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Potential of industrial waste as alternative alkaline activator for development

of eco-efficient mortars

Article in Case Studies in Construction Materials · November 2022

DOI: 10.1016/j.cscm.2022.e01716

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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Case Studies in Construction Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cscm

Potential of industrial waste as alternative alkaline activator for

development of eco-efficient mortars
Jan Fořt a, *, Martin Mildner a, Martin Keppert a, Mohammed Abed b, Robert Černý a
a
Department of Materials Engineering and Chemistry, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Thákurova 7, Prague 6 166
29, Czech Republic
b
Engineering Department, King’s College, Wilkes-Barre, PA 18702, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The alkali-activated materials (AAMs) design can be viewed as one of the most investigated fields
Alkali-activated material in building materials engineering. However, despite numerous studies aimed at the utilization of
Waste activator various precursors, very limited attention is paid to the utilization of waste alkali sources as an
Workability
alternative to commercial activators. In this regard, this study provides a novel approach to the
Environmental benefit
Cost efficiency
utilization of industrial waste alkalis as a replacement for commercial alkali activators to reduce
Mechanical performance costs and reduce the environmental burden. The main innovation consists in the utilization of a
waste-cleaning solution (SWCA) as an alternative alkaline activator for blast furnace slag to
improve the environmental and economic efficiency and preserve functional properties. The
functional properties of designed alkali-activated mortars are described by the setting time, pore
size distribution, and mechanical strength. To comply with sustainable measures, the carbon
dioxide emissions and costs analysis associated with the material production are carried out. The
obtained results reveal the great potential of waste alkaline sources as a replacement for com­
mercial activators. The increase in the applied SWCA concentration induced a shortening in the
initial setting time from 240 to 120 min and the final setting time from 480 to 245 min. The
designed mixtures reached a satisfactory level of mechanical strength (25 MPa) in comparison to
low-grade cement mortars together with a substantial reduction in environmental burden
excluding the avoided production. Specifically, a carbon footprint of 75 kg/m3 CO2 equivalent
was achieved which represents 5 times lower values compared to low-grade concrete and even
better value than AAMs based on a commercially-produced activator. Significant improvements
were achieved also in cost efficiency per cubic meter as it was dropped to approx 40 €/m3, thus
designed alkali-activated mortars provide better cost efficiency per cubic meter over traditional
binders. The findings show that AAMs based on waste alkaline activator should of particular
attention to materials science as lowers the consumption of energy-intensive sources and repre­
sent a valuable step toward a circular economy.

Abbreviations: AAM, alkali-activated material; C20/25, concrete, compressive strength of 20/25 Mpa; CE, cost efficiency; GBFS, ground blast
furnace slag; GWA24, alkali-activated mix by 24% activator; GWA32, alkali-activated mix by 32% activator; GWA40, alkali-activated mix by 40%
activator; GWA48, alkali-activated mix by 48% activator; GWA56, alkali-activated mix by 56% activator; LCA, Life cycle assessment; LDH, layered
double hydroxide; M, molar concentration; MIP, Mercury intrusion porosimetry; RHA, rice husk ash; SEM, Scanning electron microscopy; SWCA,
solidified waste cleaning agent; wt, weight fraction; XRD, X-ray diffraction; XRF, X-ray fluorescence.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jan.fort@fsv.cvut.cz (J. Fořt).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2022.e01716
Received 4 November 2022; Received in revised form 21 November 2022; Accepted 26 November 2022
Available online 30 November 2022
2214-5095/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Please cite this article as: Jan Fořt, Case Studies in Construction Materials, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2022.e01716
J. Fořt et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials xxx (xxxx) xxx

