Key Ideas in Maths

KEY IDEAS
for Conceptual Development

IN MATHEMATICS
×
2ND EDITION
KEY IDEAS for CONCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT in MATHEMATICS 01

Published October 2020
Catholic Education Melbourne

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© Catholic Education Melbourne 2020
Correspondence to:
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Contents
Foreword........................................................................................................................................................................... ii
Preface............................................................................................................................................................................. iii
Suggestions for using this resource................................................................................................................................iv
Overarching key ideas for ALL mathematical concepts................................................................................................. 1
Key ideas in number and algebra........................................................................................................................ 3

Algebra: key ideas....................................................................................................................................................... 3
Algebra: important concept knowledge..................................................................................................................... 5
Counting: key ideas..................................................................................................................................................... 7
Counting: important concept knowledge................................................................................................................... 8
Whole number place value: key ideas........................................................................................................................ 9
Whole number place value: important concept knowledge.................................................................................... 10
Addition: key ideas.................................................................................................................................................... 11
Addition: important concept knowledge.................................................................................................................. 12
Subtraction: key ideas............................................................................................................................................... 13
Subtraction: important concept knowledge............................................................................................................. 14
Multiplication: key ideas........................................................................................................................................... 16
Multiplication: important concept knowledge......................................................................................................... 17
Division: key ideas..................................................................................................................................................... 18
Division: important concept knowledge................................................................................................................... 19
Fractions: key ideas.................................................................................................................................................. 22
Fractions: important concept knowledge................................................................................................................ 23
Decimals: key ideas.................................................................................................................................................. 27
Decimals: important concept knowledge................................................................................................................ 28
Key ideas in measurement and geometry..................................................................................................... 29

Measurement: key ideas........................................................................................................................................... 29
Measurement: important concept knowledge......................................................................................................... 30
Geometry: key ideas.................................................................................................................................................. 35
Geometry: important concept knowledge................................................................................................................ 38
Location: key ideas.................................................................................................................................................... 41
Location: important concept knowledge.................................................................................................................. 41
Key ideas in statistics and probability............................................................................................................. 44

Chance: key ideas..................................................................................................................................................... 44
Chance: important concept knowledge................................................................................................................... 46
Data investigation and interpretation: key ideas..................................................................................................... 48
Data investigation and interpretation: important concept knowledge.................................................................... 50
References...................................................................................................................................................................... 56
KEY IDEAS for CONCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT in MATHEMATICS i

Foreword
This second edition of Key Ideas for Conceptual Development
in Mathematics presents a comprehensive list of key ideas
to support the teaching and learning of Mathematics in
Catholic schools. It was developed by Learning Consultants,
Mathematics, from Catholic Education Melbourne in
consultation with Dr Vince Wright.
The resource aims to assist leaders and teachers of mathematics to plan for and
implement key ideas into teaching and learning programs to enrich students’
mathematical experiences and deepen their mathematical understanding.
Key Ideas for Conceptual Development in Mathematics is based on a culmination

of research. I commend this guide to you and trust that it will be a valuable resource
in your efforts to provide for the educational needs of all your students.
Jim Miles
Executive Director
ii KEY IDEAS for CONCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT in MATHEMATICS

Preface
This resource is the second edition of Key Ideas for
Conceptual Development in Mathematics, which was first
published in 2013 by the Catholic Education Office in the
Archdiocese of Melbourne.
This second iteration was developed by Catholic Education Melbourne Learning
Consultants, Mathematics, in response to a need for leaders and teachers to
understand the significance of the important ideas in mathematics.
Key ideas are central to the learning of mathematics. They link numerous
mathematical understandings into a coherent whole, which supports learners
in associating ideas and strategies, as opposed to seeing them as disconnected
concepts, skills and facts.
Highly effective mathematics teachers understand the importance of key ideas

in developing students’ conceptual understandings in mathematics. They
recognise that key ideas enable students to make deeper connections between
the mathematical concepts and ideas that encompass and link them. When
teachers plan for and implement key ideas into teaching and learning programs,
the students have richer mathematical experiences and develop deeper
mathematical understanding.
This second edition is based on a culmination of research and, like the first edition,
includes full source information of all the studies cited in a references section.
To increase the text’s accessibility and enhance its user-friendliness, the team of
mathematics learning consultants at Catholic Education Melbourne collaborated
with Dr Vince Wright.
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to Vince for his tireless work in
supporting us to make this second edition become a reality. He has provided
invaluable advice and expertise in helping us shape this book to its final publication.
Learning Consultants, Mathematics

KEY IDEAS for CONCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT in MATHEMATICS iii

Suggestions for using
this resource
This resource aims to support leaders and teachers to think
deeply about the ideas that underpin mathematical concepts.
To enrich the mathematics being learned, it is recommended
that this resource be used in conjunction with the Victorian
Curriculum Mathematics, Victorian Curriculum and Assessment
Authority Numeracy Learning Progressions and student data.
Mathematics leaders can use this resource when facilitating planning, leading
professional learning meetings and promoting high-quality teaching of mathematics.
Some areas they may choose to focus on include:
• building a shared understanding of conceptual development

• creating a culture of professional learning
• developing learning progressions of mathematics concepts
• deepening teachers’ knowledge of mathematical and pedagogical content
• supporting teachers to identify and enact appropriate adjustments to facilitate
student understanding in mathematics.
Teachers of mathematics can use this resource to plan for effective mathematics
learning for their students. They may choose to use this resource to focus on:
• building a deep understanding of the mathematics curriculum

• identifying the important mathematics ideas embedded in the curriculum
• developing appropriate assessment tools
• selecting ways to determine students’ mathematical skills and understanding.
iv KEY IDEAS for CONCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT in MATHEMATICS

OVERARCHING KEY IDEAS for
ALL MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS
The overarching key ideas for all mathematical concepts are: estimation,
benchmarks, visualisation, equality and equivalence, language and
strategies. These six key ideas have a broad application and are fundamental
to enabling students to connect concepts across all areas of mathematics.
Consequently, they need to be considered by educators when developing each
unit of work. The overarching key ideas are outlined in more detail below.
Estimation Example: a young student might visualise two

Estimation is an approximation or judgement of a images of 9 and 6 in 10-frames, then imagine
value, quantity or measure. one object being moved to create 10 and 5.
An estimation is an educated approximation about a

value that is as close to the exact value as is needed. Visualisation is important to a broad range of
All estimation is dependent on the estimator having subject areas as it allows students to predict the
benchmark numbers, facts or measures from which result of actions in their head, without the need to
to work. Estimations may involve calculation, such as necessarily carry out those actions.
approximating the answer to 47 × 19 by rounding
both numbers up to create 50 × 20. Estimation is Equality and equivalence
also important in measurement.
Equality and equivalence involve describing the
relationship between two or more quantities as
Example: approximating the number of chairs being ‘the same as’ in size, quantity, value, or in
that can be located in a room or knowing the area some other way.
taken up by 10 chairs
Equality is important to arithmetic and algebra.
Benchmarks Example: the equation 13 = 7 + 6 expresses the

Benchmarks are trusted quantities or numbers used ‘sameness’ of quantity, as represented by the
as reference points to estimate, calculate or compare. expressions on either side of the equals sign.
Example: 100 and 50 might be used as benchmarks Equivalence is used in a similar way.
to estimate the result of subtracting 49 from 103.
3 9
5 Example: 4 and 12 are equivalent fractions
Another example could be: is closer to 0,
6 because they are different names for the same
half or 1?
number.
Visualisation
Visualisation is the making, storing, retrieval and
manipulation of imagined objects and events.
These images can be true-to-life pictures of real-life

objects or events, shapes, symbols, words and ideas
associated with those objects or events.

Language Strategies
Language is specific vocabulary, graphics and Strategies are methods to solve mathematical
symbols used to communicate mathematically problems.
with others.
They can be used: as general methods to solve
It is used productively to create representations of problems (such as trial and improve or guess,
ideas and receptively to interpret the ideas of others. check and refine); to solve a simpler, related problem;
to make a table; or to look for a pattern. Strategies
Language is an important tool for students to express can also be specific to a type of problem.
mathematical concepts. Specialised mathematical
language, such as ‘factor’, ‘triangle’ and ‘average’,
embodies concepts that, in turn, can become ideas Example: 28 + 39 can be solved by rounding both
for students to use in their thinking. numbers, adding 30 and 40 to make 70, then
taking away 3 to get 67.
Example: once students know the terms ‘odd

and even numbers’, they can think about what
happens when odd and even numbers are added
or subtracted.
Symbols and diagrams, such as tables and graphs,

provide means to represent, communicate and work
with ideas in efficient and sophisticated ways.
Example: recording multiplication equations

horizontally can highlight relationships in the
facts:
2 × 12 = 24
4 × 6 = 24
8 × 3 = 24
2 KEY IDEAS for CONCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT in MATHEMATICS

KEY IDEAS in
NUMBER AND ALGEBRA
Algebra: key ideas

The overarching key ideas of estimation, benchmarks, visualisation, equality
and equivalence, language and strategies need to be considered when
developing units of work in algebra. The specific key ideas in algebra are:
pattern, variable and function.
Pattern In mathematics, patterns are important because they

can usually be expressed as generalisations. In the
A pattern is a regularity or consistency in the pattern shown in Figure 2, students might find a rule
arrangement of elements, such as in numbers, for progression of the pattern, such as: ‘The llama
letters, shapes, objects or colours. grows by 4 tiles each year’. They might also find a
In early algebra, there are two main types of patterns: direct rule for any year, such as: ‘To find the number
of tiles, multiply the year by 4 and add 6'.
• repeating patterns
• growing patterns. Patterns can also be found in the behaviour of
numbers when they are added, subtracted, multiplied
A repeating pattern has a unit of repeat. or divided.
Example: Example: two odd numbers always add up to an

even number.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Variable
A variable is a letter or symbol used in algebraic
Figure 1
expressions and equations. It is a letter that can
have different values in the same problem. Letters
A growing pattern increases or decreases in a are used most powerfully to represent relationships
consistent manner. Number patterns are a type of between variables (quantities that change).
growing pattern.
Example: 7 + n = 15, when n = 8.

