Cryogenic Diamond Turning of Stainless Steel

C. Evans, National Institute of Standards and Technology/USA - Submitted by J. B. Bryan, Active Member
Received on January 16,1991

Summnrv

Tool wear is extremeiy rapid when ferrous materials are single point diamond turned. This
paper reviews diamond tool wear mechanisms. showing that both fracture and chenicJl
mechanisms may be important. The rate of all chemicai reactions increases exponentially
with temperature. Hence tool wear may be reduced significantly by machining at c y g e n i c
temperatures. A cryogenic machining system comprising tool post and chuck wlth
constrained liquid nitrogen flows has been built. Using this system a number of 35 mm
diame!er. 400 series stainless steei flats have been diamond turned. Surface finish is better
tlian 25 nm Ra.

Kenvords: precision engineering. diamond turning. steel

Introductioq Adhesion:

Single crystal natural diamonds have been used by engravers for millennia
and 3s lathe tools for centuries1. The technology which today is commonly
referred to as single point diamond turning (SPDT) has more recent origins.
Parallei developments in Europe and the USA starting in the 19Jb have led
to widespread use of SPDT in production of military optics, scanners.
computer memory discs, optical molds. infra-red imaging optin e t ~ ? ~For.
much of this period. quality of the parts produced was limited largely by
machine performance which, naturally. was the focus of most development
efforts. More recently there has been increased interest in understanding the
details of tool-workpiece interactions.
The ultra-precision machining community has generally accepted the premise
that only certain materials are "diamond turnable"; a number of authors have
published lists of materials that are "diamond turnable". treating it almost as
an intrinsic material property. In practice. diamond turnable materials are
those where the tool wear rate is low enough that reasonable areas of
specular surface can economically be produced. Sore that final surface finish
is also affected by machine characteristics, machining parameters and
materials related phenomena such as differential elastic recovery of adjacent
grains, inclusions, and fracture.
It is well known that ferrous metals are not "diamond turnable"; tool wear
is extremely rapid. The mechanisms of tool wear are less well understood,
although there is some evidence that chemical effects are important. A joint
experiment involving the National Institute of Standards and Technology and
Los Alamos National Laboratory aims to show that chemicai effects are
dominant by machining at cryogenic temperatures. This paper outlines the
ideas involved and presents the first experimental resuits.
Wear of s inde cnstal diamond tools
Polycrystalline diamond tools have found increasing application in machining
a range of hard abrasive materials. Casey and Wilks' emphasize the
difference in performance between the tougher polycrystalline tools. for
which there is a body of practical wear data, and single crysial tools for which
the basic wear mechanisms and wear rates are poorly understood.
One of the esrablished "axioms" of the modern diamond turning community
is that near theoretical finish is achievable, on diamond turnable materiais,
because "you do not get 3 built-up edge (BUE)"". An adherent BCE is
occasionally formed when machining some grades of aluminum. producing
poor surface finish.
Merchant" reports the formation of a built up edge when diamond turning
low carbon SA€ 1035 steel. In his description of comparative cutting tests
using both hish speed steel and diamond tools, Merchant notes that a
built-up edge formed on both tools and the resulting surface finish was poor
in both cases; there was substantial damage to the high speed steel roo1 but
the cutting edge of the diamond remained sharp and even. The built-up edge
was extremely adherent. Cutting speeds range from 0.225 to 2.625 mis (45
to 525 ftjmin) and. Merchant recallsi3. no cutting fluid was used. Material
removal rates and measured tool forces were high compared to modern
diamond turning practice.
Bowden and Freitag", in studies of the friction of diamond running against
steel at high speeds in vacuum, observed that above a critical sliding speed
(200 m/s for ball bearing steel), metal is smeared over the surface of the
diamond. The diamond is untouched, the rubbing interface is metal on metal,
and adhesion prevent5 diamond wear. Below the critical speed there is no
apparent metallic transfer and the diamond wears rapidly.
One explanation for the high wear rates of diamond tools in machining steel
that has been proposed" is based on an unstable BL'E. .4n increasing BUE
increases tensile forces on the diamond edge which eventually frac:ures and
the process starts again. If this mechanism were dominant, evidence of the
BUE should be seen on the tool; no such evidence can be found in our
experiments (reported below) or in the micrographs of Wilks" or
CasstevensI6. In addition, loads and speeds are typically much lower than
those where BUE or adherent transfer films are reported. However. there is
insufficient evidence to discount this mechanism completely.
Abrmion:

There are a number of reasons. both economic and technical. for the paucity
of quantitative data on the wear of single crystal diamond tools used in ultra-
precision machining. Tools, machines, and hence experiments are expensive.
-
Typical finishing depths of cut are in the range 0.1 2 micrometers, as are
target part tolerances; accurate measurement of edge recession that is a small
fraction of these dimensions is M I trivial. A scanning electron microscope
(SEM). for example, can provide much information'at the end of a test;
problems of relocating the tool in the tool holder with sufficient precision
suggest that intermittent SEM inspection during a tool wear test may itself
affect the experiment.
Plunge cuts or rapid feed facing can be used in tool qualification5" and
process intermittent tool wear niea~urement'~.Typically a fine grained
copper is used to replicate the tool signature or finger print which is
measured using optical or stylus techniques. This approacli has worked well
where tool wear rates are relatively slow. When wear rates are high, or for
preliminary studies, the change in surface finish as a function of cutting
distance is a useful indicator of performance. Note. however, that in some
cases surface finish improves with initial tool wear' and can remain
acceptable even in the presence of significant polishing wear.
Tool wear mechanisms
Wear of single crystal diamond turning tools may occur by a number of
mechanisms which may take place simultaneously and interactively. For
convenience these mechanisms are treated in this paper in four groups: (a)
adhesion and the formation of a built-up edge; (b) abrasion, microchipping.
fracture and fatigue; (c) tribo-thermal; and (d) tribochemical wear9,1D.
The term 'abrasive wear' is commonly used in circumstances when one of a
number of different material removal mechanisms is taking place. There is
a substantial body of literature on the abrasion of diamond on diamond.
reviewed for example by Wilk~'.*~. Indeed the production of single crystal
diamond turning tools (and many other diamond products) depends on
exactly this process. I t is clear, however, that classical ideas of abrasive wear
of ductile materials. involving plastic deformation and shear", are
inappropriate for the diamond, particularly when the diamond is sliding 011
a soft material. In multi-phase materials. simple guidelines requiring, for
example, that the abrasive particle have a Vickers hardness 1.5 times that of
the worn material" are inadequate. Ramalingam and LVatsonl' point out
that inclusions in steels may have Vickes hot hardness up to 2 orders of
magnitude greater than the iron matrix and that these. particles are
responsible for relatively rapid wear of high speed steel and cemented
carbide tools. Inclusion hardness. however, is still less than diamond
hardness'". Furthermore, diamond exhibits negligible plasticity below 19WK.
Thus, even for diamond-diamond abrasive wear, the mechanism for materia!
removal is microcleavage".
I t is common experience in diamond turning soft metals that inclusions and
hard particles cause nicks in the tool edge and a degradation of surface
finish. Such inclusions are softer than the diamond and wear is by fracture
along the preferred cleavage (111) plane rather than by abrasion2. So
called "attritive" wear may arise from the same mechanism.
Contrary to expectation. diamond shows fatigue behavior due presumably to
crystal imperfections and sub-surface damage from polishing. Diamond
fracture srrength has been shown 10 decrease with increasing number ofstress

Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 40/1/1991 571

cycles. T h u s the induction period observed by Compton et ;iI2' in low speed
rubbing wear of diamnnds may be explained in terms of the number of cycles
required to initiate mcl!erial removal. The relationship between hardness and
induction period is also explicable: stress will depend on asperity h:trdneis.
Hard materials. such as electrolesr nickel and germanium. may be single
point diamond turned relatively easily. Thus one might argue that this
mechanism is irrelevant. Sow, however. that the fatigue mechanism may
conrribute to tool wear when machining steels of relatively low hardness. In
this case. the carbides will introduce re!arively high frequency cyclic stresses.
However, this mechanism does not explain the very high wear rate ohserved
when single point diamond turning 99.998% purity iron.
Tribothennul.
Increased temoeratures at the tool-work interface may cause thermal
degradation of rhe diamond. Diamond is an unstable allotrope of carbon and,
as is well known. reverts !o graphite at elevated temperatures, above 1800 K
in vacuum or an inert gas", in oxygen at about 1100 K and in !he presence
of iron at above i000 K. Loladze and Bokuchava are quoted by Thornton
and WilksB as having: "measured the temperature of the rake face of a
diamond tool turning steel using an optical pyromerer, and recorded values
ranging from 600 K to 1300 K at cutting speeds beween 2.5 mis and 10
m/s". Simple extrapolation of this data to the surface speed used in our high
tool wear experiments would give a temperature less than 400K; linear
extrapolation would clearly be Iwata. Moriwaki and
Okuda used workpiece thermocouples to measure local temperatures when
flycut;ing copper. Measured temperatures for relatively larze depths of cut
(50micrometers) show a strong effect of surface speed; depth of cut, over a
10-50 nucrometer range. appears less important. Linear extrapolation of their
50 micrometer depth oi cut data to our conditions suggests temperatures
below 350K.
Sleasured tool temperatures generlllly found in the literature for conventional
cutting operations show peak temperatures typicallu on the rake face some
distance behind the cutting edge. Lucca and Seo" have shown that when
depths of cut are of the order of micrometers, rake and flank temperatures
are comparahle. They predict temperatures only a few degrees above
ambient. Tool forces, and hence temperatures, may be expected to be similar.
when machining electroless nickel and steel. If thermal graphitization were
the primary wear mechanism. wear rates should be similar, not orders of
magnitude different.
In general, temperatures In SPOT appear to be well below those for which
rapid thermal graphitization would be obsened. Yet even at low depth of cut
and surface speed, diamond tool wear can be very rapid when machining
certain materials.
Tribochewiical:
Three types of trihochemical wear are possible: oxidation,
diffusion/dissolution, and catalyzed graphitization. Diamond oxidizes rapidly
at 900-1000K; as indicated above. rapid wear is observed when temperatures
are far below this level. Thornton and iVilks2 compared wear rates at very
low cutting speeds with the work-piece at ambient and 490K. no difference
was observed, indicated that the mechanism is not thermally activated under
some sliding conditions.
If chemical processes are critical, it seems reasonable to suppose that wear
rates would be affected by environmental changes. Casstevens" and Wilks
and his coworkers'8,n have performed cutting tests in a variety of gaseous
atmospheres which indicate that chemical wear processes are involved when
machining ferrous materials.
The most interesting feature of the Thornton and Wilks results is that at
moderate cutting speeds, operation at reduced pressures reduced the wear
(all these experiments were performed on mild steels). At higher cutting
speeds, changing the air pressure gave no significant difference, while at very
low speeds reducing the pressure increased the wear rate. The explanation
offered is that, above some critical speed oxygen can no longer get to the
tool-workpiece interface (for a given tool and machining operation). Oxygen
will oxidize the diamond or catalyze graphitization if temperatures are high
enough, but may 'poison' the surfaces if solid state graphitization is taking
place. An alternative explanation would be that at higher cutting speeds the
thermal effects at the tool tip overwhelms the ability of oqgen to "poison"
the catalytic process. ,
A central feature of the Wilks approach is the suggestion that the freshly
generated rurfaces are extremely reactive. The diamond surfxes are, clearly.
covered with contaminants which may be removed by the work material
rubbing over both the rake face and the clearance. Chemisorbed species may
be more tenacious. requiring relatively high temperatures in vacuum to
remove them. Work by Pate, Wuclawski and ~ o - w o r k e r s ~ ' ~suggests
~'
another possible wear mechanism: working with Type IIB (semi-conducting)
natural diamonds. they found that the (111) face, at least. is hydrogen
terminated. i.e. every surface carbon atom is bonded to 3 other carbons and
one hydrogen. The source of this hydrogen is presumably the oil used on the
polishing scaife. Heating such a surface in vacuum drives off the hydrogen
572
and gives a reconstructed surface with "benzene ring" type appearance.
Recons:ructions have also been observed on (100) and (110) surfaces3' It
is not yet known it' such surface, are produced in the toolwork interface or
if such surfaces are easier to graphitize. It is probable that chemisorbed films
will atfect chemical wear procewes, but no data is available yet.
Casstevens argued that, if a more availahle form of carbon could be
introduced. the reaction beween steel and diamond would be slowed. Thus
he perfnrmed his tests in carbon rich environments (methane and ethyne
(acetylene)) on both mild steel and high carbon steels of different hardness.