1. Introduction

The potential of alkali-activated materials as Portland cement replacement has been discussed over the last decades extensively by
many research teams [1–4]. This trend complies with efforts aimed to transition towards a circular economy model with emphasis on
the minimization of discarding end-of-life materials and various industrial by-products. In this regard, the development of a whole new
cement-free binder based on alkali activation allows the utilization of substantially higher amounts of waste materials since the cement
replacement usually works effectively up to 30 wt% replacement [5,6]. The investigation of Portland cement alternatives has attracted
significant attention from many researchers through the utilization of natural artificial aluminosilicate materials activated by alkali
activators. The reaction occurred in the presence of alumino-silicate oxides under highly alkaline conditions yielding polymeric
Si—O—Al—O bonds and the formation of a dense structure [7]. Combination of rich silica and alumina sources with alkaline solution
results in the dissolving of Al2O3 and SiO2 and the consequent formation of a three-dimensional amorphous aluminosilicate network
providing the competitive mechanical performance to concrete [8]. The detailed mechanism of the alkali-activation process can be
found in Ken et al. [9]. During the last few years, a broad variety of precursors have been investigated with particular success. Among
others, coal fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag, and metakaolin were found as suitable materials if dopped by strong alkaline
solutions such as sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, and sodium silicate [10]. In line with the advances in the knowledge
describing the formation of the silico-aluminate structures, other alternatives to previously mentioned precursors have been intro­
duced and studied together with the effects of used alkaline activators on resulting functional performance represented predominantly
by the mechanical strength, durability, etc. [10–12]. Compared to Portland cement concrete, the alkali-activated materials do not
suffer from exposure to a chloride environment, and in general, provide better performance in an aggressive environment [13].
In terms of improvement of engineering properties, the effect of SiO2 molar ratio, different curing conditions, and concentration of
applied alkaline activator were found as key factors for understanding the functional properties of formed alkali-activated materials
[14]. For example, the application of different molarities (3 M, 6 M, and 9 M) of NaOH activator resulted in different flocculation rates
of the silica particles, and consequently modifications in the compressive strength. As reported by Tuyan et al. [15], the effect of NaOH
molarity can be distinguished only in a certain interval since a high concentration of NaOH (above 10 M) does not provide significant
improvements. On contrary, the activation by 16.5 M NaOH may result in the precipitation of aluminosilicate gel.
Besides other benefits related to a high elastic strength modulus, fast setting time, resistance to high temperatures, and aggressive
environment, one of the major advantages of alkali-activated binders is related to lowered environmental impact thanks to omitted
production of Portland cement which is responsible for approx. 8% of global carbon dioxide emissions [16,17]. A relevant conclusion
in this sense has been provided by [1,18–20], who revealed substantial savings in emitted carbon dioxide. Here, namely savings from
30% to 70% can be expected according to local specifics, considered energy mix, and transportation distances. However, these
numbers were questioned by McLellan et al. [21] due to the sensitivity of presented results to transportation distance. Moreover,
Turner and Collins [22] published a substantially lower benefit (about 9%) compared to Portland cement concrete attributed to
negative environmental externalities relevant to the manufacturing of used alkaline activators. Notwithstanding, the environmental
burden associated with building materials production cannot be derived only from carbon dioxide emissions, and other impact cat­
egories need to be taken into account to provide a comprehensive overview of the environmental burden in terms of sustainable
development [23,24]. On this account, the performed LCA analysis contemplating the alternative scenarios for waste brick reuse refers
to significant “hidden” adverse effects in the case of alkali-activated materials production by an increase in other midpoint impact
categories such as carcinogens, ionizing radiations, etc. that are relevant to human health area of protection [25].
The correlation between the environmental-friendliness of alkali-activated binders and the type and amount of applied alkaline
activators attracted several other authors who discovered new pathways for the replacement of commercial activators by alternatives
such as waste glass or rice husk ash [26–28]. However, these alternatives to commercial activators cannot be deemed as universal
solutions due to limited availability in several countries. In other words, new alternatives to commercial alkaline activators need to be
revealed to om reach the desired level of environmental and economic efficiency. As revealed in available research papers, the sub­
stitution of conventional alkaline activators by waste alternatives provides further improvement of the environmental score together
with the preservation of functional parameters and contributes to the greening of the building sector [28,29].
The introduction of a new type of binder is usually accompanied by several adverse issues that need to be resolved [30–32]. The use
of alternative materials to Portland cement has crucial effects on engineering properties including rheology of fresh mixture, interfacial
transition zone formation, or loss in mechanical strength [33,34]. On top of that, handling and transportation usually represent
another drawback diminishing the real application potential. In this regard, the utilization of new materials for building material
design requires detailed research taking into account various parameters, used materials, and admixtures to avoid not viable solutions
and prevent one-sided solutions [35].
Current state-of-the-art describes mainly the potential of many types of precursors taking into account the effect of dosage and
molarity of applied alkaline activators [2–14]. However, only limited attention is paid to a deeper understanding of the negative
impacts associated with activator use [21,22,24]. To provide advances in the design of new advanced materials new approaches based
on the utilization of multiple waste materials need to be introduced to mitigate environmental burden and preserve engineering
properties. Therefore, the advanced industrial production in several countries can be viewed as a potential source of alkaline waste or
by-products that may serve as alkali activators.
In this regard, the identification and utilization of suitable waste alkalis represent an important step toward the design of genuinely
environmentally friendly building materials. In these terms, the main motivation of this paper is driven by the novel investigation of
the potential of waste materials as a replacement for commercial alkalis such as sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate to design a