Example:
Example:  + ◊ = 16, or a × b = 36, where the

values of  + ◊, or the values of a and b, make
the equation correct.
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Example: t = 4x + 6, for the direct llama rule shown
in Figure 2, where t = number of tiles.
Figure 2

ALGEBRA
Function In the function ∆ + 5 = , each value of ∆ results in

one value of .
A function is a relationship that exists between
variables. Each value of the input (independent Specific inputs and outputs can be written as ordered
variable) maps to only one value of the output pairs.
(dependent variable). For example, the relationship
between the number 7 and the number 5 is minus 2. Example: {(0,5), (1,6), (2,7), ...} are graphed on a
number plane, as shown in Figure 4.
What is Graph of Δ + 5 = 
12 4 7 my rule? 16
15
14
13
Input Output 12
11
10
 value
9
8
10 2 5 7
6
5
4
3
Figure 3 2
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Δ value
Figure 4

Algebra: important concept knowledge
Expression Representations
An expression is a mathematical phrase with two Representations are artefacts used to code, create,
or more terms (numbers or letters) connected by investigate and communicate mathematical concepts
operations. Expressions do not have an equals sign. and relationships. Important representations include:
• spoken and written language

Example A: 15 – 9
• pictures or diagrams, including dynamic digital
Example B: 8 × (2 + 4)
images
• manipulatives, sometimes called concrete
materials
Equation • symbols, including expressions and equations
An equation is a mathematical statement with two or
• tables, including sequences and classifications
more expressions that are equal in value. An equation
by two variables
must have an equals sign.
• graphs, including number planes.
Example A: 3 + 15 = 11 + 7
Example B: x+3=7 Generalisation
A generalisation is a statement that holds true in all
cases or for a specified set of cases. The process
Number properties is: seeing features in examples, noticing a pattern,
Number properties make an expression easier to forming a conjecture about the pattern, justifying the
work with and are applied when students perform conjecture using structure and generalising the rule.
calculations.
Example: a student might notice that when
The most useful laws are the commutative,
three consecutive numbers are added, the sum
distributive and associative laws of addition and
is three times the middle addend, such as:
multiplication, as well as the inverse relationships
4 + 5 + 6 = 15, which is 3 × 5. They might form
between addition and subtraction, and between
the conjecture that the pattern always works and
multiplication and division.
try to structure the situation using algebraic
A student who solves 3 + 99 using 99 + 3 applies the or spatial representations. The final step is to
commutative law of whole numbers under addition. prove that if ∆ is the middle number, then any
equation in the pattern can be expressed as
The following example uses the distributive and (∆ -1) + ∆ + (∆ + 1) = 3 × ∆.
associative properties of whole numbers under
addition.
Example: 9+6=9+1+5
= (9 + 1) + 5
= 10 + 5

ALGEBRA
Relational thinking Order of operations

Relational thinking is the manipulation of both sides The order in which operations are carried out can
of an equality without needing closure. Equality is affect the result. Therefore, the following convention
maintained if the same operation is applied to both is used:
sides of an equation.
• calculations within brackets are solved first
Example: if 4 + 5 = 3 + 6, then 5 + 6 = 4 + 7. • in the absence of brackets, carry out operations

in the following order:
In the above instance, one is added to each addend. 1. Powers
Relational thinking involves applying relationships 2. Multiplication and division are solved working
within equations, across the equality, to find left to right
unknowns.
3. Addition and subtraction are solved working
Example:  + 12 = 15 + 10 is solved without left to right.
calculating 15 + 10.
Example: (5 + 4) × 2 – 6 ÷ 3 = 9 × 2 – 6 ÷ 3
In the above example, since 12 is two more than 10, = 18 – 2
 is two less than 15. = 16
An equation is one way of showing equality.
Modelling
Modelling is making sense of mathematics in real-
world situations by choosing and using appropriate
mathematics.
A mathematical model is a representation

of a situation that is created from data. The
representation shows the relationships between
variables. The purpose of a model is to make
predictions about actions on the situation without
needing to carry out the actions in reality.
Example: the equation 35 ÷ 7 = 5 models the

number of weeks a packet of biscuits will last if
consumed at one biscuit per day.

Counting: key ideas
The overarching key ideas of estimation, benchmarks, visualisation, equality and
equivalence, language and strategies need to be considered when developing units of
work in counting. The specific key ideas in counting are: quantity, abstraction principle,
one-to-one principle, stable-order principle, cardinality principle, order-
irrelevance principle, ordinal principle, conservation of number and subitising.
Quantity Order-irrelevance principle

A quantity is an amount of something which is In the order-irrelevance principle, the order in which
determined using a number and a unit. objects are counted does not change the quantity.
The term ‘manyness’ applies to discreet quantities.

When a set of discrete items is counted, the result Example: counting the red objects first instead
assumes that the unit is one collection. of the blue objects, does not change the number
of overall objects.
Example: five refers to 5 (number) teddies (unit)
or 5 (number) fingers (unit). The above five principles are from the work of
Gelman and Gallistel (1978).
The term ‘muchness’ applies to continuous quantities.
Ordinal principle
Example: 14 m describes a length that is measured
In the ordinal principle, numbers are used to indicate the
to the nearest whole metre. The quantity 14.63 m
position of an object in a numerical sequence or order.
describes a length that is measured to the nearest
hundredth of a metre or centimetre. Both measures
Example: a red triangle is the third object in the
contain a number and a unit of measure.
pattern, or Leisha finished fifth in the race.
Abstraction principle Conservation of number

In the abstraction principle, different sized or unrelated
objects can be counted and treated the same In conservation of number, the number of objects
numerically. Items that cannot be seen can also be in a collection does not change as the spatial
counted – for example ideas, characters in a story, arrangement of the collection changes.
sounds, etc.
Example: in Figure 5, both rows have the same
One-to-one principle number of apples.
In the one-to-one principle, words in the forward or

backward counting sequence are mapped onto the objects
being counted; that is, there is one word to one object.
Stable-order principle
Figure 5
In the stable-order principle, there is a fixed order of
words in the sequence when objects are counted.
Cardinality principle Subitising

Subitising is an instant recognition of a small quantity
In the cardinality principle, the last number indicates the
without counting.
total number of items; that is, it is a cumulative count.
Example: recognising a full hand of fingers as five

COUNTING
Counting: important concept knowledge

Number patterns Number word sequence
A number pattern is a regularity in a sequence of The number word sequence, forwards or backwards,
numbers. Number patterns are a type of growing is the fixed order of number names.
pattern.
There is a difference between reciting and counting
a number word sequence.
Examples:
Reciting a sequence of number words is by rote,
skip counting – forwards and backwards, e.g. whereas counting is the allocation of each spoken
5, 10, 15 … number word with an item.
odd numbers Students begin to learn the number word sequence

and then use this sequence to count collections.
even numbers
square numbers, e.g. 1, 4, 9, 16 ...

Whole number place value: key ideas
The overarching key ideas of estimation, benchmarks, visualisation,
equality and equivalence, language and strategies need to be considered
when developing units of work in place value. The specific key ideas in place
value are: quantity, number triad, digit position, base-10 system,
place-value partitioning and comparison.
Quantity Base-10 system

A quantity is an amount of something which is The base-10 system is a number system that is
determined using a number and a unit. based on grouping and equally partitioning quantities
by tens.
Number triad Each place has a value that is 10 times greater than
A number triad represents the relationship between the place to its right, and one-tenth of the value of the
words, symbols and materials or diagrams of a place to its left.
quantity.
Example: 1000 is ten times more than 100 and
Example: 35 might be represented as: is one-tenth of 10 000.
Thirty-five
Place-value partitioning
Place-value partitioning is breaking a whole number
into place-value units.
Example: 836 = 800 + 30 + 6 (compact and

35 expanded form)
Comparison
Figure 6
The relative size of two quantities can be compared,

Digit position either to each other or a benchmark.
The place of a digit in a number determines its value.
Example: when comparing 22 and 13, a
There are three ways to interpret a single digit within calculation is not required because 22 has two
a whole number: face value, place value and total tens and 13 has one ten, therefore 22 is larger
value. than 13.
Example: in 729, the seven has a face value of 7,

a place value in the hundreds place, and a total
value of 700.
Zero can be a placeholder and a digit representing

a quantity.

WHOLE NUMBER PLACE VALUE
Whole number place value:

important concept knowledge
Rounding
Rounding is a context-driven approximation used to
make numbers easier to calculate. It is useful for
estimation.
The convention for rounding is that numbers are

rounded up when the digits to the right of the
nominated ‘place’ are equal to or greater than 5,
and numbers are rounded down when these digits
are less than 5.
Example: 66 can be rounded to the nearest ten

(70) or to the nearest hundred (100).

