fairness of their assessment pioctioes?
 If we assess learners during a course of lns·rrucfilon (rather dian at die end), this
creates an oppottunlcy to use the lnfomiadon we gain In two very Important ways.
Firstly, we can provide cllagnostl:c feedback ro learners (helping rhem understand
the Umltarlons of what they have learneo) and. secondly, we ran provide fo rmatlve
feedback that helps learners understand what they need to do In order 10 Improve
dielr learning. In addldon, we can use die lnfomiarton ro make adJusmients to our
Instruction (such as re-r.eachlng or provtdlng learners wtth more oppomm.lrtes for
pracdce). \.\'hen die lnfomiatlon gained from assessment ls used as the basis for
adjusting reaching and learning, we refer to It as formative assessment.
It b5 Important co understand tlnat die terms ·rom1atilve· and 'summatlve· do not,
strictly speaking, descrtl>e the assessment process or tihe assessment tasks. Rather,
the tem1s descrtbe 'the use to which the lnfomnatlon artslng from assessment Is put'
(Wlllam, 2O00:'l 13). For assessment to be fomiattve, 'die tnformarton fed back ro
die learner must be used by the learner ro tmprove perfom1ance· - the learner must
understand the feedback and act on It. In addition, the Information must .also be
used by the educator co provide further opportunities for learning co occur. It should
be obvtous diat. feedback can never be fon11ative unless die educator has clear
leamlng goals for leaniers and unless me learners understand those goals.
nie main value Im formative assessment Is that. It helps learners to Identify gaps
In their knowledge, understanding or skills and guides them towards closing those
gap;s. The most helpful formative feedback ·provides sp,eclfic comments about errors
and. specific suggestlons for Improvement" (Boston, 2002: L J. This type of feedback
can be partlculaily helpful ro low-achieving learners 'because It emphastzes that
students can tmprove as a result of effort' (Bostom, 2002:2).
WAYS TO !BENCHMARK LEARNER PERFORMANCE
If we m,e fair and reliable means of assessing learners, we can obtain evidence from
which ro make valld Inferences about tlle learning o f lnd.lV!dual learners. Vie can also
consider the broader plcrure of the leamtng achievements of groups of learners. Here
we have several cliolces about the ways In which we compare or benchmark learner
perfomiance. Toe major choice ls whether oo use nomi-referenced asses:sme.nt,
crtrerton-referenced assessment or standards-referenced assessment.
Norm-referenced assessment
When we use norm-referenced assessment, we compare me pelfomiance of
lndlvldual learners wtth the perfomiances of other learners (tn the same cohort
and/or on the same test). The ma:tn featur.es or 11om1-referenced assessment can be
summartsed as follows:
"' The general ass111mptlon ts made (but often not stared) that .not all learners
wlll learn equally well, even. If diey have equtvalent learntng oppornmtr!es.
Therefore, we expect that In any assessment task some learners wUI perfomi
better than others. Tllese expected dLfferences In lean1er pelfonnance may be
,considered as the ·na mral' results of differences In learners· ablllty, mottvatton,
and so on.
"' The assessment tasks are expected ro produce differences tn learn.er performance,
because some learners will find diem easter or lnarder than others. However, rhe
expected dtfferences are usually nor defined In any precise way.
"' The rask or rest I s administered ro all learners 11.1nder the same condlllons.
.A The learners· work Is marked In a untform way. 11ie allocated marks do nor
necessar1ly reflect differences In learners· levels of undersrand1ng - they may
simply Indicate differences In quanllry rather d1an quality.
.._ if the assessment rask or rest has multiple componenrs, the marl<s for Individual
Items are added ro proclu-:e a total (This may Involve some fonn of weighting
- Intentionally giving some parts of the assessment more Importance than
others.)
• On the ·�.isl(; of their mark�. learners arc placed 1n ranl1 order (lirot, second,
third, ett).
• The group average mark (also known. as the n:om1) Is calculated. Vanous ways
of describing the dlstrtbutlon of marks (sucn as standard deviation, range,
median, mode) may also be calculared.
• If requlri!<I, the marks may be statlstlcally manipulated to approxlmate some
required dlscrlbutlon. (O�en, an attempt l.s made ro fir the ma!fks ro a nom1aJ
distribution - the so-called bell curve).
• lndtvldual learners can then be compared with otl1ers In the group. ,Yplcally
this Is d0ne In 11.vo ways, namely their rank and their position relative co the
class average. Other compartsons, such as the percendle rank of the learner,
may also be made.
• Lean1ers· results are typically reported as an adjusted mark (without the nature
of t'.he a'.!Justments being disclosed) and a posldon In class (or a percentile
position lf the assessment Involved a large group of learners).
Norm-referenced assessment has a long tradition and, unfortunately, It has resulted
In many widely held but quite meaningless beliefs about assessment and reporting.
for example, It :ls quire common for people (lncludlng the parenrs of children you
will. reach) to hold finnly co t11e following ntis:conceptions,
• It's marks chat matter, not the rellablllry or the fairness or the valldlty of die
procedures d1at producecl the marks.
A More ls better - a high mark ls ahvays better than a low mark. no matter h.ow
the marks were obtained.
• There Is some magic ln fhe average mark d1ar a group of learners obtains on
an ass�sment cask, no matter how the marks were obtained. And, lt Ls much
better for a teamer ro be above tile a-,1erage mark d1an below It, regardless of
what tJ1e average mark ls.
• The mo.st Important thing for an educator ro report to i;>arents Is 'how my child
Is perfor.nlng retatlve ro others ln the class·, no matter how d1e educator anived
at d1e compar1so ns or how meaningless those compar1sons might be.
A major problem wUd1 nonn-referenced assessment Is that If the marl\.s \\•ere not
obtained In fair and rellable ways, and/or :If they were not Interpreted In valid ways,
no amo:unr of statistical manlpularlm1 will produce any meaning from those marks.
Ho\vever, the major l1mltat1on of norm-referenced assessment Is chat the processes
of rank-ordering learners and reporting r:hetr relatlve achievements taRe attentlon
away from the really Important stuff - what Individual learners have or have
not learned. And, as �Vlllam (2000:l 14) points out. a serious problem wtth rank
order1ng Is t'hat ·you can veiy easily rank order people wl!l1out having any ldea of
what you aiz putting them In rank order of. In other ,vords, a test may produce a
set of marks that you use ro rdnk order learners without your being fully aware of
what factors (for example, the learners' reading aillllry) Influenced the marks.
Criterion-referenced assessment
One approach ro addressing some of the shortcomlngs of nom1-referenced
assessment ls to use criterion-referenced assessment. The defining fearure
of this approach ls t,l\ar we compare the perfom1ances of !ndlvtdual lean1ers with
perfonnance criteria rhar are established before !earners attempt the assessment
rdsk. Tine main fearures of criterion-referenced assessment can be summar1sed as
follows:
Ji. It Is assumed that Ir ls possible ro de:fine criteria that descI1be the !earning or
perfommnce we wan.t learners to achJeve. We generally assume that some, but
not all, I.earners will be able to demonstrate rllat. th.ey have met these criteria,
• Assessment tasks are developed to give learners oppornmltles ro demonstrate
whether or nor they have met the perforn1ance crlterla.
• The rdsk or test ls adminlsrered ro all learners under the same or equivalent
conclltlons.
• The lean1ers: work or performan-e Is marked Jn a uniform way, often using
some form of checklist (so that the various criteria that are met can be ticked
off). TI1e criteria on the checkllst are not necessarily all of equal importance, bur
some minimum set of criteria mu.st be met before a learner Is deemed to have
demonsrr<1ted that he/she ls competent In the task.
• If !earners meet the mln!mum crtterla, they are deemed ro have ·passed' the
task.
• Learners' results are rypl.:ally reported in (ern1s of how many tasks they have
completed satlsfactor1ly (by meeting tihe mtn1111u111 criteria).
• With criterion-referenced assessment, the only comparisons t11ar can be made
among leam.ers are the n.umber o.f con1petencles that have been demorustrated
and rhe time thar It rook to achieve them.
Criterion-referenced .assessment has a long tradlrton ln vocational education and
rralnlng, where It ls often associated wlrJ1 competency-based rralnlng. Its use Is
often based on the following bellefs:
"' All components of an assessment rask should be ·v1ra1· In the sense that a
learner cannot pass without sartsf-acrorlly demonstratlng all or them.
At. The accumulatton of passes on Isolated assessment tasks somehow provides a
meaningful total plcmre of a learner's achievements.
A If learners are meeting the minimum cdterla for each task, then thls ls sufficient:
there Is no n.eed ro encourage learners to srrlve for excellence.
"' It ls possible ro define some meaningful cur-off point between achievement and
non-achievement of the outcome tested by each assessment task.