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material with sufficient engineering properties, compressive strength above 20 MPa and significantly lowered environmental profile
compared to low-grade cement and AAMs based on commercial activators. For the successful achievement of the above-mentioned
goals, the following step was carried out: the characterization of granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS) activated by solidified waste
cleaning agents (SWCA) disposed of by the glass industry based on sodium hydroxide is accessed through the determination of the
chemical and mineralogical composition of particular components, initial and final setting time, measurement of basic material
properties, Mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP), and compressive and mechanical strength after 3, 7, and 28 days. To comply with
sustainable measures, cost analysis together with carbon footprint analysis are carried out to reveal environmental and economic
performance.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Used materials

In this study, the granulated blast furnace slag obtained from Kotouč Štramberk was considered as a primary precursor for alkali
activation due to its favorable composition based on CaO–SiO2–MgO–Al2O3 system. The oxide composition of materials was delivered
by XRF spectroscopy analysis (device: ARL 9400 XP). The results of the XRF analysis are shown in Table 1. Here, a major part is
composed of SiO2 and CaO with a minor part of Al2O3 and MgO in accordance with available literature [36].
The phase composition was determined by X-ray diffraction (XRD); diffractograms were obtained with the help of the Malvern
PANalytical Aeris diffractometer equipped with CoKα source operating at 7.5 mA and 40 kV. The incident beam path consisted of an
iron beta-filter, Soller slits 0.04 rad, and divergence slit 1/2◦ . The diffracted beam path was equipped with a 9 mm anti-scatter slit and
Soller slits 0.04 rad. The used detector was PIXcel1D-Medipix3 detector with an active length of 5.542◦ . Data were calculated by
Rietveld refinement performed by Profex software (ver. 4.1.0). Consequently, the amorphous portion ratio was estimated with the help
of an added internal standard (20% of ZnO).
The mineralogical characteristics are plotted in the XRD diffractogram in Fig. 1. Here, the performed analysis indicated that the
studied GBFS is composed mainly of the glassy phase. The mineralogical composition results are shown in Table 2, where the content of
akermanite, calcite, and a minor portion of quartz is quantified.
Used SWCA is composed of a major portion of NaOH (up to 95%), sulfates such as mirabilite and thenardite, and residual content of
tin (1%).
AAM mixtures were designed according to performed preliminary tests, and particular attention was paid to the investigation of the
concentration of SWCA in the activator. To investigate the effect of used SWCA, different concentrations ranging from 24% to 56%
were designed and prepared together with the relevant amount of GBFS and sand as given in Table 3. Samples were cast at laboratory
conditions (20 ◦ C and 45%RH) and stored for 28 days at the same condition after demolding.