Addition: key ideas
and equivalence, language and strategies need to be considered when developing
units of work in addition. The specific key ideas in addition are: combining,
partitioning, part–part–whole and the properties of addition. The properties
of addition include: identity property, commutative property, associative property
and inverse property.
Combining Commutative property

Combining is the operation that represents the joining The order in which two numbers are added does not
of two sets or quantities. affect the sum.
Partitioning Example: 6 + 3 gives the same sum as 3 + 6
A quantity can be separated into parts while

maintaining a sense of the whole. Associative property
The order in which three or more addends are added
Example: 10 is 5 and 5, 6 and 4, 5 and 4 and 1 etc. does not affect the sum. Numbers can be arranged in
different ways to make them easier to add.
Part–part–whole Example: 2 + 9 + 8 could be solved by

A relationship exists between the parts and the (2 + 8) + 9 or 2 + (8 + 9)
whole. This relationship assists in finding the
unknown quantity. Inverse property
Addition and subtraction are related operations that
Example: 3 +  = 7 and  + 4 = 7 and 3 + 4 =  undo each other, therefore subtraction can be used
to solve an addition problem.
Properties of addition Example: 5 + 8 = 13 and 8 + 5 = 13, so 13 – 8 = 5

Addition has several properties, which are outlined and 13 – 5 = 8
below.
Identity property The inverse property is applied to form fact families.

Adding zero to a number will not affect the quantity.
Zero is called the ‘identity element’ because it leaves
the number unchanged.
Example: 17 + 0 = 17 or 0 +17 = 17

ADDITION
Addition: important concept knowledge

Meaning of the numbers • compensation strategies, involving the adjusting
of one of the addends to make an equation easier
Addition equations have at least two addends
to solve.
(numbers being added) and a sum (total).
Example: 49 + 16 = 50 + 16 –1
Example: in 5 + 8 = 13, 5 and 8 are the addends
and 13 is the sum. The + symbol represents the
combining of the two quantities and the = symbol Written strategies are often algorithms, meaning step-
represents the equality (sameness) of 5 + 8 and 13. by-step methods to find an answer. The most common
algorithm for addition applies place-value structure and
should only be introduced once students have explored
Addition strategies a range of other strategies and have developed a sound
conceptual understanding of addition.
Addition strategies are methods to solve mathematical
problems. With addition, the strategies may be Example:
mental, written, digital or a mix of the three.
Representing
Mental strategies are calculations worked in one’s mind
and may involve using one of the following methods:
the ten from
8 + 3 = 11 48
1
• partitioning and recombining numbers, usually
using place-value structure (split strategy) +23
Example: 48 + 23 = (40 + 20) + (8 + 3) Figure 8 71
• jumping forward from a given number (jump
strategy) Part–part–whole
The unknown in result, change and start
Example: 48 + 23 as 48 + 20 = 68, 68 + 3 = 71
Result unknown, change unknown and start unknown
refer to different locations of the unknown in arithmetic
• jumping strategies can be represented on an empty problems.
number line
Result-unknown problems have the answer as the
Example: result of the action.
+20 +3
Example: Kim has 7 Easter eggs. She gets 3 more
eggs. How many Easter eggs are there altogether?
(7 + 3 = )
48 68 71
Figure 7 Change-unknown (missing addend) problems have an
initial quantity and a result quantity, but ask for the
change quantity.
• rounding and adjustment strategies
Example: James has 7 Easter eggs. Nana gives
Example: 39 + 48 as 40 + 50 – 1 – 2 (note that 39 him some more and now he has 10. How many
is rounded to 40 and 48 is rounded to 50) Easter eggs did Nana give James? (7 +  = 10)
• transformation strategies, involving the shifting of a Start-unknown (missing addend) problems ask for the
quantity from one addend to another beginning quantity.
Example: 97 + 76 as 100 + 73 (three is shifted Example: Jo has some Easter eggs. She gets 3
from 76 to 97) eggs from Nana and now she has 10. How many
Easter eggs does Jo have before Nana gives her
some? ( + 3 = 10)

Subtraction: key ideas
equivalence, language and strategies need to be considered when developing
units of work in subtraction. The specific key ideas in subtraction are: separation,
comparison, part–part–whole, partitioning and properties of subtraction.
The properties of subtraction include: identity property and inverse property.
Separation Properties of subtraction

Separation is subtracting or 'taking away' a quantity
from a given collection.
Identity property
Subtracting zero from the minuend (initial quantity)
has no effect on the difference.
Example: 7 take away 3 is 4.
Example: 5 – 0 = 5
Comparison
The relative size of two quantities can be compared Inverse property
and expressed as a difference. Subtraction and addition are related operations that
undo each other, therefore addition can be used to
Example: the difference between 7 and 3 is 4. solve a subtraction problem.
Example: 12 – 5 = 7 so 5 + 7 = 12 and 12 – 7 = 5
Part–part–whole
A relationship exists between the parts and the The inverse property is applied to form fact families.
whole. This relationship assists in finding the
unknown quantity.
Examples: 7 –  = 4 and  – 4 = 3 and 7 – 4 = 
Partitioning
maintaining a sense of the whole.
Example: 25 – 13 = (20 – 10) + (5– 3)

= 10 + 2
= 12

SUBTRACTION
Subtraction: important concept knowledge

Meaning of the numbers • equal differences.
Subtraction equations that represent separation

situations have a minuend (the whole collection) Example: 62 – 27 has the same difference as
and a subtrahend (the part being removed) and a 65 – 30 or 60 – 25.
difference (the result). -30
-27
Example: in 12 – 5 = 7, minuend – subtrahend -25
= difference
? 60 62 65
Subtraction strategies Figure 10
Subtraction strategies are methods to solve
mathematical problems. The strategies may be Written strategies are often algorithms, meaning
mental, written, digital or a mix of the three. they are step-by-step methods to find an answer.
The two most common algorithms for subtraction
Mental strategies are calculations worked in one's
are decomposition (of the minuend) and equal
mind and may involve using one of the following
addition (to both the minuend and subtrahend).
methods:
These two methods apply place-value structure
• partitioning and recombining numbers, usually and should only be introduced once students have
using place-value structure (split strategy) explored a range of other strategies and have
developed a sound conceptual understanding
of subtraction.
Example: 78 – 45 = (70 – 40) + (8 – 5)
Example:
• jumping backwards from a given number
(jump strategy)
Decomposition
Example: 83 – 46 as 83 – 40 = 43, 43 – 6 = 37 A ten in 92 is
9 12
(note that jumping strategies are easy to represent decomposed to 8
on an empty number line, as Figure 9 shows) create 80 + 12
-6 -40 – 49
37 40 43 83
43
Equal additions
Figure 9
One ten is
• rounding and adjustment strategies (compensation) added to both
92 and 49 9 12
Example: 45 – 19 as 45 – 20 + 1 (note that 19
is rounded to 20 and 1 is added to adjust for
– 549
subtracting too much)
43
Figure 11

Part–part–whole
The unknown in result, change and start
Result unknown, change unknown and start
unknown refer to different locations of the
unknown in arithmetic problems.
Result-unknown problems have the answer as the

result of the action.
Example: Kim has 7 Easter eggs. She eats 3 eggs.

How many Easter eggs are left? (7 − 3 = )
Change-unknown (missing subtrahend) problems

have an initial quantity and a result quantity, but ask
for the change quantity.
Example: James has 7 Easter eggs. He eats

some of the eggs and now he has 4. How many
Easter eggs does James eat? (7 −  = 4)
Start-unknown (missing minuend) problems ask for

the beginning quantity.
Example: Jo has some Easter eggs. She eats

3 of the eggs and now she has 4. How many
Easter eggs does Jo have before she eats some?
( − 3 = 4)

MULTIPLICATION
Multiplication: key ideas

units of work in multiplication. The specific key ideas in multiplication are:
equal groups, composite units and properties of multiplication. The
properties of multiplication include: commutative property, associative property,
distributive property, null-factor property, identity property and inverse property.
Equal groups Distributive property

The quantity in each group is the same. Factors can be partitioned, multiplied separately and
the partial products are then added.
Example:
Example: 24 × 6 = (20 + 4) × 6 = (20 × 6) + (4 × 6)
•• •• •• •• (note that 24 has been ‘distributed’ into 20 + 4)
•• •• •• ••
Figure 12
Null-factor property
Multiplying a number by zero will always give a
Composite units product of zero.
A composite unit is a collection of single items

represented as one group. Example: 5 × 0 = 0 represents the total of five sets
with no objects in each set.
Example: 6 ones is one group of 6.

Identity property
Multiplying a number by one will not affect the
Properties of multiplication quantity.
Multiplication has several properties, which are
outlined below. Example: 5 × 1 = 5 represents the total of five sets
with one object in each set.
Commutative property
The order in which two numbers are multiplied does
not affect the product.
Inverse property
Multiplication and division are related operations that
undo each other, therefore division can be used to
Example: 3 × 6 results in the same product as 6 × 3.
solve a multiplication problem.
Associative property Example: 9 × 7 = 63, so 63 ÷ 7 = 9, and 63 ÷ 9 = 7

The order in which three or more factors are
multiplied does not affect the product.
The inverse property is applied to form fact families.
Example: (3 × 4) × 5 results in the same product

as 3 × (4 × 5).