A serious difficulty In crIc,er1on-referencect assessment Is defining appropriate ,criteria

ro describe the mlnlnnum level ofperfonnance d1at will be accepted as evidence that
lean1ers have achleved a particular ourcon1e. Tills Is often a 'hHgh-srakes' decision
(ultlmarely lnBuenclng whether or not each learner ·passes.'), a11d Jt can. be dlfficulr
to Justify a particular crilterlon. At ome e:xtreme, some educators wlll tend. to set
lnappro prlarely low rnlntmum criteria, because they do not want roo many learners
to fall. At the other e:xrreme, educators may set lnapproprlarely high criteria, so that
many learners fall - often this ls bas-ed o.n the mlsgurded assumption that a hl_gh
failure rare means that rhe course standards were lllgh.
 The problem of defining crtterla for minimum acceptable perfonnance ls l!Jiked to
the problem of defining competence. Eraut ( 1998) provides a d .etalled exploration
of the various Interpretations that can l>e put 011 ·comperence • and shows quire
clearly that It should be defined differently for different fields of study. Thus, It Is a
rather elusive concel!)t upon which to base the theory and practice of assessment..
Competence ls pamcularly difficult to define ln relation to what Spady (1994) calls
·outcomes of significance·. For example, Imagine tl)'lng to dectde the competence
benchmark for the currtculum aim of identj/J and solve problems and make
decisions using critical and creative thinking. Despite the difficulty of defining a
benchmark, It ls: easy to see that some learners w[J[ achieve such an outcome to
a higher level than orllers. Examples such as l'.hls highlight a funher problem In
deciding exactly when a ileamer has demonstrated rhe minimum aocepta!Jle level of
perfonnance - dlffer:enr assessors may make differenc Judgements about the same
perfonnance, one deciding tihat the learner ls competent and the other deciding
that the learner ls not competent. Because of difficulties such as these, the notion
of competence has remained an elusive conceiJ)r to define for all but the simplest of
outcomes.
If criteria are to be used ro dlstlnguls:h between acceptable and unacceptable
perfonnance. we have to use norms (either expllcidy or lrnpllcldy) to decide w·hat
die criteria should be and how we should In rerprer a particular learner's attempt
to satlsry rh.e crtterla. This usually means that the criteria have to be Interpreted
'wlt'h respect to a target popularton. and tills lnrerpreratton relies on ahe exercise
of Judgement that Is beyond rile criterion Itself {Wlliam, 2000: 123). Inevitably,
·cr1ter1on-referenooct assessment ls underpinned. by a ffl of nom1-referenooct
assumptions, be<:anse the .assessmencs are used In social secctngs· ('¥1llam,
2000:123).
Anodier ;problem that arises from defining competence In relation to a single
benchmark ts rhatleameirscan gain the Impression that oncethey have demonstrated
the required minimum level of oomperence, their learning Is complete. They may
tlllnk that learning more. or achieving a higher level of perfonmance, wlll be of no
particular benefit to them. If leam.ers gain the Impression that learning has finished
when the benchmar1< has been achieved, they are likely to see t'.he benchma'.J'ks
of competence as Individual hurdles to Jump that are not necessarEly part. of some
ongoing learning path leading to expenlse. If there ls no reward for doing so, there
may be little Incentive for Individual I earners to strive for excellence.
Slmllarly, criterion-referenced assessment can be very demotilvarJng for learners
who do not reach the benchmark of minimum competence (particularly If they do
not reach It after several attempts). The link benveen learner rnoctvatlon and the
goals of learning ls a complex one that. ls explored In great detail by \11/entzel and
Br�phy (2013). One of the problems Is rJ1ae the benchmark needs to be ser high,
otherwise achieving Ir will have little meaning, but high benchmarks may mean few
learners: will achieve them. Learners who do not see themselves as academlcally
gifted may simply opt out of trying Ito achieve benchmarks that tliey perceive as
unreallstlcaUy hlgh. (Imagine how few ad1leres would Ile prepared to run lftl1e only
measure of success was achieving an Olympic qualifying time.) Learners need ro
be able to expertence some success on die way to achieving benchmarks, not Just
when t11ey l!lnally gee. there.
 Crttecton-referenced assessment places learners Imo two caregornes - those who
have achieved oomperence In relanon to a partlcular outcome and �hose who have
noL This bipolar categorisation disguises several. Important facts. The boundary
between competence and lack of competence ts an arbitrary one (no matter how
precisely le !s defined). Pretending that reliable distinctions can IJ.e made around
this arbntrary boundary can overemphasise the Importance of the boundary and the
y
pecullarl!les of t1Je tesllng situation. No matter where the boundar Is placed, there
will be learners In each category (pass and fall) whose umdersrandlng and skills
span a range of achievement. These dllferences should not be Ignored. because
they are cmdal to learners· further !earning.
Im a blpo1ar system, some learners who are Judged to be ·not yec competent'
w!II have achieved significant. lean1lng, and rhls should be rerognlse<il. Likewise.
the learners who are deemed co Ile competent are probably capable of leamtng
more and achieving at a higher level, and this should be encouraged. finally. If an
educator's J111dgements about learners· achievements are limited to placing them
Into cwo arblt:rary cacegortes, this has llrlle potential to encourage learners r.o strive
for excellence.
The reaUcy Is that. 111 any neamlng slmatlon. not all lean1ers wUl lean1 the same
thing In the same way In the same time. Some w!U lean1 more ,quickly than others.
some wUJ develop deeper understanding than ochers, and differences In leamlng
wJII be due to a vartery of factors. Educators need to accept that these differences
In learrulng wUI occur. and they should try to highlight them rather than hitde
them. Proctucnve comparisons between the learning of d.llferent learners should
be made - tr some learners are leanll!ng more. or better, than others, the educator
needs ro kn.ow (hat this ts happening and ask why. Only then can the educator
act to minimise these differences by provldtng further learning oppomtnldes: ro
those learners who need rhem. However, the answer Is not simply ro revert to
nom1-referenced assessment. \Ve need a system that trtes to overcome the main
ltmlratlons of both n-0m1-referenced and crtrerlon-referenced assessment. One way
of doing d1ls Is through standards-referenced assessment.
standards-referenced assessment
The defining feamre of standards-referenced assessment Is that learners·
demonstrations of learning are compared with detailed d.escrtptlons of different
levels of achievement These descrtptlons are known as srandards. The main
fearures of standards:-referenced assessment can be summarised as follows:
A It Is ass111med that It Is possible to define a range of levels of achievement of
each outcome (or groups of related outcon1es). Ir Is also assumed that learners
wlll be able to demonstrate their learning In such a way that It can be compared
wld1 the standards.
A Ir Is assumed tl1ar leamers can be motivated co srrtve for excellence.
• ASsessment tasks that gI.ve learners opportunities to demonstrate what they
have learned are developed and del!IJ.erately scrucmred to allow compartsons
of each leamer's achlevement wl�h the predefined range of possible levels of
achievement (the standards).
A The task or rest Is administered to all learners under essenrtally tl1e same
condltloms, but some allowances can be made for learners with special needs
(such as poor language skllls}.
 .i. The leamers' work or perfonnance ls Judged by comparing It with the detailed
St'dndards, Because the standards describe different levels of achievement, the
process of m:arch:lng learner perfonnances to the standards auromadc:ally places
rhem on a continuum of achievement .
.i. Learners' achtevememrs are reported In tenms of their posltlon on the standards
contlnuum. These are Individual repons that do !llor .Include compartsons co
orher learners.
This recording and reponing requlre:rnen.r Lmplles that teachers are able ro make
distinctions between learners· achJeve.men.t at each of rhe seven levels. Unfortunately
It describes these differences In quandratlve terms (different per.centage marks)
rather �llan In tihe quallramve cenns ·that would be required Im a standards-based
sysrem. If a learner who o!Jratns a mark of 65% Is demonstraring ·sul>stantlal
achteve:menr that really ls better than rhe 'adequate achJeve:ment' demonstrdted
by a learner who obtains 55%, then flt should be posslble r.o describe the difference
between substantial and adequate achievement In qualitative terms. \Vl1ether or not
there really are ,qual.lradve differences In the knowledge, understanding and skills
of learners who are placed at each of the seven achievement levels will ultimarely
depend on how the marks are derived.
tn a pureIy sranaaras-reterence a system, learners· acmevemenr or eacn Impon:am
outcome (or group of related outcomes) ts Judged agat111sr a .set of standards. In
Intermediate Phase Mad1emadcs, for example, learners are required to develop the
ef ef
correct use the langllage Mathematics. Since mis ls described tn the CAPS
as an ·essenrtaf marhematl.cal sktll' (Depanment of Basic Educadon, 201 td:8), It
ls reasonable ro assume that achievement of thts outcome should be taken Imo
account when derennlnlng the final level of achievement of each learner. It ls !llOt
possible ro do this In a fatr and rellable way unless sensible dlstlncd.ons c:an be
made between 'correct use of the language o f mathematics' ar each of the seven
The National Protocol.far Assessme11t Grades R-l2 and the Natio11at Policy
Pertainlil!J to tile Programme and Promotion Requirements ef tile Natio11al
Curriculum Statement Grades R-12 do nor describe assessment In South African
schools as standards-referenced. However, the mandated sysrem of recording and
reportln.g learner achievement (F'l.gure 15.2) has many slmllarlfiles with rile fearures
of Sl'dndarcts-rererencect assessment Ustoo aoove. For example, lean1er ac.hlevement
Is reported on a scale rhat shows seven levels of possll>le achievement, and learners
are not placed In rank order.
Marks
Achievement level Achievement description
%
'
7 Clulslanding AchieVGm801 80-100
'
6 Meritorious Achi8YGf"OOnf 70 -79