2.2. Characterization techniques

The structural analysis of designed AAMs was performed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), with a field emission gun
scanning electron microscope Merlin-ZEISS (FEG-SEM, Zeiss, Jena, Germany) and a secondary electron detector operated at an ac­
celeration voltage of 15 kV, probe current of 300–800 pA, the working distance of 6–18 mm.
Initial and final setting times of designed AAMs were determined by a Vicat apparatus (Vicatronic Matest) according to the standard
EN 196–3:2016.
Basic material properties by the meaning of the total open porosity, bulk, and matrix density were obtained after 28 days of curing.
The bulk density measurement was done based on the gravimetric method. The matrix density was determined by using a helium
pycnometer (ATC Pycnomatic). The total open porosity was calculated from the obtained results of matrix and bulk density.
The mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) analysis was employed to study the pore size distribution. For this purpose, Pascal 140
and Pascal 440 devices (Thermo Scientific) were used. A circular cross-section of capillaries was assumed for the calculation of the
results, whereas the mercury contact angle was assumed to be 130◦ .

Table 1
Oxide composition of used GBFS precursor.
Oxide wt%

SiO2 39.1
CaO 38.8
Al2O3 9.0
MgO 8.7
MnO 0.9
K2O 0.7
SO3 0.6
Fe2O3 0.5
Na2O 0.4
TiO2 0.3
BaO 0.1

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Fig. 1. XRD pattern of GBFS precursor.

Table 2
Mineralogical composition of GBFS precursor.
Phase Formula wt. (%)

Amorphous phase – 81.7

Akermanite Ca2Mg(Si2O7) 12.1
Calcite CaCO3 4.7
Quartz SiO2 1.5

Table 3
Composition of designed mixtures (kg/m3).
Mixture GBFS SWCA solution Fine aggregate

GWA24 600 250 1200

GWA32 600 250 1200
GWA40 600 250 1200
GWA48 600 250 1200
GWA56 600 250 1200

Compressive and flexural strengths of AAMs were determined after 28 days of curing in laboratory conditions (EN 1015–11) by
using VEB WPM Leipzig device. Flexural strength was measured by a three-point bending test on three specimens with the dimensions
of 40 mm × 40 mm x 160 mm. Consequently, the compressive strength was determined on the left-over specimens after the flexural
strength test.

2.2.1. Environmental assessment

To provide an assessment of the environmental profile of designed AAM mixes, carbon dioxide emissions associated with the
production of particular components are taken into account. Here, the inventory data for each material were obtained from the
Ecoinvent database by using Simapro 9.0. The range of the environmental analysis was reduced to the production stage of materials
(cradle to gate) and one cubic meter was considered as a reference unit. Within the evaluation process, the transportation and avoided
production was neglected as the primary goal of the performed analysis is a simple comparison of CO2 emission between particular
materials. Processes such as mixing and casting are included in the analysis. For the comparison purposes, C20/25 concrete, alkali
activated mix based on commercial activator (pure NaOH/Na2SiO3) are used to access the overall environmental score.

Table 4
Input cost per each mixture constituent.
Constituent €/ton
GGBFS 40
Na2SiO3 220
NaOH 450
Water 4
Energy 167
SWCA 10
Gravel 30

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2.2.2. Cost analysis

To access the economic viability of the designed mixtures, a simplified financial cost analysis was performed. Basically, it examines
the cost of materials required for the manufacturing described alkali-activated mixes. Input data were obtained from an industrial
trading platform (Alibaba.com). the costs related to each mixture were consequently calculated according to the required dosage. The
summarized data for each constituent is given in Table 4. the data for studied materials were completed by comparable materials for a
better overview of economic feasibility. Calculated cost factors were multiplied by technical performance (compressive strength) to
obtain cost efficiency per MPa.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Functional properties