Multiplication: important concept knowledge
Meaning of the numbers Multiplicative structures
Multiplication equations have a multiplier (how many Multiplication is applicable in a range of settings.
groups or sets of equal size), a multiplicand (size of These settings are sometimes referred to as
the equal sets) and a product (total number). ‘problem types’. Table 1 provides some examples
of problem types.
Example: in 9 × 7 = 63, 9 is the multiplier, 7 is the
Table 1: Multiplicative structures
multiplicand and 63 is the product (the answer).
Multiplication Example
problem type
The × symbol means ‘of‘ (as in equal 'sets' of) and
Equal groups Each packet holds 6 biscuits. There are
the = symbol represents the equality (sameness) 5 packets. How many biscuits are there
of 9 × 7 (nine 'sets' of seven objects) and 63 (objects). in total? (5 × 6 = 30)
Rate Sally runs 3 laps every minute. How
Multiplication strategies many laps will she run in 8 minutes?
(8 × 3 = 24)
Multiplication strategies are methods to solve
mathematical problems. The strategies may be mental, Times as many Talia has four times as many marbles
as Luke. Luke has 7 marbles. How many
written, digital or a mix of the three. marbles does Talia have? (4 × 7 = 28)
Mental strategies are calculations worked in one's mind Part–part– For every 2 black cows in the herd, there
and may involve using one of the following methods: whole are 3 brown cows. There are 100 cows
overall. How many are brown? (2 + 3 = 5,
• partitioning and recombining numbers, using the 20 × 5 = 100, 20 × 3 = 60)
distributive property Cartesian You have 4 different T-shirts and 3
product different pairs of shorts. How many
Example: 6 × 24 as (6 × 20) + (6 × 4) (combinations) different outfits are possible?
(3 × 4 = 12, or 4 × 3 = 12)
Rectangular Lettuces are planted in an array that
• rounding and adjustment strategies array is 9 lettuces long and 5 lettuces wide.
How many lettuces are there?
Example: 5 × 38 as (5 × 40) – (5 × 2) (9 × 5 = 45, or 5 × 9 = 45)
(note that 38 is rounded to 40) (Vergnaud 1988; Greer 1992)
• proportional adjustment strategies. Factors

A factor is a whole number that divides exactly into
Example: 6 × 24 = 12 × 12 (doubling and halving) another number.
or 3 × 27 = 9 × 9 (trebling and thirding)
Example: 1, 2, 3 and 6 are factors of 6.
Written strategies are often algorithms, meaning they
are step-by-step methods to find an answer. The A prime number is a whole number greater than one
most common algorithm for multiplication applies with exactly two factors: itself and one.
place-value structure and the distributive property
A composite number is a whole number that has
and should only be introduced once students have
factors other than one and itself (ACARA 2019).
explored a range of strategies and have developed a
sound conceptual understanding of multiplication.
Multiples
Example: A multiple is many groups of the same quantity.
Representing Example: the multiples of 2 are 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12

the 3 tens from
8 × 4 = 32
54
3 and so on.
× 8
Figure 13 432
DIVISION
Division: key ideas

and equivalence, language and strategies need to be considered when developing
units of work in division. The specific key ideas in division are: equal groups,
division with a remainder and properties of division. The properties of
division include: inverse property, identity property, division of a number by itself
and division by zero.
Equal groups Properties of division

The quantity in each group is the same.
Inverse property
Division and multiplication are related operations that
Division with a remainder undo each other, therefore multiplication can be used
A remainder occurs when a collection cannot be to solve a division problem.
partitioned into equal groups.
Treatment of the remainder depends on the context. Example: 63 ÷ 7 = 9 so 9 × 7 = 63

The remainder can be:
The inverse property is applied to form fact families.
• discarded to give a smaller whole number
Identity property
Example: how many full packets of 6 biscuits can Dividing a number by one will not affect the quantity.
be made from a tray of 25 biscuits? (4 full packets
of biscuits)
Example: 13 ÷ 1 = 13 since there are 13 ones in 13.
• rounded up to the nearest whole number

Division of a number by itself
Dividing a number by itself will give a quotient (result)
Example: there are 29 students travelling to
of one.
an AFL game. If only 3 students fit in each car,
how many cars are needed? (10 cars)
Example: 13 ÷ 13 represents: how many groups
of 13 can be made from a group of 13?
• represented as a fractional part
Example: 15 worms are shared equally among Division by zero

4 kookaburras. How many worms does each Dividing a number by zero is undefined.
kookaburra get? (23 ÷ 4 = 5 34 )
Example: 13 ÷ 0 represents: how many times can
• represented as a decimal. a group of 0 be made from a group of 13?
Example: 22 metres of cloth makes exactly

5 dresses. How much cloth is needed for each
2
dress? (22 ÷ 5 = 4 5 = 4.4 metres)

Division: important concept knowledge
Meaning of the numbers Table 2: Divisional structures
The number which we divide is called the dividend. Division Partitive (sharing) Quotative
The number by which we divide is called the divisor problem type example (measuring)
and the result is called the quotient. example
Equal groups There are 30 There are 30
Types of division biscuits and 6

packets. The
biscuits. 5 biscuits
are put in each
Division takes two forms: partition division and biscuits are packet. How many
quotition division. equally shared into packets are there?
the packets. How (30 ÷ 5 = 6)
Partition division many biscuits are
Partition division (or equal sharing division) is used in each packet?
when the total number to be divided is known (30 ÷ 6 = 5)
(the dividend) and the number of parts is known. Rate Sally runs 24 laps Sally runs 24
The number in each part is not known. in 8 minutes. How laps at 3 laps per
many laps does minute. How many
she run each minutes does she
Example: I have 12 lollies and I share them into
minute? run altogether?
4 bags. How many lollies are in each bag?
(24 ÷ 8 = 3) (24 ÷ 3 = 8)
(Think about: ‘shared between’.)
Times as Talia has 28 Talia has 28
many marbles. That marbles and Luke
Quotition division is four times as has 7 marbles.
Quotition division (also known as measurement many marbles as How many times
division or repeated subtraction) is when the total Luke. How many more marbles does
marbles does Luke Talia have than
number to be divided is known and the number in
have? Luke?
each part is known. The total number of parts is
not known. (28 ÷ 4 = 7) (28 ÷ 7 = 4)
Part–part– There are 100 In a herd of 100
whole cows in the herd. cows there are 40
Example: I have 12 lollies and I put them into
For every 2 black black cows and
bags of 4. How many bags will there be? cows there are 3 the rest are brown.
(Think about: ‘how many groups of?’) brown cows. How What is the ratio
many brown cows of black to brown
are there? cows?
Division in fraction form (2 + 3 = 5, 100 ÷ 5 (40 + 60 = 100,
The result of equal sharing or measuring can be = 20, 3 × 20 = 60) 40 ÷ 20 = 2, 60 ÷ 20
represented as both a number and an operation. = 3 so 40:60 = 2:3)
Cartesian You can make 12 different paired outfits
3 (product with your T-shirts and shorts. You have
Example: can represent both the operation
4
combinations) 3 pairs of shorts. How many T-shirts do
3 ÷ 4 and the quotient (answer).
you have?
(12 ÷ 3 = 4)
Divisional structures Rectangular

array
There are 45 lettuces planted in rows
of 9 plants each. How many rows of
Division is applicable in a range of settings. lettuces are there?
These settings are sometimes referred to as
(45 ÷ 9 = 5)
‘problem types’. Table 2 provides some examples
of problem types. (Vergnaud 1988; Greer 1992)

DIVISION
Division strategies • proportional adjustment strategies, using factors of

Division strategies are methods to solve mathematical the divisor
problems. The strategies may be mental, written,
digital or a mix of the three. The strategies rely Example: 340 ÷ 5 = ?
on modifying the properties of numbers under
multiplication to allow for division as the inverse 340 ÷ 10 = 34 (Use the factors of 10 and proportionality)
of multiplication.
÷2 ×2
Mental strategies are calculations worked in one's
mind and may involve using one of the following 340 ÷ 5 = 68 (Divisor is half, so the quotient is double)
methods:
Therefore, 340 ÷ 5 = 68
• partitioning and recombining numbers using the
distributive property, usually with place value Figure 16
Example: • equal adjustment to dividend and divisor to simplify

an equation.
144 ÷ 6 (Partition 144)
Example: 276 ÷ 12 = ?
120 ÷ 6 and 24 ÷ 6
276 ÷ 12 (Divide dividend and divisor by 3)
20 and 4 ÷3
92 ÷ 4 (Divide dividend and divisor by 2)

24 (Recombine)
÷2
Therefore, 144 ÷ 6 = 24
Figure 14 46 ÷ 2 = 23
Therefore, 276 ÷ 12 = 23
• rounding and adjustment strategies
Figure 17
Example: 232 ÷ 8 = (240 ÷ 8) – (8 ÷ 8) (note that

232 is rounded to 240 because 240 is easily
divided by 8)
232 ÷ 8 (Round 232 to a number that is

divisible by 8, i.e. 240)
240 ÷ 8 and 8 ÷ 8 (Divide the adjustment by 8)
30 subtract 1
29 (Recombine)
Therefore, 232 ÷ 8 = 29
Figure 15