The focus of his work was the production of specular surfaces, and the area
produced in a given tool-workpiece combination is the main criterion.
Casstevens demonstrates that the high carbon. hard steels gave the best
results. both in terms of surface finish and tool wear. Annealing the hizh
carbon steel gave a poorer finish. thus supporting the historical literature
(reviewed :n Ref 1) In its suggestion that the best results are obtained when
turning "spring hard steels". In his paper. Casstevens emphasizes, however.
that the work reported was. by nature. a preliminary study and that the eifect
of steel composition on carbon solubility needs attention.
Hitchiner and WilksM have also machined mild steel in a methane
environment and found that the wear rates increased. Similar results were
found with hydrogen. The explanation offered is that both hydrogen and
methane are chemisorbed on iron, dissociating to give atomic hydrogen and
carbon; these may then react with the diamond to form a gaseous
hydrocarbon wear product.
The conflict between these two sets of results is difficult to resolve. Wilks e:
al used larger depths of cut and feed rates but cut at constant surface speeds.
They take repeated cuts over the same billet, raising some question about
work hardening effects (ubsewed by Casstevens. but not quantified). It
appears that no coolant/cutting fluid is used in any of their tests. Casstevens
reports attempting to machine the high carbon steel in 3 methane
environment with no coolant: tool wear was rapid and surface finish poor.
Clearly, much more information is required about the diamond-methane-
hydrogen-iron system before any real understanding will emerge. Note that
Grigoriev and Kovalsky machine and sharpen diamond by placing it in
contact with iron or nickel foil at elevated temperature in a hydrogen
environment: merhane is given off.
The nub of Casstevens' approach is a dissolution wear mechanism. Suh"
reviewed this type of wear in single point cutting tools, giving predicted and
experimental wear rates for a wide range of tool materials. No experimental
data for diamond was included. Komanduri and Shads3 have
demonstrated such a mechanism in diamond grinding of iron: they suggest
that. first, surface graphitization occurs followed by dissolution of the
graphitic carbon into the iron. This mechanism, rather than direct dissolution
of the diamond, is supported by their finding that wear is a function of
crystallographic orientation; wear is least in the (110) planes, which are also
the most resistant to (high temperature) graphitization. A number of other
workers have observed the dissolution of diamond. Brookesn, Ikawa and
Tanaka, and Loladze and Bakuchavai8 have loaded diamond indenters into
ferrous workpieces at a variety of temperatures and observed carbon content
gradients that correlate well with a simple diffusion model. Tanaka, lkawa
a ~ ~ reported "remarkable graphitization" on the surfaces of
and T ~ u w have
diamonds heated with iron and manganese powders: lower "thermal erosion"
was observed with nickel.
Dinmond tool wear on steel;
The foregoing review indicates that a number of mechanisms may be
involved in tool wear in the single point diamond turning of steels. More than
one mechanism may contribute, and the balance of mechanisms is clearly a
strong function of specific operaring conditions. Any wear of the diamond
tool will increase tool forces and hence temperature; this in turn will increase
rates of dissolution. diffusion, and catalyzed graphitization. Carbon content
of the work material (enhanced by operating in a methane environment) will
reduce diffusion, if this is the limiting mechanism. Wilks and Hitchiner's
latest data" tend to support this idea.
In ultra-precision machining using slow feed rates, low surface speeds and
small depths of cut, flash temperatures are expected to be low. In these
circumstances diffusion/dissolution is not expected to be the dominant wear
mechanism. Rather the mechanism is more likely to be the solid state iron
catalyzed graphitization proposed by Hitcliner and Wilks*.
The rate of all chemical reactions increases exponentially with temperature.
Evans" and Li" independently proposed reducing the energy input to the
system. Li used liquid nitrogen as a coolant and reported a substantial
reduction in tool wear. LI'S approach does not. however. unambiguously
change only one variable: rapidly boiling nitrogen will alter significantly the
atmosphere at the tool-work interface. Evans' proposal was to chill tool
and/or work independently. The next section of this paper reports "proof of
principle" experiments using a specially modified diamond turning machine.
Exoerirnental method
The experiments dcscribed here were performed on a modified diamond
tuning machine originally huilt for the US Department of Energy's Y-12
Plant and now located a: Los Alamos National Laboratory. The machine is
built on a Moore #3' plain way base with an eddy current motor driven,
porous graphite, air bearing spindle.
In the first series of experiments, reported here, 440V' stainless steel was
machined. 440V' is a fine grained. ve;< clean. powder metallurgy stainless
steel with an even distribution of small (ca. 1 micrometer) carbides (Figure
1). n i s material was selected because: (a) it represents the class of materials
of interest to optical mold makers; (b) stainless steels senerally remain
duc!iie at low temperatures; and (c) the small carbides reduces the
probability of large scale fracturing. .4s supplied hardness is 23 R,, but UOV
may be heat treated to >62 R, with minimal distortion. Parts were not
hardened before machining because this would lead to increased diamond
wear by fracture. 35 mm diameter blanks with a 6.5 mm central relief hole
were rough machined using CBK tools and a copious tlow of light mineral oil
as a coolant. Parts are turned on center.
l 3 e natural diamond tools used for finishing cuts were obtained from the J.