As one can see, a clear trend in the initial and final setting time was observed. The increase in the alkaline activator concentration
resulted in a shortening of the initial and final setting time (see Fig. 2). Moreover, it led to a reduction in the workability period from
approx. 240–120 min. Specifically, the initial setting time varied from 245 min (GWA56) up to almost 480 min (GWA24). The final
setting time was reduced to a greater extent from 720 min (GWA24) to 390 min (GWA56). Despite some contradictory results pre­
sented for example by Marjanovic et al. [37], the achieved results comply with the concept of alkaline activator concentration effects
on reaction kinetics rate and consequent precipitation of the reaction products. In these terms, a shift in the alkaline activator con­
centration accelerated the reaction kinetic and shorten the final setting time [38,39].
The alkaline activation of slag (see Fig. 3) caused the crystallization of several new phases. At very low diffraction angles, a signal of
a zeolitic structure appeared. Further, Hydrotalcite Mg6Al2CO3(OH)16⋅4H2O or a similar ”layered double hydroxide” (LDH) crystal­
lized as well. Further newly-appeared phases – Strätlingite and Dawsonite – were found in a small amount but these minerals provided
clear diffractions around 20◦ 2θ (marked by the red circles). However, the activated products remained mostly amorphous; the “zeolite-
like” phase was not quantified since its unclear structure. Authors are aware that some values are very low, on the other hand – all of
these phases provided very distinct diffractions, without any interference with other minerals. The use of activator solutions of very
high concentration (samples GWA48 and GWA56) caused the crystallization of two sodium carbonate minerals – thermonatrite and
natron [15].
Figs. 4 and 5 show a comparison of obtained SEM images of AAMs activated by alkaline activators with different concentrations at 7
and 28 days. Here, the surface structure samples GWA24 and GWA56 are presented to understand the main differences. SEM image of
the GWA24 sample activated by a lower concentration of SWCA shows small pores as well as cracks formed around aggregate particles.
On the other hand, the higher concentration of applied alkaline activator used in GWA56 resulted in a denser structure, however,
interwoven by cracks with a width of about 3 µm. More massive cracks were exceptionally observed in 7-day-old samples (marked by
yellow color). After 28 days of curing, both mortar samples GWA24 and GWA56 exhibit a crack formation to a greater extent that can
be assigned to more visible effects of autogenous shrinkage. Similarly to images scanned at 7 days, cracks formed around aggregate
grains were identified (see Fig. 6). The occurrence of cracks is often accompanied by the design of alkali-activated materials and can be
viewed as a major drawback. On the other hand, thanks to the presence of similar issues in concrete various methods and agents were
studied in past for mitigation of this undesired phenomenon. It should be noted the presence of cracks is related to the weakening of the
material functional performance, brittleness, and limited long-term durability.
Basic material properties represented by bulk density and total open porosity are presented in Table 5. Here, only minor variation in
the bulk density was observed, and no significant effect of the concentration of applied alkaline activator was noted. Namely, the total

Fig. 2. Initial and final setting time.

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Fig. 3. XRD patterns of studied AAM mixes.

Fig. 4. Comparison of microstructure of studied alkali-activated mortars at 7 days (A - GWA28; B – GWA56).

porosity remained in the range of 18 – 19.4%, while the bulk density was around 2 000 kg/m3. Taking into account the very limited
changes in basic materials properties, one can see only limited effects of the concentration of used alkaline activator on material
characteristics. A slight shift in material porosity may anticipate a deterioration of mechanical strength in the hardened state. More
detailed insight into the material microstructure is provided with the help of MIP.
The results of MIP reveal distinct modifications in the pore size distribution of designed AAM mixtures (see Fig. 7). Here, a lower
dosage of alkaline activator in mixtures GWA24, GWA32, and GWA 40 resulted in the formation of a denser structure with a dominant
share of pores having dimensions between 0.001 and 0.1 µm. On the contrary, GWA48 and GWA56 show significantly shifted volumes
of larger pores with a dimension over 1 µm. The obtained finding can be assigned to a more rapid chemical reaction between the used
precursor and alkaline activator as discussed by Wang et al. [40], who investigated the effect of molarity and activator dosage on

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Fig. 5. Comparison of microstructure of studied alkali-activated mortars at 28 days (A - GWA28; B – GWA56).

Fig. 6. Microcracks in aggregate surrounding.