5 Substantial AchievGroonl 60-60

4 AdQQoote Achi.GVOOIGl1! 50-59
3 Modsmte Achievement d0-49
2 Eleme.ntory Achi=menl 30-39
1 Not Achie\/ement 0-29

Figure 15.. 2: Recommended method efco11verti11g marks to achievement. levels

(Department ifBasic Educatio11, 201 Id)
AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT
lrddltlonal approaches ro school education were generdlly based o n die Idea that
lean1ers should acquire a fixed body of knowledge and certain clearly Identified
slcllls. It was the educaror·s Job to transmit rhts knowledge and dennonsrrate these
skills In ways that would eJable the learners r.o remember a11d reproduce r.hem. From
tills perspective, It was lo.glcal lbr tJ1e cun1aIIum ro drive assessmenr, an.ct therefore
rradltlonal forms of assessment (such ills mulctple-cholce quesctons and shon­
answer questions) were designed ro rest learners· ablllcy to remember and reproduce
knowledge, often Jn very arctliclal slntatlons (such as fom.al examinations).
n1Is view of teachlng and assessment Is sctll quire common. However, educators
are Jncreaslngly accepting that there should be more to school than having
lean1ers remember and reproduce some fixed body of knowledge - school should
also prepare learners for rhelr lives beyond school. This principle has been an
lmporranr. p.an of d1e rransformacton of South Afrlca's education system since
1994. Therefore, assessment should require !earners to de1:1onstrdre rhe:lr ability to
perform meaningful rdsks !n s:lniatlons that are as c'lose as possible to the real-world
slnI.atlo11s in whlch die learners wUI evenrually have ro perform. The measures of
learning should reveal theexrent tto wf1Jch learners can cope wld1 die clrcumstances
and challenges of real slnuacions. The tern1 ·aurhenrtc assessment' has been used co
describe this approach. \Vlgglns puts l.r thts way:

Assessment Is authentic when we directly examine learner perfom1ance

on worthy lntetlecruaJ tasks. lrddlcionat assessment, by contrdst, relies on
lndlrecr or proxy 'lrerns· - efficient. slmpllst!c substJQltes from which we
think valtd inferences can be made about the learner's performance at those
valued challenges. ( t 990: 1)
levels (outsttanding, mertrortous, ere). In other words, if standards are esrabllshed
for the achievement of each Important ou.rcome, then (and only then) It wlll make
sense ro caregortse learners· final achJevemenrs In r.he manner required by the
National Policy Pertaining to the Prograrnme and Promotion Require,nents qfJ'he
National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12.
Aurhenrtc assessment ls sometimes called perfonnance assessment. perfonmance­
based assessment, alremat!ve assessment or direct assessment. You can refer to
.a
Mueller (2003) for discussion of tthe slm!larltles and minor differences In ·the
meanings of thffie terms.
The advocates of aut.hen de assessment usually emphasise that assessment
(based on perfom1ance of meanlngful t'dSks in authendc slruadonsJ shourct drtve
die aurtculum. They suggest rhat the important tasks that lea111ers should be able
to perfo'rm should boe idendfied, and then the cuniculum should be designed co
help learners acquire the knowle,dge and sk!Us that are nec=ary for peifomtlng
those rasks to high standards In real or reall.stlc slma!!ons. This Idea should
sound famlllar. bee.a.use It Is similar to Spady·s Idea of 'designing down·. which
we explored! Jn Chapter I . Bulldlng the curriculum from the authentic tasks that
you want learners to perfonn Is a version of 'teaching to the rest'. but without die
negatlve connoracions rhar are sometimes assoclated with this Idea.
 Authentic assessment attempts to turn all assessment tasks lnto Important.
l
teaming experiences that can. provide feedback on processes as we l as outcomes.
and It demands Tliat assessment must address central and significant Issues. Most
commonly, authenrlc assessment ls perfonnance-1,asea anct ln\'olves an ·ongoing
evaluation of a cumulacive collection of creative works' (Wolf, 1989:35). The
process of using authentic assessment can be summarised as follows:
• Identify the outcomes you want learners to achieve.
.. For each outcome. or for each group of ou11:omes, develop a realistic task that
learners could be asked ro perfom1 to ctemonscrare what they have achtevect.
• select approprlare crtterta to descrfbe learner perfonnance on thts task .
• For each criterion. develop a descrlptlon of what It would look like If learners
were demonstrating high levels of achievement.
• Using die same criteria that were used t.o describe high-level perfom1ance.
develop descrlptlons of ar least two lower levels of perfomiance.
• Use the <lescrlpttons of the dtfferent levels of performance ro conscruct a rubric
that. c<1n be used ro assess learners· perfonnance.
• Provide learners with the assessment criteria lJ1 advanre and require them co
develop responses to realtistlc .slniatlons.
TI1e d1ree most common advantages claimed for authentic :assessment are fhe
followlng:
I. It Involves direct measurement of what learners should know.
2. It emphasises higher-order thinking skllls . Judgement and collaboradon.
3. It encourages learners to beoome actively Involved In [he leamlng IJ)rocess.
Basically, an assessment Is authentic when learner performance on Intellectual
tasks ls examined dtirectly, whereas tradtttonal assessment often relies on Indirect
or proxy measurement of learnlng outcomes. This point Is often used as one of
the matn arguments 111 favour of amhenttc as:sess.menr. !he clatm !being lhar more
direct measuremencs rend to reduce factors t11ar Umlt rhe f.almess and rellablllty of
tesnng. Because authenrtc assessment re(Julres learners to perform realtstlc tasks.
Ir can mlnlmlse rhe effects of some forms of Illas..such as tesc-wtreness. However,
od1er forms of bias, such as language proficiency, may sttll be present. Lam ( 1995)
also clalms that perfom1ance assessments Introduce the followlng new sources of
porent1al bias:
• Tusks that are ·cuJrurally enrlch.ect' may dlsadvanmge leamers fro1111 other
cultures. because of thel.r lack of cultural knowledge or because of culturdl
Influences on their problem-solvlng processes.
• Autl1entlc tasks rend ro gJve advantage ro learners who have high levels of
meracog:nltlve skills.
• Lean1ers wtth poor social sl<J[(s or lnrroverred personalltles may have dlfliculty
demonstrating their achievements.
,._ iLeamers with high-level c.ommun!catlon skllls (who can dtscuss. argue. debate
and verbalise thoughts very well) may be advantaged.
,._ !Differences In language and/or culnire between the ed1Ucator and learners can
colour educators· Judgements.
,._ iEducarors· Judgements of learner performance wlll always be subjective.
,._ !f part of the authentic task ts perfom,ed outsMe of school, some learners will
have access to resources or assistance rhat are nor available to .all learners.
Authenfilc assessment has many advantages. but It Is !llOt a panacea. There ls still
value ln using rradltlonal forn1s of assessment t.o complement authentic assessmenr.
For example, It Is often useful to rest learners· knowledge and understanding tn
rradlrtonal ways, before asking them to solve real problems by applying their
knowledge and understanding In authentic slnuadons.
PLANNING ASSESSMENT
The SBA regimes rhat Soulh African teachers are now reqt:lred to follow have ro l!>e
planned carefully. lwo things In the CAPS for each subject provide the framework
for this planning: the content d'escrlpdons. and the mandated types of formal
rs.
assessment (tests, assign men etc). When teachers are mal<lng thelr choices. abo:ut
what to assess and how tc· assess It, the rollovtilng prl1Klple:s should oo followed.
• Formal assessment should focus on the knowledge a!lld skUls that are most
Important for learner, to learn - the slgnlflcant knowledge described 111
Cha!J)ter 3.
• Assessment should be designed to engage learners In higher-order thinking so
rJ1ar. they can reveal the depth of their und . erstandlng.
• The assessment procedures should be re·uable - sources of error should l!>e
mlnHmlsed so that dependable and consistent results a:e obtained .
.1. The assessment. !J)rocedures should be fair - they should not disadvantage any
learners or be lnHuenced
: by any lrrelevan t rac:rors such as a learner's culmraJ
background.
• The evidence obtained from assessment procedures must be Interpreted ln valid
ways so thalt approprlate Inferences are drawn..
• Assessment should tell educators and Individual learners something thac they
do not already know. That Is, lt should stretch learn�rs ro the Un1lts of their
undersrandlng and ablllty to apply their knowledge.
• Assessment should be comprehensive - It should address all the lmporranr
outcomes, not Jttse a small sample of d1em .
.1. Assessment should provide adequate oppommltle.s for learners ro demonstr'dre
rhelr ability to Integrate their knowledge and undersrandlng, and apply lt ·ro
slgnJficant and relevant problems.
• Assessment msks and the Interpretation of learners· results should be based on
expllclt quality crlterla
• Assessment should support eveiy learners oppom1nlrf to learn things thar are
lmporrant.
• Assessment tasks should provide adequate opportunities for learners to express
their lndlvlduallry.
A As rar as possible. the most lmportanr understandings and skills that learners
are required ro master In a subject should be assessed ln several different ways
and on several different occasions.
When developing their assessment plans. teachers should keep In mind that
assessment should always conrrlbure ro rhe goal of Improving learning. If
assessment Is going to support learning, rhen assessment tasks must provide
genuine opporrunltles for learners ro demonstrate what they ha\re learned, and help
mem Jctemlly what It Is that vhey sctll neoo to learn. Because learning Is a process. of
continually restrucrurtng inor knowledge, not Just adding to It. assessment should
help learners r.o connect what Is being learned r.o their p�or knowledge. This can
MARKING and GRADING
The assessment process can be thought of :as a three-step sequence: garher evidence
of learning, lnrerprer the evidence and mal<e decisions based on that lnterpret'dtlon.
\Ve saw earlier In this chapter that this process will serve no useful purpose unless
the evidence ls cruscwonhy (gaJned In fair and reliable ways) and unless the
Inferences drawn fro111 tliat evidence are valid. Only then can approprtate decisions
be made. 111e m:lddle step of the :assessment process (Interpreting the evidence) Is
traditionally referred t o as marking or grading. and It serves three main purposes:
1. It allows educators t.o check learners' achievements and Inform them of their
progress.
2. Ir provides lnfonnatton that educators can use to gutde their future reaching.
3. It !}rovtdes a record of learners' achievements.
be done, for example, by using portfoltos: as both a learning and assessment tool.
by giving learners nnark:lng guides In advance so that they 1vUI know how they
will be assessed. and by allowing leamers to revise their lnlttail responses to some
assessment rasks. Of course, the :results of assessment should always be conveyed
to learners clearly, and as soon after �he assessment as possible.
To learn Important things, learners must use their knowledge and skllls In
relevant contexts and In ways that. require them to apply what they know and to
extend their thinking. Leaming ,comes allve for learners when It comes through
experiences they find meaningful and valuable. It ls often claimed that learners learn
best and retain what they learn when they engage actively In learning, when they
are encouraged to reHect on their e�pertences and when they have opporrunldes
to com111mllcare with others about 1Jie ll1lngs they are lean1Ing (KJllen, 2003a).
Assessment should embody .au these prtndples so that It iberomes Justt as much a
part of the learning process as any fonnal lnsm1ctton. This goal carunot ibe achieved
without firsr establishing a clear vision o f what learners are expected to learn, and
using this lruformatton to establish an assessment plan.
TI1e systematilc planning descr1bect aoove must occur before the srart. of each
school year, because che Nadonal Protocol.fer AS&Ss111e1Jt Grade.s R 12 - requires
this lnfom1at1on to be submlvred to the School Management Team (SMT) before the
school year srarrs. The SMT Is required to use the assessment progranunes of all
teachers to dra1v up a scilool assessment plan for each grade. That plan has to be
provided to !earners and their parents In the lirst week of the first rerm.