Written strategies are sometimes algorithms,
The 'ones' represent
meaning step-by-step methods to get an answer. units that are
The most common algorithm for division applies decomposed into the
place-value structure and the distributive property place value to the right,
and should only be introduced once students have e.g. this one means 100
explored a range of strategies and have developed a
sound conceptual understanding of division. Written
changed into 10 tens.
154
3 4 16 12
strategies include:
Example: 64 divided by 4
Figure 20
4 hundreds shared among 3 is 1 hundred each

and 1 hundred remaining.
Figure 18
Rename the 1 hundred and 6 tens as 16 tens.
16 tens shared among 3 is 5 tens each and 1 ten
Share 6 tens among 4. That’s 1 ten each. remaining.
Rename the 1 ten and 2 ones 12 ones.
4 tens have been shared so 2 tens are left to 12 ones shared among 3 is 4 ones each and no
share. There are now 2 tens and 4 ones to remainder.
share. As there are not enough tens to share,
trade for ones.
Misconception
There are now 24 ones to share. A common misconception is that ‘division makes
smaller’. Since learning about division usually starts
Share 24 ones among 4. (Think: 4 × ? = 24) with separating a larger group into equal smaller
Four sixes are 24, meaning 6 ones each. groups, students often think the quotient is always
So, 64 divided by 4 is 1 ten and 6 ones each smaller than the dividend.
which is 16.
Example: in 36 ÷ 4 = 9, 9 is smaller than 36.
4 64 The overgeneralisation that ‘division makes smaller’

causes problems with rational numbers.
- 4 0 10 Example: 6 ÷
1
4
= 24 since there are 24 quarters

24 in 6.
-24 6
Figure 19
0 16
How many groups of 4 can be made from 60?
10 groups of 4 can be made, which is 40.
That leaves 24.
How many groups of 4 can be made from 24?
6 groups of 4 can be made, which is exactly 24
and no remainder.
64 divided by 4 is 10 groups of 4 plus 6 groups
of 4 which is 16 groups of 4.

FRACTIONS
Fractions: key ideas

units of work in fractions. The specific key ideas in fractions are: quantity,
number triad, partitioning, equivalence and benchmarks.
Quantity Equivalence
A quantity is an amount of something which is Fractions are equivalent if they represent the same
3 6 9
determined using a number and a unit. quantity; for example 4 is the same as 8 , 12 ...
A fraction can also be represented as:

Number triad 3
A number triad represents the relationship between • a decimal – 4
is the same as 0.75
words, symbols and materials or diagrams of a • a percentage –
3
is the same as 75%
4
quantity.
1
• a ratio – 2
is the same as 1:2.
Example: five-sixths may be represented as:
5
Benchmarks
Benchmarks are trusted quantities or numbers
6 used as reference points to estimate, calculate
or compare.
2
Example: 3
is closer to 1 than 0.
Five-sixths
Figure 21
Partitioning
maintaining a sense of the whole.
3 1 1
Example: 4
= 2
+ 4

Fractions: important concept knowledge
Meaning of the symbols Iteration is important to the understanding of
fractions greater than one, such as 75 = 1 25 .
In any fraction, the top number is called the numerator
and the bottom number is called the denominator. The
horizontal line that separates the numerator from the Fraction sub-constructs
denominator is called the vinculum. The denominator Fraction sub-constructs are the work of Tom Kieren
indicates the size of the parts. The numerator (Kieren 1980, 1988, 1993) and are detailed in Table 3.
indicates the number of parts of that size.
Table 3: Fraction sub-constructs
4
Example: in the numerator is 4 and the
5 Sub-construct Description
denominator is 5. The numerator is a count, Fraction as Part–whole is about the relationship
4
so in 5 there are 4 units. The denominator, 5, part–whole between a part and a whole. The whole
indicates the size of the parts; they are the units might be discrete (a set) or continuous
created when one (whole) is partitioned into five (a space).
equal parts or fifths.
Example: two-thirds might be
represented as shown below.
Fraction types
Proper fraction
4
The numerator is less than the denominator, e.g. 5 .
Fraction as The need for rational numbers comes
Unit fraction quotient from division of whole numbers.
1 2
A proper fraction with a numerator of 1, e.g. 5 . Example: 2 ÷ 3 = . If 3 horses share
3
2 bales of hay equally their share is
Improper fraction two-thirds of a bale each.
The numerator is equal to or greater than the
7
denominator, e.g. 5 .
Mixed number
2
A whole number and a proper fraction, e.g. 1 5 .
Fraction as Measure involves using a quantity as a
Iteration measure measure of another quantity. The fraction
Iteration is a repeated copying of a unit with no gaps names the relationship between the unit of
measure and the whole being measured.
or overlaps to form a quantity.
Example: the blue Cuisenaire rod
4 measures two-thirds of the green rod.
Example: on a number line is located at the 5
endpoint of four units of one fifth.
1 1 1 1
5 5 5 5
The blue set measures two-thirds of the
green set.
0 4
1 2
5
Figure 22
a 1
In general, any fraction b
is made up of units of b
.
The measure sub-construct is used to
4 1 1 1 1
Example: 5
= 5
+ 5
+ 5
+ 5 create the fraction number line.

FRACTIONS
Sub-construct Description Strategies for ordering fractions

Fraction as A fraction acts as an operator when by size
operator it works on a quantity through
multiplication. Residual thinking
Example: with two-thirds of 15 Residual thinking is using the ‘left over’ amount
2
( × 15 = 10), two-thirds operates on 15.
3 when two or more fractions are compared to one,
Operators are also important in finding or another benchmark like one-half.
the relationships between quantities.
Example: what fraction of 12 is 8?
(The problem can be represented as
Example: to compare 45 and 78 students might
2
 × 12 = 8, where  = .) know that four-fifths is one-fifth away from one
3
and seven-eighths is one-eighth away from one.
As one-eighth is smaller than one-fifth, then

seven-eighths is closer to one and therefore
larger than four-fifths.
Fractions as Rates and ratios are multiplicative
rates and ratio relationships between quantities. Ratios
are involved when the same measure Converting to equivalent fractions with
is used. A ratio of apple juice to orange the same denominator
juice might be 3:2. The numbers must
Converting to equivalent fractions with the same
be measures with the same unit; for
denominator refers to renaming both fractions so
example, 3 litres of apple to 2 litres
of orange.
the denominators are the same.
Note that rational numbers can be used
to represent: Example: students might compare 23 and 3
5
1) Part-to-whole relationship by converting both fractions to fifteenths,
as shown below.
Example: two-fifths of the ratio is
orange juice. 2 10 3 9
= and =
2) Part-to-part relationships. 3 15 5 15
Example: the amount of orange juice is

Since the size of the parts is equal (i.e. both
two-thirds of the amount of apple juice.
fifteenths), the numerators can be used to show
that 23 > 35 , since 10 > 9.
Representations
A rate expresses a relationship between Physical and diagrammatic representations can be
different units of measure such as litres discrete or continuous: discrete representations
and kilometres. involve collections of objects; and continuous
Example: A car uses 8 litres of petrol representations can be partitioned anywhere to
when driven 100 kilometres. create fractions, and include lengths, area, volumes
The car consumes fuel at a rate of 8 or capacities and mass.
litres per 100 kilometres. By dividing
each measure by 8 the rate can also
be given as 12.5 kilometres per litre.

Misconceptions Adding numerators and denominators
Most incorrect ideas students possess are the result Given that fractions have whole numbers as
of overgeneralising the properties of whole numbers numerators and denominators, some students think
and transferring those properties to rational that addition of fractions works like whole numbers,
numbers. Below are some examples of common incorrectly adding numerators together and
misconceptions. denominators together.
Ordering by numerators Example: 2

+ 1
= 3
3 2 5
Given that the numerator tells how many parts,
students may incorrectly order fractions by the
numerators. Percentages
A percentage is a fraction with a denominator of 100.
Example: The literal meaning of the % sign is 'per hundred'
which comes from the vinculum (line) of a fraction
3 2 2 4
6
> 5
since 3 > 2, but 3
< 8
since 2 < 4. combined with the two zeros from 100.
(Note that the first answer is correct by chance Applications of percentages

since three is greater than two, but the second Often percentages refer to a part–whole ratio.
answer is incorrect.)
Example: a netball shooter gets 42 goals from

Ordering by denominators 50 shots. Since 42
50
84
= 100 her shooting percentage
Ordering by denominators (or reciprocal thinking) refers equals 84% meaning 42 out of 50 is equivalent to
to students incorrectly believing that fractions can 84 per 100.
be ordered by finding the smaller denominator. This
misconception arises since the more equal parts a Percentages can be greater than 100, where they
whole is cut into, the smaller the parts become. represent a comparison of two quantities.
Example: Example: if 40 cats give birth to 70 kittens,

the percentage equals 175% because 70 40
= 175
100
.
3 2 2 4
6
< 5
since 5 < 6, but 3
> 8
since 3 < 8.
Percentages also act as operators.

(Note that the first answer is wrong, but the
second answer is correct by chance.)
Example: a 30% discount is offered on all items
in a store. An item costing $70 will be discounted
Gap thinking by $21 because 10030
× 70 = 21.
Gap thinking refers to comparing non-unit fractions
(i.e. a fraction with a numerator greater than 1) by
considering the number of parts rather than the size
of the part.
5
Example: students might incorrectly think that 6
6
and 7 are the same size, because both fractions
require one part to build up to the whole.
3
They might also think that because 5 is two parts
5 3 1
away from 5 then 5 is less than 2 since it is two
parts away from a whole, while one-half is only
one part away.