Robert Moore Co'. Nose radius was 0.508 mm, rake -lo, and clearance 6";
shanks are 12.5 mm square 1018 steel. Finishing cuts are made from the part
OD moving in; spindle speed is 780 rpm. feed rate I micrometer per
revolution. and nominal depth of cut was 2.5 micrometers. Some thermal drift
of :he system during a cut was expected: depth of cut was selected to exceed
this drift.
For cpogenic tests, tools are chilled by thermal conduction along the shank
(Figure 2). Tools are clamped in a special purpose tool holder designed to
minimize heat flux from the tool post. The rear of the tool shank is immersed
in a reservoir of liquid nitrogen (LN). A thermocouple is typically brazed to
the tool shank close !o the diamond to give an indicarion of the temperature
reduction achieved (for equivalent machining conditions). but not as a
measure of actual diamond temperature.
A simple equiiibrium thermal model of the tool posr was developed.
Calcuiaied diamond temperature ranges from 90 to 160K and is dominated
by the value assumed for the air side convective heat transfer coefficient and
is largely insensitive to liquid side coefficients, over reasonable ranges.
Handbook values for the air side coefficient are 25-25,OOOW/m-K. Values
at the high end of the range might be predicted considering the windage from
the rotating spindle. Measured shank temperatures are typically 1 3 0 y in
reasonable agreement with the model.
The ayogenic chuck is based on a rotating reservoir (Figure 3). The front
face of this reservoir is diamond turned electroplated copper and the rear of
each part lapped to maximize contact area and hence minimize thermal
contact resistance. LN is supplied to the reservoir through the stationary
supply tube. hits the front face of the reservoir and is thrown out
centrifugally. Clearly, the spindle may not be stopped in operation as this
would result in half the LN flowing out of the cryogenic chuck. LN flow rate
is adjusted so that the rotating boil-off tube carries only traces of liquid.
Thermal models of the chuck show the same trends as the tool post.
Computed temperatures show reasonable qualitative agreement with
measurements made with the spindle stationary.
To minimize thermal drift during a cut, the tool is brought to within 100
micrometers of the roughed surface. LN then added to toolpost reservoir and
10 the chuck and the system left to soak out for 2 hours. 'Touch off" is
accomplished close to the part O D using either a microphone or an
accelerometer mounted on the boring bar; output from the accelerometer is
monitored in a digital oscilloscope and from the microphone through an
amplifier and headphones. This "touch-off' procedure introduces an
uncertainty of approximately 10% in the nominal depth of cut in cryogenic
tests.
The results reported here are for a single pass with the diamond tool from
the OD tn the ID of the part. A copious tlow of light mineral oil is used
when machining at room temperature. No oil is used in the cryogenic
experiments.
In experiments at room temperature, tool wear was so rapid that the tool
ceased cutting well before the center of the part.
At cryogenic temperatures no difference in surface finish is observed between
the 35 mm O D and 6 mm ID of the part. No tool wear was detected by
optical microscope observation of the rake surface at up to 4 0 0 ~ This
. does
* Certain commercial equipment, instruments, instruments. or materials
are identified in this paper in order to adequately specifi the experimental
procedure. Such identification does not imply recommendation or
endorsement by the National Institute of Standards and Technology nor does
it imply that the materials or equipment are necessarily the best available for
the purpose.
not imp!? zeio tool wear. o ~ l low
y wear when machining less than 1000 mm2
of 410v' steel.
Surface finish (Figure 4). measured using Wyko Top0 3D' with a 2Ox
ob;ective is better t h n n 25 nm Ra. The periodic structure observed resulted
from slideway servo problems: asynchronous spindle errors 3re not affected
bp the cryogenic chuck. The part clamping scheme was not optimized. and is
expec:ed :o introduce some parr deformation. Yevertheless, surface figure
measured in a Wyko 6000' interferome:er (Figure 5 ) is better than 1 'wave
i633 nm).
F i p r e 6 is a Yomarski differential interference contrast mic:ogaph oi a
440V' sample turned crvogenically. Interactions between tool and carbides
dominate ;he fine structure. Trails in :he cutting direction suggest that !he
material is ducile in [he cutting conditions.
hluimum chip thickness, .,t can be estimated as:
t, = F(2d;R)a5
whe:e F is the feed m e per revolution. R the tool nose radius. and d the
nominal depth of mt. :m here is 100 nm, a small fraction of the carbide size.
Conclm
Both diffusion and catalyzed graphitization will be slowed at low
temperatures. The axperiment desc:ibed cannot differentiate explicitly
between the mechanisms. Attritive wear will not, however. be affected
significantly by operating at reduced temperatures as the workpiece remains
ductile. The experiments provide direct evidence that tribochemical wear is
dominant under the conditions used. Further experimental work is required
to determine the range of conditions over which this is true.
Diamond turned stainless steel surfaces have been produced which would be
usable. as machined. for some classes of infra-red optics. However, we have
not developed a practical machining process: substantial development work
is still required
-ts
R. Lundin and D. Stewart (Los hlamos National Laboratory) have made
major contributions to the practical implernenration of the cryogenic 1001post
and chuck concepts outlined here. R. Polvani and W. T'.Estler (National
Institute of Standards and Technolog) and R. L. Rhorer and P. Hannah
(LANL) have provided help, encouragement and support. Crucible Steel Co
provided samples of ~ o v ' .
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(3 Dlaces)
1 LNI reservoir