y Activity: Effectiveness <1nd efficiency

The National Protocol torAssessment Grades R-12 states that assessment in
South Africon schools ·should provide indicotions of learner ochievemenf in
the most ettec1iv e and efficient manner by ensuring 1hal adequate evidence
of achievement is collected using vorious tOO'Tls of assessment' (Department of
Bas ic Educotion. 20lle:3).
WIT( is it important to we o variety of lollTis of ossessment in orcfef for the
assessment process to be effective and efficienn
Assessment evtdence comes ln many fonns: from lean1ers' answers to slmple
questions ro ela'borare products that lean1ers produce (such as major art works).
When you are Interpreting assessment evidence, the principal questions you should
be trying to answer are: 'What does this evidence tell me about the lmowlectge,
understanding amt skills of Individual learners?' and 'How can I best summanse
my Judgements about the learners· achlevemenrs?'
TI1ere are several useful techntques that you can use re make the process of
lnrerpredng assessment evidence reasonably rella.ble, and ro lmprove the valtdlty
of the inferences that you make about learners' achievements. These rechmlques
wlll vary according to the types of outcomes you are nytng to assess, the types
of ·products· that learners have produced, the overnll purpose of the assessmenr
and the type of feedback that you Intend to give learner.;, The tech:ntques wlll
also vacy according to whether the assessment ts formal or lnfonnal, fonnadve or
summatlve, and how many educators are Involved In rhe assessment process.
The marking process
Marktng should be a systematic process of comparing a leamer·s work with a
marking guide. The marking guide (which Is. a requirement under the National
Protocolfor Assess111e11r Graaes R-f2) s11ou1ct 1nct1cace clearly what 1s requ1rect
of learn.ers and how th� teacher will Judge the quality of their work. Ideally, It
wtll specify how the teacher will decide the level. of achle•,1ement of the learner
(elementaiy, moderate, adequate, ere). Developing a marking guide and using
It requires tile followtng steps. The first two steps must o:cur before you give
lea111ers the assessment :asks (and should be shared wtrh th.e learners at. d1at dme).
1. darlfy exactly what It Is: that you are ny.lng to assess, for example learners'
abllley to solve quadratic equat1ons.
2. Develop a markilng guide chat wtill forus attenuon on relevant aspects of the
learners' work and help you to draw valid Inferences about ·their learning. (For
a complex assessment task, you wlll need a separate marking guide for each
sectlon or question.) TI1ls marking guide should dlsttniutsh dearly between
che &ven dlffe1ent levels ofad1ieve111e111 ::;peclfieli 111 tile CAPS.
3. Review a random sample of learners' scripts or products ro satisfy yourself
that your marking guide will allow you ro assess and comment on all relevant
aspecrs of learners· work. If several markers are involved, use tills oppommlcy
to check that all markers are Interpreting the marking gulde In a consistent
way.
4. If It ls feasible. mark blind (tllat Is, without knowing whose work you are
marking),
5. Follow your marking guide sysremadc:aily.
6. Provide feedback that reinforces your high expectations and rewards learner
achleve:men.r.
7. Ma'ke your comments clear, concise and focused on the main points that you
warned lea111e1� to de111on�naIe.
8. If you are marking somed1lng that has dlstlnct sectlons (such as an exan111nadon
paper), marl< on.e seccton or question ar a time ratiher ahan one toral pa:per at a
time.
9. If you are marking a larg.e number of scripts or products, monlror your mark1ng
so that you apptiy the marking criteria conslsrendy.
Types of marking guides
Marklng guides fall Into three broad categories: checklists, rating scales and rubr1.cs.
The bas.le fe.amres of rhese marking guides wm be. Illustrated with examples In fhe
remainder o:f thls chapter.
1. Checklists can be used co hel[ll you make quantltarlve assessments of learners·
work because they focus on what Is Included or missing and whar ls dghr or
w rong.
2. Rating scales help you co focus on 111dlv:lduaJ qualltartve aspects of learners·
work.
3. Rubrics are complex rating scales rhar allow you ro slmulraneously race mulct!()le
aspects of learners' work.
Whatever form of marking guide you use. It !s essenlilal ro give learners access to
It before rhey attempt the assessment rasl<. \.Vlthour this Information, learners will
be 'exiled In a s trdnge terr1tory wltllour a map' (Biggs, 1999:6). Even when you
are using a simple checklist, learners need to know In advance \\1 hat you wlll be
checking. When you use rating scales or rubrics. learners need to know In advance
how you w!II be distinguishing between low-quallty and high-quality work. In the
case of exarnlnatlons, learners should know .In advance what types of questions
they wlU be asked and how !'.he quality of rllelr answers wlll be detenntned.
An essential requlrement. of any marking guide:Is thar lt should help the assessor
ro allocare more credit (hlgher marks) ro learners who show more complex
understandtng and hlgl1er achievement ithan to learners who demonstrate basic
levels of achlevemenr.

y Acttvtty: How were you assessed?