Table 5
Basic material properties.
Mixture Matrix density (kg/m3) Bulk density (kg/m3) Total open porosity (%)

GWA24 2495.9 2045.3 18.0

GWA32 2540.5 2021.8 19.1
GWA40 2468.1 2039.4 19.3
GWA48 2512.1 2025.3 19.4
GWA56 2505.6 2032.4 18.9

residual engineering properties. The mixture GWA40 represents a threshold for the deterioration of the material microstructure and
increase of larger pores, especially in the range between 10 and 100 µm. Modification of the porous space poses an important
parameter for the prediction of not only mechanical strength but water and salt solution transport that affects long-term durability
[41].
Mechanical parameters by the meaning of the compressive and flexural strength determined at 3, 7, and 28 days are shown in
Figs. 8 and 9. As one can see, the trend depicted in microstructural analysis can be clearly observed in mechanical strength values. The
gradual shift in flexural strength with increasing concentration of SWCA in activation solution. This trend is visible for all studied
mixtures at all testing periods. The performed strength test at various ages refers to the reduction of the flexural strength between 7 and
28 days for lower concentrations. On the other hand, mixtures with 48% and 56% concentrations resulted in opposite development.
The deterioration of flexural strength after 7 days can be assigned to autogenous shrinkage as a major problem of alkali-activated
materials. A similar trend in strength development was observed for the results of compressive strength. However, very minor vari­
ations were noted between particular mixtures. The best performance was delivered for GWA24 and GWA32 mixtures, reaching about

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Fig. 7. Pore size distribution.

Fig. 8. Compressive strength of studied materials.

25 MPa after 28 days. Very fast compressive strength growth was observed surprisingly for lower SWCA concentrations at early ages,
on the other hand, the highest increase in compressive strength between 7 and 28 days was gained by mixtures with SWCA con­
centrations above 40%. Values of the mechanical strength, the compressive strength, in particular, are somewhat lower compared to
results reached by Hassan et al. [42], who used commercial NaOH as the primary activator. On the contrary, results are satisfactory in
terms of low-grade application and as a replacement for widely used C20/25 concrete. It should be noted that in case of incorporation
of additional sources of silica (waste glass, RHA) may increase the strength parameters according to the beneficial effect of the Si/Al
ratio on condensation reaction [2,43].

3.2. Environmental analysis

In order to assess the suitability of the researched material, a simplified carbon footprint analysis was performed to enumerate the
greenhouse gas CO2 during the production of alkaline activated slag using waste alkalis on sodium hydroxide base. Provided envi­
ronmental indicator serves for comparison purposes of designed material with conventional concrete or AAMs activated by com­
mercial alkali solution. Here, results presented in Fig. 10 depict the comparison of designed mixtures together with low-grade concrete
(C20/25) and alkali-activated slag by commercial NaOH for a better understanding of obtained results. As is evident from the pre­
sented results, AAM mixtures with waste-derived activators have significantly lowered CO2 emission profile in contrast to concrete
C20/25. Specifically, about an 80% reduction in CO2 emissions can be expected. Moreover, the presented data refer to the substantial

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Fig. 9. Flexural strength of studied materials.

Fig. 10. Comparison of CO2 emissions.

effect of the replacement of commercial NaOH and the sensitivity of results on activator dosage. In fact, the issue of negative envi­
ronmental effects accompanied by the use of alkaline activators was mentioned in previously published research papers [44–47].
Findings discussing a high sensitivity of environmental score are provided also in the work of Fort et al. [47], who suggested a more
complex approach for AAMs assessment. It should be noted that avoided production of Portland cement or commercial alkaline
activator is excluded from this analysis despite its significant contribution to overall environmental results. Besides the avoided
production of commercial materials, the disposal of SWCA requires specific processes such as neutralization by the solution of acetic
acid which use can be also omitted. The inclusion of avoided production will likely lead to a further reduction of the carbon footprint,
possibly even below zero, resulting in a net positive impact on the environment. However, further environmental/economic studies
should be carried out to determine precisely the potential of such waste-derived binders and the real substitution rate [26,43].

3.3. Cost analysis

Since the sustainability pillars cover the economic aspect of materials production as well, the cost comparison of the above-
discussed mixes was carried out and consequently recalculated per unit of the functional parameter (compressive strength). The
resulting outputs together with the cost of individual mix constituents are accessed in Fig. 11.
Here, costs per cubic meter of GWA56 are half in comparison to cement mortar C20/25. Costs related to material manufacturing are
substantially reduced in contrast to GBFS activated by commercial sodium hydroxide or sodium silicate also.