35. Komanduri R.. Shaw hl. C.. 1976, On the diffusion wear of diamond
in grinding pure iron, Philosophical Magazine. Vol 34, ppl95-2W Figure 3. Schematic of cryogenic chuck system (not to scale) and test part
36. Komanduri R., Shaw M. C., 1973, Wear of synthetic diamond when
grinding ferrous metals. Nature, Vol 25-5, p p t l l - 3
37. Brookes C. A., 1971, The friction of diamond :it elevated temperatures
and its interfacial reactions with steel, Industrial Diartlond Review, 0
Vol 31. pp2I-4

38. Ikawa N. and Tanaka T. (1971) and Loladze T. K..and Bakcchava G.

V.; cited in Komanduri and Shaw (1976) op cit

39. Tanaka T.. Ikawa N.. Tsuwa H.,198 1, Affinity of diamonds for metals,
CIRP Annals, Vol 3011 pp241-5

40. Hitchiner, M. P., Wilks, J.. 1987. Some Remarks on the Chemical
Wear of Diamond and Cubic BN during Turning and Grinding, Wear,
Vol 114. 327-338 0 123 246 369 492
Uittanc. (Htcrclnt)
41. Evans C.. 1987. M.Sc Thesis, Cranfield Instirule of Technology Figure 4. Surface finish of cryogenic diamond turned 44OV' stainless steel:
30.9 nm RklS, 16.9 nm Ra.

574
17.3 -8.bO 0.99 8.78 17.S

Figure 5. Surface figure of a 35 mm diameter q o g e n i c diamond turned

UOV stainless steel flat. Measured figure is 0.938 waves (0.6 micrometers)
P-V. 0.168 (0.1 micrometers) RMS

Figure 6. Nomarski micrographs showing effect of carbides on fine ~tmcture

of diamond turned 44OV' steel surface. Direction of tool travel is lower left
to upper right

575