Select o major assessment losk (such as on assignment) that yau hove

undertaken in your teacher educalion p rogromme.
1. AnsWef fhe following questions:
a. Were you given informotioo about this task a1 lhe start ot the term/
semester /year?
b. Did yau receive a marking guide before you started worl: on the
assignmen f?
c. Were the morl<er's comments on your worl< legible. clear and INlitten in
appropfiale language?
d. Do all the comments indicate precisely what was good o r bad arld
why. raiher than jus1 indicat;ng vaguely that something was good or
bad?
e . Did yau think the comments were fair and honest?
I. Were the comments constructive. helping yau lo understand how yau
could improve your woJI(?
g. Did you receive some posilive teedlxlck as wen as criticisms?
h. Did fhe comments focus on your apparent understanding rather !hon
on ym.H effort?
i. Did the comments help you to increose your understanding?
j. Did the written commenls support the mark/ grade you were given?
k. What were (or will be) ll7e consequences it vou ignore the feedback
you were given?
2. Use what you learned from this analysis lo develop a checklist that will help
you to evaluate the way in which you assess leamefS' work.
Check/lsts
The simplest form of marking guide ls one that llsrs an rhe things tthat you w111 be
looking for in a learner's response or performance. 1r all the desired aspects are
present, they are cllecked, and perhaps a comment ls added. Figure 15.3 Is an
example of a checklist that a (eacher educator might use to evaluate an assessment
task that a trainee teacher prepared for a Senior Phase class.
Feature Present Comment
1he task indlcatoo the outcom<>(s) that ore
being assessed.

There is clear alignmeint between too task and

lhe OU!COl'OO$.

The question is wordoo cloo!1y.

T<>Chnicol details (sudh os length and format)
how been specified.

lhe task tocusoo on important knowledge.

1he losk pro'olidGs scope tor loorners to di,spk!y

lhG dGplh of thQir. unclootonding.

ThG task is dmignad to 9ngoge loorM!s ond

further thc;,ir understanding.

The task requires more than just rooall of

inbma:tion.

1he losk pro'olidGs scope for loorners to be

crootive or ,;,xplore ideas not de<llt with in
class.

The task pro'iJides scopa for learners to

demonstrate lhal lhev hove integrat<>d
knowloc1ge trorn several sources.

Marking criteria have !boon prepared for the

'8arners.

Fig:ure 15.3: Example checklist

Checklists can be quire useful for providing basic for.madve feedback to learners,
by drawing their attention to thtngs that d1ey might have overlooked or not yet
mastered (tne example above could !be used for that purpose). They can also be
useful for assessment In sltuadons where a very specific set of objective Judgements
needs to be made about teamer perforn1ance - such as checking that a learner
follows a spectlic &et of safety pro.:edures when doing a science experiment.
However, checkUsts are not very useful In sltuatlons where you need ro Judge die
quallty of learner performance. F'or example, you should not use a checklist to mark
an essay, because It does not provide the scope for assessing how well learners
express their Ideas, develop their arguments, and so on.
VJhe11ever you use a checklist for summarwe assessment, you have to decide
whether everything on the 11st has to be present In order for the learner ro sansfy
the assessment requirements, or whether tt Is acceptable If some things are missing.
(ThJs Is nor an issue If the assessment Is purely forn1adve.) There Is a particular
danger In using checklists to generate marks on summatlve assessment tasks.
Even If you weight the marks (so th.at some Items on the checkl15r receive more
marks than others), the total mark can dlsgulse the fact dtat a learner's answer or
performance did not Include some viral elements.
 This rating scale goes one step ll>eyond a checl<Jlst d1ar simply lndlcares whether or
not each of the tl1Jngs on the list has been done. However, a problem wlrh this form
of rating scale Is that It does not Indicate how the marker will make the qualitative
Judgements that are necessary to arrive at a rntlng on each Item. For example,
there Is no lndtcatlon of how the mar1<er will cllstlngulsh between • acceptable' and
'high quality' performance to alTlve at. ranngs of 3 or 4, There Is also a {!anger In
making the rdtlngs numerical, because Et encourages rhe marker ro simply add
the Individual ratings ro give some overall Indication of the quality of a learner's
work, To provide more usefhl feedback ro learners. we need a marking guide that
describes different levels of perfom1ance.
Rating scales
Checklists can be used to Indicate how much of a rask has been completed
satisfactorily, but they cannot Indicate how well the task has been done. In many
cases, simply lndicatlng that a task has been completed Is n:ot enough; learners
need feedback on how well they have performed th.e rask, 1b provide feedback
about the ,qualtcy of a learner's performance, you need a ranng scale on which
you can distinguish between dllferent levels of performance. Simple rattng scales
ldentlfy the ln1porrant components of an assessment rask and provide feedback on
how well ea,h component has been demonstrated. for example, the rating scale In
Flgure � 5.4 could be used ro provide feedback ro learners who had performed an
Independent lnvest1gatlon In, say, a senior Science cila:ss.
Aspect of the investigation Rating
'
Formulcded s.uitable reooarch questions 1 2 3 4
'
Developed a clear res80rch plan 1 2 3 4
Gatherad appropriate, data 1 2 3 4

Sortad.orrongoo, rep,esenled data in appropriate ways 1 2 3 4

Synthesised information from various sources 1 2 3 4

Evatuoted information I 2 3 4

Ora-w conclusions 1 2 3 4
RaportGd findings in appropria!G woys I 2 3 4

Legend: I = missing or iJIGiG'olan! 2 = poor 3 = acceptablo, 4 = high quality

Figure 15.4: Exa111p/e rating scale

y Activity: From ltleory'to practice

1. Dewlap an assessmen1 task in your specialist teaching area thal is
suitable for marking wilh a rating scole.
2. Develop lh.e roting scole and ask a fellow student to evaluate it.

V Activity: From ltleory to practice

1. Dewlap an assessment task in your specialisl leaching area that is
suitable for marking with a checklist.
2. Dewlap the checklist and ask a fellow student to evaluate tt.
Rubrics
A rubrtc Is a special fonn of rating scale that allows rile marl<er oo provide descrtptlve
feedback about the quaillty of learners' work, with reference to several specific
crtterla. There are two basic types of rubric: holistic and analymc.
Holistic rubrics require the marker ro make broad value Judgements about the
overall quality of learners· work rdther than lndlvldual Juctgemenrs about separate
characrertsrtcs, TI1e SOLO taxonomy (Biggs & COllls, 1982; KIilen & Hamngh,
2004) can be a very useful ttool :for developing holistic rubrtcs. On:e approach ls co
use the SOL() level descriptors as tile caregory descrtprors Ln the rubrtc and assign a
grade to each level. Thatapproacll would produce a m.brtc such as the one ln Figure
!S.S. which has been developed from an example ln Biggs (1996).

Poerlorm<lnce description SOLO!leYel G;rode

Deep undelstanding demonstrated through a Extended A

high level of abstrocf thinking. Relevant ideas have Abstract
been generalised a n d applied in new conle:xts.
The possibility for allemative conclusions has been
recognised.There are no inconsisterncies.
Considerable understanding demonstrated Rekrtional B
through selectiw use of relevan1 data. The answer
hos a coherent structure based on a unifying
concept. R elationships are explained and a
logical conclusion, consistent willl data, hos been
reached.
limtted understanding demonstrated through Multi-structurol C
coverage of a number of aspects of the topic. but
in o piecemeot, descriptive WCT'{. Inconsistencies
hove been ignored.
Vefy limtted understandin g demonstrated through UN-Stru,ctural D
a descriptive reproduction of a few basic ideas.
There is littfe basis for the conclusion.
No understand ing demonstrated. Uses i1Televant or Pr=fru,cfurol F
incorrect information. No conclusion drawn.