FRACTIONS
Strategies • convert percentages to simple fractions

Many strategies are useful for calculating with
percentages. Some examples include: Example: to find 25% of 48 change 25% to one
quarter and calculate 14 × 48 = 12.
• represent percentages as equivalent part–whole
ratios using a dual number line
• find the unit rate (1%) and multiply (unitary method)
Example: There are 45 girls in a class of 60

students. The percentage of girls equals 75% Example: to find 16% of 400 find 1% first and
because 45 = 34 = 100
75
. multiply that answer by 16.
60
Students
1% of 400 = 4 (dividing by 100), so 16% of 400 = 64
0 15 30 45 60 (multiplying by 16)
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

• use common factors to simplify the ratio.
Percentage
Example: at a tournament there are 48 netballers
Figure 23 and 32 AFL players, so there are a total of 80
players; dividing both 48 and 32 by 8 gives
• use 10% as a benchmark 6:4, so the fraction of netballers is 6 out of 10,
which is 60%.
Example: to find 20% of $140, find 10% of
140 = 14 and double it.
Dollars
0 14 28 140
0% 10% 20% 100%
Percentage
Figure 24

Decimals: key ideas
equivalence, language and strategies need to be considered when developing units
of work in decimals. The specific key ideas in decimals are: quantity, number triad,
equivalence, partitioning, base-10 system, digit position and benchmarks.
Quantity • renaming and regrouping
A quantity is an amount of something which is Example:

determined using a number and a unit. 0.9 + 0.34 = 1.24 (Rename 0.34)
Number triad 0.9 + 0.1 + 0.24 = 1.24 (Regroup)

A number triad represents the relationship between
words, symbols and materials or diagrams of a
quantity. 1.0 + 0.24 = 1.24
Figure 26
Example: 0.86 might be represented as:

• compact and expanded decimal forms.
0.86
Example: 1.25 = 1 + 0.2 + 0.05 or 1.25 = 1
one + 2 tenths + 5 hundredths
eighty-six Base-10 system

hundredths The base-10 system is a number system that is based
on grouping quantities in tens or partitioning equally
Figure 25
into 10 equal parts.
Each place has a value that is 10 times greater than

the place to its right, and one-tenth of the value of the
Equivalence place to its left.
A decimal can be equivalent to a fraction or a percentage;
for example, a decimal can be expressed as: Digit position
The place of a digit in a number determines its value.
• a fraction – 0.5 is the same as one-half
There are three ways to interpret a single digit within
• a percentage – 0.5 is the same as 50%.
a decimal fraction. They are face value, place value
and total value.
Partitioning
A quantity can be separated into parts while Example: in 0.72 the seven has a face value of 7,
maintaining a sense of the whole. a place value in the tenths place and a total value
of 7 tenths or 70 hundredths.
Example: 1.25 = 1 + 0.2 + 0.05 or 1.25 = 1
one + 2 tenths + 5 hundredths Zero can be a placeholder and a digit representing
a quantity.
• renamed decimal fractions

Benchmarks
Example: 1.25 is the same as 12 tenths and Benchmarks are trusted quantities or numbers used
5 hundredths. as reference points to estimate, calculate or compare.
Example: 0.63 is closer to 1 than 0.

DECIMALS
Decimals: important concept knowledge

Ragged decimals Shorter is larger
According to Roche (2005), ragged decimal fractions Shorter is larger occurs in ‘denominator-focused
have a varying number of digits to the right of the thinking’. A student might incorrectly generalise that
decimal point. one-tenth is bigger than one-hundredth, meaning
that any number of tenths is bigger than any number
of hundredths. For example, 0.4 is bigger than 0.83.
Example: 0.4, 0.37, 0.501 and 23.7 are ragged
decimals. The shorter-is-larger misconception also occurs
in ‘reciprocal thinking’. In this case, a student sees
(Note that giving students ragged decimals the decimal fraction part as the denominator of a
to order supports them to apply place-value fraction, with larger denominators creating smaller
knowledge.) fractions. This misconception is revealed when 0.3
is chosen as the larger of 0.3 and 0.4 (as 13 is larger
than 14 ).
Misconceptions In ‘negative thinking’, a student believes 0.3 is larger
As occurs with fractions, most misconceptions arise
than 0.4 as -3 is larger than -4.
when students overgeneralise the properties of whole
numbers and transfer those properties to decimals. Money thinkers
Three possible misconceptions that students can
Students who are money thinkers have an
have about decimals include: longer is larger, shorter
understanding of the first two decimal places
is larger and those who think in terms of money.
because amounts of money only exist to hundredths
Longer is larger of a dollar (cents). They may view decimals as two
whole numbers separated by a dot, the first possibly
Longer is larger occurs in ‘whole-number thinking’,
representing dollars and the second cents. It is
such as 4.63 is larger than 4.8 as 63 > 8, and ‘column
important to recognise the limitations of teaching
overflow thinking’, such as 4.63 is greater
decimals through money.
than 4.8 as 63 tenths is greater than 8 tenths.

KEY IDEAS in
MEASUREMENT AND GEOMETRY
Measurement: key ideas

of work in measurement. The specific key ideas in measurement are: attribute,
comparison, unit of measure, conservation and equivalence and conversion.
Attribute Unit of measure

An attribute is a characteristic of an object or event. An appropriate unit is used to measure the attribute of
an object; a unit is a uniform ‘piece’ of that attribute.
Example: the measurable attributes of a brick
include length, mass, surface area and volume. Example: a centimetre is a unit of length.
(Note that uniform means that all centimetres
are equal.)
Comparison
Similarities and differences of objects can be
determined based on particular measurable Conservation
attributes. Conservation is when an attribute of an object
changes while the other attributes remain the same.
Attributes can be compared based on one or more of
The attribute which has not changed is said to be
the following methods:
‘conserved’. Conservation is not applicable to 'time'.
• perceptual comparison – attributes of the objects
look the same or look different Example: the mass of a piece of clay is conserved
• direct comparison – objects are placed beside each whether its form is a sphere or a cylinder.
other to compare the attribute
• indirect comparison – the attribute of objects is
compared using a third object
Equivalence and conversion
The same measure can be expressed using different
related units.
Example: a piece of string or a balance pan can
be used to compare objects.
Example: there are 100 centimetres in 1 metre;
therefore, 2 metres and 35 centimetres is the
• transitivity – three or more objects are ordered
same as 235 centimetres.
using transitive thinking.
Example: if object A is longer than object B,

and object B is longer than object C, then object A
must be longer than object C.

MEASUREMENT
Measurement: important concept knowledge

What is measurement? Attribute Common metric units
The size of a quantity can be measured using counts Mass Base unit: kilogram (kg)
of a unit. The amount of matter or Sub-unit: gram (g)
substance in an object; not Composite unit: tonne (t)
to be confused with the idea (1000 kg)
Example: the mass of an apple may be 250 of ‘weight’, which refers to
grams, where 250 is the count and gram is Also in common everyday
the pull of gravity upon that
the unit. use: milligram (mg),
matter or substance
microgram (µg) and
megatonne (Mt)
Attributes and units Time Base units: second (sec or

s), minute (min), hour (h or
The duration of an event or
The following table outlines the attributes and hr), year (yr)
duration between events
common metric units of measurement.
The attribute of time can Sub-unit: millisecond (ms)
Table 4: Attributes and units of measurement be explored through the Also in common everyday
following elements: use: microsecond (µs)
Attribute Common metric units
time telling: using an nanosecond (ns), day, week,
Length Base unit: metre (m) month, decade, century,
instrument to measure
One-dimensional distance Sub-units: centimetre (cm), time; for example, digital millennium
of a pathway or object from millimetre (mm) clock, analogue clock, Note: many units of time have
one point to another Composite units: kilometre calendar or sand glass a base of 12, 24 or 60 and do
(km) time elapsed: calculating not conform to the decimal
Also in common everyday the duration of time from system
use: decimetre (dm), a starting point to an end
micrometre (µm) and point
nanometre (nm) time span: daily events
Area Base unit: square metre (morning, afternoon,
Two-dimensional (flat) (m2) evening), tools (calendar,
space within a bounded Sub-unit: square centimetre timetable, clock), social or
region (cm2) cultural phenomena (Easter,
Composite units: square Christmas), and time cycles
kilometre (km2) (millennia, centuries,
Also in common everyday decades, years, seasons,
use: hectare (ha), which is months, weeks, days)
10 000 m2 Temperature Base unit: degree Celsius
Volume Base unit: cubic metre (m ) 3
The heat of a substance (°C)
Three-dimensional space Sub-unit: cubic centimetre Angle Base unit: degree (°)
occupied by an object (cm3) The amount of turn between
Composite unit: cubic two rays that share a
kilometre (km3) common endpoint (vertex)
Perimeter See units of length
Distance around the outside Note: for a circle, the More complex attributes come from relationships
of a bounded shape perimeter is called the between the basic attributes listed in Table 4; for
circumference example, speed is the relationship of distance to time
Capacity Base unit: litre (L or l) and is measured using a rate (kilometres per hour).
The amount of gas or liquid Sub-unit: millilitre (mL or ml) Other common measurement attributes measured
able to be enclosed in a by rates are density, flow and pressure.
Composite units: kilolitre
space (kL), megalitre (ML)
Note: capacity is the volume
of the interior of a container