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Fig. 11. Cost analysis of mixtures.

Obtained results comply with previously published studies focused on the potential replacement of commercial activators by waste
material. For example, the study of Abdulkareem et al. [48] concluded the potential savings through the utilization of a mixture of RHA
and NaOH, however, the overall benefit can be significantly lowered due to not standardized prices of waste materials inputs. The cost
analysis of RHA-derived activators presented by Tong et al. [27] refers to a 22% cost saving per cubic meter of the material as a
consequence of the replacement of commercial sodium silicate. However, the mentioned research papers deal only with cost per cubic
meter neglecting the differences in material properties which may vary significantly. In these terms, the indexing of materials by cost
efficiency (CE) per unit of functional performance provides a direct comparison considering the efficiency of costs. Calculated cost
efficiency per MPa (compressive strength) of materials involved in comparison analysis point to slightly lowered benefits associated
with AAM based on SWCA due to decreased mechanical performance compared to GBFS activated by sodium silicate [10].
Notwithstanding, the achieved cost efficiency score still provides a competitive advantage over C20/25 mortar or even AAM mix
activated by commercial sodium hydroxide. As mentioned in the previous section, the inclusion of avoided production may lead to
significant benefits for alternative waste-derived alkali-activated binders.

4. Conclusions

Since the investigation and design of alkali-activated materials represent an emerging field in materials science, several aspects
need to be resolved and optimized to provide a satisfactory solution in terms of sustainable development. The primary goal of this study
lies in the assessment of the potential of waste industrial streams not only for the identification of suitable bulk materials which may
serve as replacements for traditional binders but rather in exploring alkaline waste that can be utilized as valuable replacements for
commercial alkaline activators. Obtained results based on alkali activation of GBFS by waste cleaning solution point to several benefits
as follows:

• The initial and final setting time was modified in line with the applied SWCA concentration, i.e. increase in the concentration
reduced the initial and final setting time from 240 to 120 min, and 480–245 min respectively.
• A dosage of activator with lower concentration in mixtures GWA24, GWA32, and GWA 40 resulted in the formation of a denser
structure with a dominant share of pores having dimensions between 0.001 and 0.1 µm. On the other hand, AAMs activated by
activator with higher concentration showed significantly shifted volume of larger pores with a dimension over 1 µm.
• Obtained results of compressive strength by using SWCA were somewhat lower compared to using pure NaOH, however the
compressive strength of about 25 MPa of designed mortars corresponds with the performance of low-grade cement mortars and
thus can be viewed as a satisfactory solution.
• Very fast compressive strength development was observed for lower SWCA concentrations at early ages, on the other hand, the
highest increase in compressive strength between 7 and 28 days was gained by mixtures with SWCA concentrations above 40%.
Notwithstanding, the increasing concentration of applied SWCA is accompanied by a higher probability of cracks caused by
autogenous shrinkage, and weakening of the material structure.
• Performed results of carbon footprint analysis show a significant reduction of CO2 emissions below 75 kg CO2 per m3 as the
application of the SWCA decreases the consumption of environmentally demanding commercial alkaline activators. Moreover, the
disposal of such agents requires further processing (neutralization), thus beneficial effects accompanied by avoided production can
be expected as a side benefit.

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• The cost efficiency of designed AAC based on SWCA was significantly improved compared to low-grade concrete or AAC based on
commercial activators and reached approx 40 € per /m3 which is half the value compared to other materials.

The future research should be aimed at identification of other alternatives of commercial alkaline activators, especially with the
silicon content, to improve the mechanical performance. AAMs still require further research focused on mitigation of autogenous
shrinkage and detailed description of microstructure. On top of that, a coherent economic/environmental study aimed at the deter­
mination of a realistic substitution rate should be performed for a better understanding of the overlay between particular scientific
disciplines.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

Acknowledgment

This research was funded by the Czech Science Foundation, under project No 22–04726S, and by Czech Technical University in
Prague, under project No SGS20/153/OHK1/3T/11.

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