Figur,e 15.5: Example holistic rubric

Holistic rubrics of this type are most suitable for Judging the quaJJty of learners·
work when t11ey have produced an extended response to an open-ended question.
and you wish ro assess lhe overall quality of rhelr understanding. Because of the
somewhat generalised narure of c.he feedback It provides, rlhls type of rnbrlc Is more
suitable for sumrnalive asses.smem than formative assessment (Menier. 2001 ). Of
course. feedlback given With a rubric such as this will be useful only when leamers
understand the concepts In each level descriptor (srrucni re. relationships. loglr.al
conclusions. ere).
Analytic rubrics. provide feedback on individual crlrerta that are directly related
to the outcomes belng assessed. For example, the crtterta for Judging a History
essay might be: content knowledge, organisation, strengtl1 of argument, use of
references. and clartcy and correcmess of technical aspects of language. It should be
Immediately clear that crlrerta such as these are not necessaJlly of equal tmportance,
This Is not an lssue wllen rile feedback Is being provided for purely formative
reasons. butt It Is lmponanr If marks or grades are allocated. The general structure
for an analytlc rubrtc Is shown In Figure 15.6.
 PERfORMANCE RATING
j
�""

-
-�;;:-

I
Figure 15.6: sm1ccure etan analytic rubric
This fonn of rubr1c can be developed from a rating scale (see Agure I 5.4) by
expanding each Item so, that It :Indicates clearly how the marker will flldge the
quallity of t:lhat crtrerlon. For example, the crlrerta 'fonnulared suitable research
questions· and 'drew conclus:lons • could l>e expanded as shown In Figure 15. 7,
Rating

Criteria 1 2 3 4

Research No reseorch Poorly wofdoo Cteor. relmonf Clear, relevonl

questions questions or unsui1able questoos queistioM
questions

Conclusions No conclusbns Simple Reasonable Rea:sonabla

conclus;Qn concl�.ons bu1 conclusions but
based on no supporting no suppafing
inoooquafe arg\.lments aguments
analysis

Figure 15.7: Example etan ana{ytic n1bric

If you do nor ha.ve a rating scale as a starting poll11t, you can construct an analytic
mbrlc by following these sreps:
I. Revle,v the outcome(s) that you are trying to assess so that you are dear about
what It Is you want :learners ro demonstrate.
2. Make a Ust of the crtter1a by wh:Jch you could assess a demonstration of the
ourcome(s).
3. Decide how broadly or specifically you want to dlst1ngulsh between dllTerenr
levels of learner performanoe (three or four levels of distinction are usuanly
sufficient., but remember that the Nadonal Protoco/Jbr Assessment Grades
R-12 requires leamer achievement to be reported at seven distinct levels}.
4. Vlsuause what lt would nook like If a learner ctemonstrdted the outcome(s) at
the highest level you could reasonably expect of any learner (for example.
the bes.t possible performance you could expect from any Grade 9 learner).
Descr1be that performance for each of die crtterla. This gives you the highest
level of perfom1anoe descrtprors, referred to In the protocol as 'outstanding
achievement',
5. Visualise what Ir would look like If a lean1er arr.empted ro demonstrate the
ourcome(s) but was perfom1lng poorly. IN,scrtbe vhat perfom1ance for each of
the criteria. This gives you the second level of perfonnance descriptors, referred
to In the protocol as 'elemental}' achlevement".
To gain maximum benefit from a rubric, share It with tihe learners before they
attempt the assessment task and make sure tl1ac tl1ey understand Ir. Learners \Vlll
d1e11 have a clear picture of,vhat rhey should be trying ro achieve and demonstrate:
and. there should be n o surprises for them when you nnark thel.r work.
The process of converting rubrtc-oased Judgements ro marks or grades (If you
have to) ts nor srralghtfonvatd. one problem ls chat the progression from one
c:aregmy ro anorher on a hollstlc n1brtc, or from one performance descrtpror level ro
another on an analytic rubric, Is not linear. Forexample, the difference berween the
two bottom 1evels may be quancltatlvely quite dlfferenc fro1n the difference between
the :second and third levels. Another problem with analyclc rubrics Is that the various
criteria may not be all equally Important: ttherefore, giving a mark on each criterion
and simp ly adding them may give a distorted plooue of learner achievement. It Is
for tthese reasons thatr Merrier (200 I) dalms that ·converting rubric scores to grades
or categortes ls more a process of logic than it Is a mathematical one'. You need
ro develop a system of conversion that marches the [Purpose of your assessment
and suits the way you report learner achievement If you follow die advice l gave
earlier, you \VIII consm1ct rubrics that ma-cch the mandated reporting requirements
In the Natio11a/ Protocol 011 Assessme11t Grades R 12. - You can vhen conlidendy
use the mandated conversion between competence descrlpdons and marks.
Both ho3Js!lc and analydc rubrics can be very useful marking guides. because they:
• help to make assessment objecdve;
A ,encourdge the educator to focus o n the outcomes that are being assessed;
• ,encourage the educator to be expllclr .about the crtrerta that \Vlll be used toJudge
learner perfom1ance:
• help lear11ers to understand wh:acIs expected and how their work1\1111 be evaluated:
• provide benchmarks against which lean1ers· progress can be measured and
documented;
• provide learners wld1 useful feedl:>ack on rhelr learning;
• reduce marking time by reducing the need for written comments: and
• provide a sound basis for helping educators make consistent Judgements when
their marking Is spread over a long period or when several markers are Involved.
6. Visualise what it would look like if a learner attempted ro demonstrate the
ouocome(s) and was perfoflilllng reasonably well. Describe that perfom1ance
for .each of the cliterl!a. This g:lves you the m i d l-evel of perfom1ance descriptors,
referred. r o In the protocol as ·adequate achievement'.
7. Continue this process ro develop descriptors for all me other levels of
achi levement in the rubrlc.