Metric system Example: two pencils are placed beside each other
The metric system forms part of the Standard to compare their lengths (note the importance of a
International (SI) set of standardised measures. common starting point or baseline).
Developed by mathematicians and scientists in France
during Napoleon Bonaparte's reign, the metric system
is based on 10, like the place value system.
The metre was the founding unit in the system and

was created to be one ten-millionth of the distance Correct direct comparison
from the equator to the North Pole. It is also the

length of a pendulum that completes one swing in
one second. Units for other attributes were derived
from the metre. One litre is the volume of a cube that
has edges of 10 cm. One kilogram is the mass of one Incorrect direct comparison (no common baseline)
litre of water.
Figure 27
In the metric system, prefixes are used to convert
the base unit into smaller units or collections of units.
The most commonly used prefixes are shown in Table 5. 2. Objects may be brought together directly to
compare their relative size.
Table 5: Common prefixes in measurement
Prefix Meaning Example 3. Another object may be used to indirectly compare
deci- One-tenth Decilitre, dL (one-tenth of two objects; for example, a length of string may
a litre) be used to compare the height of a door and a
centi- One-hundredth Centimetre, cm (one- window.
hundredth of a metre)
4. A transitive relationship may be established among
milli- One-thousandth Millilitre, mL (one-thousandth
of a litre) three or more objects; for example, in Figure 28,
micro- One-millionth Micrometre, μm (one- if pencil A is shorter than pencil B, and pencil B is
millionth of a metre) shorter than pencil C, then pencil A is shorter than
kilo- One thousand Kilogram, kg (one thousand pencil C.
grams)
hecto- One hundred Hectometre, hm (one hundred Example:
metres)
mega- One million Megalitre, ML (one million
litres)
Measurement process B is longer than A

Different attributes present variable difficulty for
students due to how easily the attributes are sensed and
perceived; for example, the attributes of physical space
proceed in complexity from length to area, from area
to volume, and from volume to capacity. Measurement
C is longer than B
of mass tends to be easier than measurement of time,
since mass is more easily ‘felt’ than time.
Comparison
The process of comparison is developed in four stages. C must be longer than A
1. Objects may be compared visually. Note the Figure 28

difficulty around perception; for example, larger
objects appear to be closer.

MEASUREMENT
Informal to formal units 5. Units for the same attribute are related by size in
an inversely proportional way. The larger the unit,
Informal units tend to be personal, such as foot the smaller the measure. The same pencil might
lengths, blobs of playdough or handfuls. Formal measure 10 white rods or 5 grey rods in length if
measures, however, are commonly accepted so white rods are half the length of grey rods.
that the sizing of units is known and shared by a
community; for example, metres, cups and hours.
Example:
Students need to be aware that units have the
following properties:
1. Units are a piece of the attribute they measure.
2. Units are uniform (i.e. are all of equal size).

Units twice the size use half as many
3. Units iterate (i.e. a single unit is used repeatedly
to find a measurement without gaps or overlaps). Figure 31
Example:
Devices or tools
Measurement scales are created to remove the need
✗ to use individual units and to make measurement

more efficient. Most devices have scales.
Gaps and overlaps

Example: a ruler is a scale and the marks on a
measurement jug form a scale.
✓ Students need to be aware that scales have the

following properties:
Correct iteration of units
1. Marks show the endpoints of units not the centre

Figure 29 of the units.
4. Units can be added and subtracted just like other Example:

countable objects.
Example: length A, which is 8 cubes long, is

combined with length B, which is 6 cubes long,
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
and so have a combined measure of 8 + 6 = 14
cubes. Figure 32
2. Zero marks the start of the scale, although any

8 units + 6 units
point on the scale can act as the baseline or
arbitrary zero.
14 units
Figure 30
Example:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Figure 33

3. Intervals on scales can be equally partitioned into • calculating areas and volumes by multiplication
smaller units if more precision is required.
Example: the area of a fenced enclosure is found
Example: a pencil might be measured in by calculating 6 m × 8 m = 48 m2.
centimetres or millimetres.
The volume of the object is found by calculating
30 cm × 40 cm × 60 cm = 72 000 cm3.
4 5 6 7 6m
40cm
Figure 34 30cm
8m
60cm
4. Scales are read using a combination of two processes:

Figure 36
i) iteration: the repeated copying of a trusted
measure or interval • converting between units of measures for the same
ii) equi-partitioning: the division of an interval attribute
into equal more precise intervals.
Example: a person is measured as being
165 centimetres in height. Since 100 cm = 1m,
Example:
their height in metres can be calculated:
1 litre 1 litre
165 ÷ 100 = 1.65 m.
600mL • converting between measures for different

500mL
attributes.
100mL Example A: the interior of an esky measures

30 cm × 40 cm × 60 cm. The volume of the space
equals 72 000 cm3. Since 1000 cm3 = 1 litre,
Iterating 100mL Equally partitioning 1L
the capacity of the esky can be calculated:
Figure 35 72 000 ÷ 1000 = 72 L.
Example B: a water cooler bottle has a mass of

Calculations with measures, 0.5 kilograms when empty and holds 15 litres of
including conversions water. What is its mass when full? (1 litre of water
has a mass of 1 kilogram.)
Measures can be calculated, calculated with and
converted if more appropriate units are required The mass of the full bottle: 15 × 1 + 0.5 = 15.5 kg.
or if attributes are related. The most common types
of calculations are:
• finding differences between measures
Example: the temperature at Mount Hotham

was -2°C at 5.00 am and rose to 6°C by 2.00 pm.
How much did the temperature increase in
those 9 hours?

MEASUREMENT
Lehrer’s eight key concepts of

spatial measurement
Lehrer (2003) has outlined eight key concepts of
spatial measurement:
1. Unit attribute relationship – units match the

attribute being measured
2. Iteration – a single unit can be moved to measure

a spatial attribute
3. Tiling – units fill lines, planes, volumes and

angles without spaces
4. Identical units – if the units are identical, a count

represents the measure, and mixtures of units
have to be specified
5. Standardisation – formal units are used to

facilitate communication
6. Proportionality – the size of the unit is inversely

proportional to the count of the units, and the
larger the unit the smaller the measure
7. Additivity – the whole is the sum of the parts
8. Origin of zero point – any point can be used

as the zero point (for example, the difference
between 0 and 10 is the same as between
30 and 40).

Geometry: key ideas
of work in geometry. The specific key ideas in geometry are: features, properties,
classification, orientation, transformation, point of view and symmetry.
Features Classes (i.e. categories) of shapes are defined by

their properties, which are relationships among
Features, sometimes called attributes, are visual features of similar shapes.
characteristics of a shape or object that can be seen.
Example: equilateral triangles (the class) have

Example: a circle and a sphere have ‘roundness’, three equal sides and three equal angles. All
a triangle and a pyramid have ‘pointiness’ polygons that have those properties belong to
(corners or vertices). Squares have straight sides the class. (Note that while features are ‘seen’
and cubes have flat surfaces (planes). Attendance in individual shapes, properties are ‘thought of,’
to features dominates students’ early thinking by connecting common features of collections of
about shapes. shapes and organising those shapes into classes.)
Properties Properties are relationships connecting characteristics

of shapes or objects.
Shapes and objects have distinguishable
characteristics and are named because of their
Example: a square has four equal sides and
properties.
four right angles. While the sides and equality
The properties of two-dimensional (2D) shapes are characteristics, connecting them creates a
typically include relationships among the number, property, as does noticing that the four angles
length and relative position of sides, as well as the are all right angles.
number and angle of corners, lines of symmetry,
convexity and concavity. Some properties are defining; that is, they describe
what a shape must have to belong to a class.
The properties of three-dimensional (3D) objects
typically include the shape and relative position of
Example: a prism is an object made from
faces, surfaces, edges and vertices (corners).
connected polygons and has a constant
cross-section.

GEOMETRY
Classification Transformation
Classification involves establishing criteria to group Transformation is the change in the size, shape or
shapes by their common properties. Classification is position of a shape or object.
about working with relationships among properties,
where individual shapes are examples of the classes Isometric transformations
and are hierarchical. Isometric transformations include translations,
rotations and reflections. Note: these do not change
Example: a quadrilateral is a polygon with four the size or proportions of a shape or object.
sides. A parallelogram is a quadrilateral that
1. Translation (slide): the movement of a shape to
has two pairs of parallel sides. A rectangle is a
a new position. The length of sides and angles
parallelogram with four right angles. A square is
remain unchanged.
a special type of rectangle that has equal sides.
An individual square is an example of a shape
that could be classified as a rectangle or Example:
a parallelogram or a quadrilateral.
Kites Quadrilaterals
Parallelograms
Figure 39
Rhombuses Squares Rectangles 2. Rotation (turn): a change to the position of a

shape by rotating it about a fixed point through
Trapeziums
a given angle. The point may be inside or outside
the shape.
Figure 37 Shape hierarchy Example: 180° rotation about A (external to the

shape)
Orientation
Orientation is the position of a shape on a plane or
an object in space, in particular the direction that
A
the features of the shape or object are facing.
The orientation of a shape remains unchanged as

it is translated (i.e. shifted) or enlarged, but changes
when a shape is reflected or rotated through an angle Figure 40
not equal to 360°.
3. Reflection (flip): a change to the position of a