yDeve op a n aS:Sessment task in your spec alist teach ng oroo that s

J_
Act1vlly: From theory to practice

l i i i
suilable tor marking with a rubric.
2_ Develop the rubric and ask a fellow student to evoluote it.
RECORDING LEARNER ACHIEVEMENT
In o:rder to make lnfom1al1ve and useful reports of learners· achievements, you must
keep accurate records of their learning progress. If all you ever record Is marks. then
all you can report ls marks (plus perhaps some vague recollecdons). If you keep
accurate qualltatlve records, ·then you can rel)Ort accurate. qualitative, meaningful
lnfom1at1on. Probably the most useful records are learner work s.amples that are
part of ai portfolio. However. reachers considering this approach will need to resolve
Issues such as what samples to keep. how to store them and when to rernm them
ro learners.
Accurdtie, comprehensive records will enable you r.o:
• crack the perfonnance of dndlvldual learners so char you can develop pro files of
learner achievement and report them;
• crack the performance of groups of learners and use tharl.nfonnallon ro evaluate
your teaching; and
• compare different cohorts of learners to evaluate different approaches ro
cuniculum organisation and teaching.
Detailed cracking of :learners· developing understanding can be very complex and
can require the use of quire sophlsticared tools. Clark (2000, 2003) provides a very
derailed exp:lanatlon of rhe use of two such tools. (Conceprual Element Maps and
Dlsrllled tncervlew 'fables). TI1ese toc>ls euable teachers to deocrlbe and record the
way In which learners develop sophistication l.n their understanding, Integrate lcfeas
and clarify apparent conrradlcdons. Although there Is no space here to describe
d1ese roots In derail, d1ey are well worth lnvestlgadng, because they will help you
to Identify and overcome some Important barriers to learning.
At a more basic !eve]. learners· progress can be tracked by using checklists
on which you record each learner's progress towards the main outcomes In the
syllabus. If these records are deralled enougll. then you can easily use them ro
generdte reports. Of course. you w!U bury yourself In a mounaaln of paperwork If
you cry to keep coo many records. l11erefore. you need to develop a system that will
enable you ro easily Tecord the maJor steps In each learner's progress. For example.
a Science course mlgJ1t 11:ave an outcome such as Lean1ers will be able fl! draw a11d
imerprergraphs a11<i U$C them ro solveproblems. Progress cowards achl.evement of
cl1ls outcome could l>e described by the following steps:
1. can plot data preset11red In taimlar fonn ro draw simple linear graphs.
2. can read simple linear graphs and extract data.
3. can plot data presenred Ln tabular fonn ro draw cul\llllnear graphs.
4. can read curvlllnea1r graphs and extract data.
5. can Interpret simple linear and curvilinear graphs to Identify trends In data.
6. can extract lnfomiatlon from gra:phs .and use It ro solve simple problems.
7. can develop graphical solutions co complex problems.
Learners· ablllty ro demonstrate eaC:h of these steps could be reseed directly or
lndl reedy (as part or a series of science !nvesdgatlons) and It would be a slml(Jle
process to record each learner's progress at regular Intervals. A!! It woul.d require Is
a spreadsheet with the learners· n ames In the rows and a column In which ro record
the level of achievement of the outcome at rile end of each unit of worl<. or as It
was observe<!. Altematlvely, you could put. samples or each learner's work In his/
her portfolio. It should be obvious that recording learners· progress In well-defined
seeps (such as those Usted In the above example) Is much more meaningful than
simply recording malfks such as 7 out of IO for a graph-drawing exercise.
 One of lllie n1ost Important reasons for tracking learners· progress, and basing
your reports on lean1ers' perfom1ance on multiple assessment tasks, Is that d1is
enables you co produce a more accurate and balanced report. This Issue was
explored In deca11 by Clark, and It loo him ro tile oonchuslon rhat 'In order co make
the claim t:h!at learners can apply a small set of coherent Ideas consistently across
all contexts, we need to ensure that the contexts considered are rich enough to cue
lean1ers' experiential knowledge' (2003:30). If 11•e do not do this, learners ·may
consider two contexts as roraHJy different or Incommensurdt.e and therefore consider
Information from one context Irrelevant or Inapplicable ro rhe other context' (dark.
2003:30), thus giving the reacher an :Inappropriate picture of the learner's apparent
understanding. l fyour reports are based on learners· demonstratlon.s of learning In
very Umlted con-texts, they may be very Inaccurate reports.
The Natio11al.Protoco[.JorAssessment GradesR 12 - mandates that every teacher
must keep 111 ·teacher file' chat ls a complete record of all assessment rdsk:s, marking
guides, assessment plans/schedules and record sheets conraining lean1er marks for
each fonnal assessment task. Sample fom1ats for the record sheets are g:lveru In the
prorocol.
REPORTING LEARNER ACHIEVEMENll'
l11e National Prococol.for Assessment Grades R 12 - requires teachers to ·report
regularly to learners and parents on die progress of learners· and to provide
appropriate reports oo schools and stakeholders such as rerdary lnstlrutlons and
employers. You shonld refer co the National Protoco[.JorAssessment Grades R-!2
for the detailed re()Ortlng requirements for each phase and for ex.amples of
report cards.
The reports to parents should be In rhe form of a fonnal report. card and other
suitable means such as parent-teacher conferences. 111e reports to lean1ers should
provide 'deve.Jopmental' feooback that will help them to lmprov,e their learning.
To pro<luce a useful report, yow need to be clear about w:har you want to report.
why you want to report ltt an<il to whom you want ro report. When preparing forn1al
reports, keep the following points In mind:
• Lea!l'ners will want to know how \\'ell they have achieved, and. they ,vlll
want feedback ttlat can help them ro Improve their learnIng. The Natio11al
Protocolfor Assessrnenc Grades R 12- requires reachers to report learners·
overall achievement as a percentage ma.rk In each subject, and this gives
a broad lndlcatlon of Jean1er achievement. �eporr cards also have ro show
the achievement scaCes (refer to !Figure '15.2) that convert marks ro levels of
com· perence. Again, tthls ,viii _give learners a !>road lndlcacion of their level of
achievement. However, this method of reporting does llttle to help learners
Improve their learning, unless they understand the ren111nology on ·the report.
Teachers should explain to learners what each of the ,competence descriptors
means so that they know, for example, what rhey ,viii have to do to rake d1elr
achievement from the ·adequate' level to tile 'substantial' level.
"' 'Parents and guard!ians are one of the main audiences for school repons.
They may nor know a Iott about the subjects their children have been sr:udyfing
(particularly In the senior Phase) and irhey are probably not ramlllar with rerrus
such as ·merttor1ous achlevement". Ir wlll help !Parents ro understand what their
ch!ldren have achieved lf you provide some explanation of the oenchmarks
you have used r.o report learners· aclrlevements. You may find! It usefttl ro do
this In parent-teacher lmervlews or In a meeting of parents at d1e school.. Many
parents are likely to want some lndlca'lt!on of how their ch!ld performed relative
ro ocher learners. Th.ere !ls no provlslon for thls In the National ProtocolJbr
11ssessme.11t Grade.s R-12. You should emphasise r,o parents rhar rhe Important
thing Is how well their ch!ld has achieved relatlve to the crlterta that define the
seven levels In the descrtpt1ons of competence.
"' The school principal (or other school execurtve member who has responslblllty
for overseeing the school's assessment and reporrlng s:ysre:m) will want ro see
evidence that your reports confom1 to guidelines ln tlte National Protoco/_/br
Assessment Grades R-12 and ro school policy.
"' Other teachers (those who wlU reach me learner In tl1e following year or at
anotther school l f the learner transfers) will be looklng for evidence of what
the learner has achieved, and how his/her achievements have been translated
Into raC!ngs on rile standard achievement scales In the Natio!lal PrococolJbr
Assessment Grades R-12.
"' Futllre employers wm be looking for evldence that the learner will be able to
cope with work situations. Beyond the general indications of ab!Uzy given by
the level of competence achieved In each subject, an employer might be looking
for very specific rhlngs, such as evidence of the lean1er':s communlcadorus skills.
Altl10ug:h sm:h things may nor have ooen assessed fonnally, teachers can make
comments on them on report cards.

y Activity: What does II mean?

Select one of the subjects tor which you will hove to prepare formol reports on
learners· achievement. for example Life Orientation in Grade 10.
For that subject and grade. prepare a brief statement lo describe what is
necessary for a learne, fo achieve each of the seven standard levels, of
competence (outstanding. melilolious. substantial. etc). Your descriptions
should provide learners and their parenls with a clear indicatioo of fhe
difference between achievements at eoch of lhe levels. Do not make any
reference to marks or percentages.
Reporting more than basic information
The National Curriculum Statenre,u Graries R-12 requires teachers ro send fonmal
report cards to parents once a rem1. Each report should provlde a 'clear hollsC!c
plcoure of the learner's achievements In different subjects', with the end-of-year
reporr lndlcatlng the learner's cumulative achievement for the year. In addition ro
providing percentage marks for each! subject, the reporrs must show the national
codes that translate percentages Into achievement levels (see Figure 15.. 2). The
reporr must also provide comments about the learner's performance In relation ro
his/her previous perforntance. All this mandated Information Is important, bur: its
usefulness to parents and learners ls severely limited. ·11 does nor provide sufficient
lnformatlon for parents to help their chlldren Improve on their p.ast achievements. If
It cannot be emlJ)haslsed too strongly that meanlngful reporting ls an outcome of
sound assessment practlce. If your report :Is not based upon valJd Inferences drawn
from reliable evidence thar was gathered fairly, then the report. wlll be of little value.
Your reporting of learners· achievements wUI be fair and reliable co the extent that
what you report has the following charactertsdcs:
• Relevant: Your report should focus on the outcomes that learneirs were required
to achieve. You shouM report on learners' tangtble and slgnl:ficanr achievemetus
and, as far as pos.slble. provide qualitative evidence to support your Juctgemenira.
• Meaningful: Your report sh .ould provide a clear and concise description of
what the learner was able to do, and make specific reference to the standards
(benchmarks and context) against which die learner's perfonnance was
compared
.t. Accurate, Your report must reflect the facts. Therefore. you musr. use approprtare
met:hocts of obtaining the lnfomiatlon diat you re:po rt and you must report it
accurately and unambiguously.
In general rem1s. a report should have the foll.owing chardctertsctcs:
..t. It should be comprehensive. All information diat Is relevant and Important
should appear In the report .
.t. Ir should be accurate. All Infonnatlon In the report should be free from error
and. bias.
• It should be based upon relta�le evidence and valid educator Judgements.
• It slilould be user-friendly. TI1e report should communicate its message clearly
and. unambiguously so that parents and guardians can understand :It.
teachers want ro provide parents with comprehensive lnfortnation about what their
children have achieved and what they need ro do to improve on t heir perfonnance.
then much more detailed rep<>rrs are required..
Of course, teachers have ro use the type of report required by the school at which
diey work. and diar report must comply with the requirements mandated. by die
Department of Basic Education. However. these departmental requirements specify
the minimum information d1at Is required ln repo-rrs; rhey do not prohibit reachers
from giving parents much more comprehensive reports. Although It Involves extra
time and effort. teachers should -consider expanding fhelr reports to In.elude other
aspects, such as:
• derailed lnfomiatlon about the learning that has been achieved. [deally, this
lnfonnallon would refer to specific our.comes In eacill su·b)ect.. but ln practice this
Is genercllly nor practical. A compromise ls shown In Figure 15.8:
..t. specl6c reference to the learner's strengths In each subject;
.A. derails of any part1cutar difficulties that the learner has experienced:
• Information .about any special support that the learner needs;
• constructive feedback al>out �he learner's performance and progress since the
last reporr, with suggestions on how d1ls progress could be built on;
• some indication of the learner's progress towards achievement of the broad
alms of education. such as working effective{y with oJhers as a nzember a if
teau1; and
.t. lnfonnallon about the learner's lnrerpersonal .skills, contribution to the school
community, general behaviour and a!ltltude towards learning.
Jc Is ln1posslble co achieve all t.hese goals with a report. char simply gives an
overall Indication of the learner's achievement in each subject by allocatlng a level
descrtpror and Including .a few general comments. To achieve rhe above goals, It ts
neoessa ry to have a report that Is at least as detailed as the one shown in Figure
15.8. You will note that this report focuses on the !earner's performance In Just one
subJeer, and that it oontalns:
A a context statement that provides a concise descrtptlon of the course work
covered durtng the reporting per1od;
• a clear descrtpdon of the learner's achievements 1vlrh reference co the subject
outcomes (bur 1vlth the ourcomes expressed 1111 simple language);
..t. a short profile of die learner ro Indicate ho1v he/she approaches school and
learning, and what progress ts being made cowards the broad alms of school
educadon;
..t. a summary of the learner's overall achievement ex[llressed as a percentage and
as a level descriptor (as mandated by the National Protocolfor Assessment
Grades R 12);
- and
"' some brief teacher comments to highlight additional strengrhs. suggest areas
for Improvement and Indicate the progress that the learner has mad.e since che
last report.
..t. Balanced: Your report should provl<le a representative, clear and unbiased
picture of the learner's achievements. It should describe the learner's major
achlevemenrs but also Indicate any significant areas for Improvement. Any
partilcu!ar emphasis that you place on lnfom1adon ln the report should be
propordona! co Its Importance.
This repordng format requires at least a page ofInformation about each subject and
rdkes some ti'lme co 1vr1te, bur It conveys more useful Infonnatlon than a single-page
report coverlng all subjects In a grade.
 GRADE 9 REPORT - LANGUAGES
laarner: Repo,mng period:
Teacher: ISSt.18 date:

Course context statement

During this /<>rm leom6'1S studiGd spoi<M, print, visual and mulfimGdia /<>Xis with
a particular GfTlphosis on South African texts tnot rspros13ntoci a ta"f)9 ol social
ge,1der and cultural perspsctives. lsorrors W8i'9 enoourogocl to /i11k too idB-as,
intormaJion and points of viGI• p1PS00l00 in too fgxfs to tooir own bactg/OUf"ld
and oxPl}fi«lces. LoorllMI ongogod in dixussio/1!! and dooatos to dwo/op lhoir
speaking skiNs in both fOlmal and informal situations.

Leeming outcomes I 2 3 4
listons for informotion ond rosponds appropriotoly ond
critioally.

Communica1oo confioentty and effectively wherl speaking.

UsGS larnguage to think and reason.

Reads and responds criticollY to f.Gxts.

DemonstratGcS undarstanding of texts by answOOng

quootions.
Wri19S diffi;,roof tinds ol facfual and imaginative k>xts.
Uses conect longwge strucl\Jr�. spelling ond
purnctuotion..

legend: 1 = missing or irrelevant 2 =poor 3 = acceptable 4 = high qualify

Persona I profile NE s u C
Motivated and interestocf in leanning.

Cornmitied to achieving pe(sonal best.

Worts independently with minimum siupervision.

Communicates eftectiwly and appropriaf.ely.

Makes productive contributions fo olass-room discussions.

War.ks effectively in groups and teams.

Comple1es hom8\NOl'k and assessment tasks on time.

I.GgGnd: NE= Nol -81/idool S = Sometimes U = Usua lly C = Consistently

Teacher's comment.s:
[This SGCfion ,night incJuds additional information about /he loom,,,'s strengths and
orsas tor imptDVGm9()t, comm9flts about t"9 learner's prog= �- to gen9'CJ/
expecta.ffons.. and proi:Se to, th& 16orner's contribution to the school or commun-Jfy.J

OveJatl ossessl'T)Qjnt mark: Overall achieveme11t level:

T90Choc: [signoluro} Parent interview r9QUestoo:YES/NO

Figure 15.8: Example report

Of course, If yoiu use a reporting fom1.at such as rhls, the ·overdll as:sess.mem mark'
and. the 'overall achievement level' (shown In bold near tl1e bottom of the report)
must be co:mslsrenr with the mandated reporting scale shown In figure I s.2.
To arrive at a final assessment ma11k, you wlll need ro consider an appropriate
weighting o,r the achievements Uisred under the learning outcomes 111 rhe above
example. This wtll nor be a trivial exercise, However, It wUI be worth Ir, as It will
result In mu.ch more defensllble overall assessment marks than you c.an possibly
achlteve by simply adding marks from Individual assessment tasks without rtylng
co relate those marks ro sranctards of .achievement.
REVIEW AND REFLECT ON YOUR LEARNING
Develop answers ro each of these quescions and discuss your answers with another
srnden r or with an experienced reacher.
1. \A/l1y does the Nan-.Onal Protoco/Jor Assessment Grades R-12 dlslingulsh
between fonnal and lnfonnal assessment?
2. Why ls rellablllty In assessment necessaiy but not sufficlent for valid assessmen(I
3. What steps will you rake ro ensure that your Judg-emenrs about learners·
achlevemen.rs are valid?
4. Wh.at are the practlcal consequences of fOClilslng on equality and equity In
assessment?
5. Explain die dllfe rence benveen cr'Jterton-referenced assessment· and srandards­
referenced assessment.
6. Using examples from your teaching spe,;;lal!saticm, !11usrrate how you could
explain the prtnclples, advantages .and llmltatlons of standards-referenced
assessment ro parents.
7. How w!II you Justlfy to a parent diat you gave their chlld a mark of 49%
(moderate achievement) and not 5096 (adequate achlevemenr} In a subject on
an end-of-year report?
8. Wh.ar wlll you say to a p•arent who asks: 'Is 50% a pass mark?'
9. \'lh.at would you say to a parent who was concerned about their chlld recelvting
only 65% In a dass test?
10. What type of feedback ls most useful to you when you are being assessed. In
your university course? Why?
11 . If you are a reacher of a subject other than a language, how concerned should
you be .about the ab.lllty of your learners to use correct grammar and spelrnng
In their wrtting?
12. When mark!lng assessment r.asks, why should you be concerned with giving
learners feedback that w'lll help diem to Improve their wrldng?
13. Whar effect might It have on learners If your marking emph.astses techntc.al
weaknesses (such as spelllng errors), rather than focusing on the subsranfilve
content of the assessment rask?
14. How can you ensure that your marking guides focus on deep undersrancllng?
15. If you construct .a marking gulde that ls ci.osely allgned wlch d1e outcomes you
are trying to assess. and which de6nes the various levels of possible response
very tightly, how will you accommodate answers that are the resulr of 'think.Ing
outside ·che square'?
16. How wlll you balance your res[(lonslbllltles for assessment ef learning (for
accountablllty purposes) and assessmentfbr lean1lng?
17. What can you do ro minimise the posstbUJty that your marl<lng or grddlng
methods disadvantage some learners?
18. Obtain copies of several different forms of school report. (or use your own old
school reports) and crldcally evaluate each report from the perspecdve of the
reporcing gu!de(Lnes given In d1is cha[(lter.
Finally, It ls very Important to reaU!se tliat accurate and. meaningful reporcing of
learner achlevemenr requires much more than a useful report fonnat. It requires
a commltment by teachers to develop their understanding of the prtnclples of
assessment. which were outlined earlier In this chapter, to th.e point where those
prtnclp!es can be applied. con.slstendy.
19. V/hy Is It Important for schools to have a co-ordinated but flexible approach to
reponing?
20. Ho\,, could teachers ln a school work \Vlrh rhelr local community ro ensure that
the way In which the school reports Iean1er achievement meers the needs of
parents .and employers?
21. HO\\' will you help parents t o undersrand tine achievement desc.rtptors (eg
meritortous achievement) on report cards?
22. \l,�1en describing rhe types of fom1al assessment that should be used, many
of the CAPS lndude sraremenrs such as 'The fomJS of assessment used should
t>e age anct developmental level appropriate'. How will yot1 enst1re that che
assessment rasks you use meer these crtcerta?

USEFUL WEBSITES
Supporting documents for the National Currtculum Statements are ava:llable from
http://Wlvw.educatloD.gov.za/.