Example: a rotated square is still a square.
shape by reflecting it along a mirror line. The line
may run through the shape or be external to it.
Example: a reflection along a mirror line external

to the shape
m
Figure 38
Figure 41

Non-isometric transformations Symmetry
Non-isometric transformations include enlargements A shape has symmetry if it maps onto itself by a
and reductions (dilations). transformation, particularly through reflection
A dilation is a change to the size of a shape about a and/or rotation.
point. The lengths of the sides and/or the angles
Reflective symmetry
are changed.
In reflective symmetry, the locations of the mirror are
called lines of symmetry.
Example: an enlargement about P with a scale
factor of 2 (lengths of the image shape are
double those of the original shape). A scale factor Example: in the diagram below, m is one of
greater than 1 enlarges the shape and a scale two lines of symmetry for the cross section of the
factor less than 1 shrinks the shape. letter H.
m
Figure 44
Figure 42
Rotational symmetry
Point of view In rotational symmetry, the point is known as the
Objects appear differently depending upon the centre of rotation and the angle of rotation is the
position from which they are viewed. measure of turn that maps the shape onto itself.
Example: a square-based pyramid will look Example: the centre of rotation for the recycling
different when viewed from the top, side or below. logo is P and the angle of rotation measures 120°
or one-third of a full turn. The logo has rotational
symmetry of order three as it maps onto itself
three times in a full turn.
3D view
Each side view Top view

Figure 45
Front view Bottom view
Figure 43

GEOMETRY
Geometry: important concept knowledge

Geometric reasoning Polygon
Geometric reasoning is thinking with the properties A polygon is a two-dimensional, planar shape that is
of shapes. bounded (i.e. enclosed) by line segments. The line
segments form the sides of the polygon. A regular
Example: students might recognise that if polygon has sides and angles of equal measure.
rectangles have four right angles, then squares
are a type of rectangle. They might also deduce Three-dimensional object
the value of an unknown angle in a triangle from A three-dimensional object exists in real life, so it
the two given internal angles. possesses three dimensions: length, width and
depth. Polyhedra, such as prisms and pyramids,
and closed surfaces, such as spheres and cylinders,
Point are solid objects that have three dimensions.
A point is a single location in space. A point is usually
represented as a dot, although, theoretically, a point
has no area.
Polyhedron
A polyhedron is a three-dimensional object bounded
(i.e. enclosed) by polygons and called a solid.
Line
A line is a set of points that extend infinitely in two Solids or objects enclosed by polygons are called
directions. A line is usually represented by a straight polyhedra and those polygons comprise the faces.
segment. Theoretically, a line has only one dimension A regular polyhedron has the same regular polygons
(length) and no area. for all of its faces.
Types of lines include: Example: each of the faces of a cube are squares.
• horizontal – lines that are parallel to the horizon
• vertical – lines that are at a right angle to a Curved solids, such as cones, spheres, cylinders and
horizontal line others are not classified as polyhedra.
• oblique – lines that are neither vertical nor
horizontal Net
• perpendicular – lines that meet at a right angle. A net is a flat shape created by unfolding a three-
dimensional solid.
Ray
A ray is a set of points that extend infinitely in one Example: the net below is created by unfolding a
direction. A ray is usually represented by an arrow cube.
or vector beginning at a fixed point.
F
Plane C D E
A plane is a flat surface that extends infinitely in two
B
dimensions; width and length.
A
Two-dimensional shape Figure 46
A two-dimensional shape exists on a flat surface,
so it possesses length and width. Two-dimensional
shapes include polygons, such as triangles and
quadrilaterals, and simple closed curves, such
as circles.

Congruence Adjacent angles
Congruent shapes are exactly the same shape and size. Adjacent angles are two angles next to each other that
share a common ray.
Similar shapes
Similar shapes are exactly the same shape (angles Example: angles a and b are adjacent, as are
and side ratios), but are a different size. angles b and c, angles a and d and angles c and d.
Each adjacent pair adds up to 180°.
Regular shapes
A polygon is a regular shape if all of its sides are the
a
same length and all of its angles have the same
d
measure.
b
c
Tessellation
A tessellation is the tiling of a plane in a repeated
pattern with no gaps or overlaps of the shapes. Figure 47
Apex
An apex is the highest point above the base of a cone Complementary angles
or a pyramid. Complementary angles are adjacent and add up to 90°.
Cross-section Example: 40° is the complement of 50° and

A cross-section is the flat surface created when a cut vice versa.
is made through an object, parallel to the base. The
cross-section of cylinders and prisms are uniform,
whereas the cross-section of pyramids and cones are
not uniform. 40˚
Truncated object b
50˚
A truncated 3D object has a vertex removed by cutting a
along a plane.
Figure 48
Right object
A 3D object is ‘right’ when the top face or the apex is
centered above the base and is perpendicular to the Supplementary angles
centre point of the base. Supplementary angles are two adjacent angles that
add up to 180°.
Oblique object
An oblique object is a 3D object that does not fulfill Example: 55° is the supplement of 125° and
the criteria for 'right'. vice versa.
Angle
An angle is a figure formed by two rays joining at a
common endpoint (P), which is used to represent a
turn of one ray from another about P. Angles assist in
55˚ 125˚
defining the properties of classes of shapes.
b a
Example: a rectangle is a quadrilateral with

Figure 49
equal angles.

GEOMETRY
Vertically-opposite angles Transversals

Vertically-opposite angles refer to two lines A transversal is a line that intersects parallel lines,
intersecting so that the angles opposite to each forming different sets of angles.
other are the same measure.
Example:
Example: angles a and c are opposite, as are
angles b and d, so a = c and b = d.
a
b
a d
d c
w
b
x
c
z
y
Figure 50
Figure 53
Angles at a point
Angles at a point refers to angles surrounding a point Corresponding angle
(with no gap or overlap) that add up to 360°.
A corresponding angle is an angle that is on the
This property is particularly important for same side of the transversal and in a like position.
establishing which polygons, or sets of polygons, Corresponding angles are equal in measure.
will tessellate.
Example: in Figure 53, angles a and w are
Example: in the tessellation below, the angles corresponding, as are d and z, b and x, c and y,
meeting at each vertex (i.e. point) add to 360°. so a = w, d = z, b = x and c = y.
Alternate angle
An alternate angle is an angle that is on the opposite
135°
side of the transversal and inside the two intersected
90°
lines. Alternate angles are equal in measure.
135°
Example: in Figure 53, angles c and w are

alternate, as are d and x, so c = w and d = x.
Figure 51
Co-interior angle
Parallel lines A co-interior angle is an angle that is on the same
Parallel lines extend infinitely in two directions but side of the transversal and inside the two intersected
never meet. A real-life analogy is railway tracks. lines. Co-interior angles add up to 180°.
Example: AB and XY are representations of Example: in Figure 53, angles d and w are
parallel lines. co-interior, as are c and x, so d + w = 180°
and c + x = 180°.
B
Figure 52

Location: key ideas
of work in location. The specific key ideas in location are: position, direction and
orientation.
Position Orientation
The position of an object on a plane or in space can be The orientation of an object can be described in
specified and described relative to a reference point. relation to a reference direction.
Usually the reference direction is a compass point

Direction or bearing, or axes on a Cartesian plane.
The direction (i.e. movement) of an object can
be described relative to its starting position and
surrounding landmarks.
Location: important concept knowledge

Visual representations Coordinate system
The location of objects on a plane and/or in space A coordinate system is a system used to locate the
can be visually represented; each representation has position or direction of an object on a plane or in
particular purposes and ways in which they are read space relative to the distance from an origin.
and interpreted.
Grid reference
Visual representations include diagrams, plans, grids,
An alpha-numeric grid reference defines a region
maps, directories and networks.
on a map.
Example: in the alpha-numeric reference D2, the letter D represents the horizontal x-axis and the numeral 2,
represents the vertical y-axis.
Grid maps
4 Overlaying an array of squares onto a map
provides a means to identify the location of
landmarks. The squares are individual (discrete)
3
so the landmark lies inside the given space;
for example, the car is located at B1 and the
2 tree is located at D4. The horizontal reference
is given first.
A B C D E
Figure 54

LOCATION
An ordered pair reference defines a point, rather than Inter-cardinal direction

a region, on a map or Cartesian plane. Inter-cardinal points can also be used:
Example: in the ordered pair reference (2,3), • north-east (NE) – 45°

the first number, 2, represents the x-coordinate • south-east (SE) – 135°
and the second number, 3, represents the • south-west (SW) – 225°
y-coordinate on the Cartesian plane; the • north-west (NW) – 315°.
Cartesian plane is divided into four quadrants.
Other inter-cardinal points include:
у
• north-north-east (NNE) – 22.5°
(2,3)
3 • east-north-east (ENE) – 67.5°
• east-south-east (ESE) – 112.5°
2
• south-south-east (SSE) – 157.5°
(-3,1)
1 • south-south-west (SSW) – 202.5°
(0,0) • west-south-west (WSW) – 247.5°
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 x • west-north-west (WNW) – 292.5°

• north-north-west (NNW) – 337.5°.
-1
-2 Bearings
(-1.5,-2.5) A bearing is the angle between north and another
-3 landmark as taken from a fixed point. The angle is
measured in a clockwise direction.
Figure 55 Example of a Cartesian plane Example: to reach the tree the person needs to
walk at a bearing of 120°.
Compass points N
Cardinal direction
A cardinal direction is a bearing described by north,
south, east and west, and is commonly denoted by
the direction’s initial. 120°
The four main points on a compass are:
• north (N) – 0° or 360°

• east (E) – 90°
• south (S) – 180° Figure 56
• west (W) – 270°.

BOLTSS Example: 1 cm: 500 m. Each centimetre on the
BOLTSS (i.e. border, orientations, legend, title, map is equivalent to 500 metres on the ground.
BOLTSS scale and source) is standard information to include
on a map:
BOLTSS (i.e. border, orientations, legend, title,
scale and •source)
border – the limits of the area covered by a map
is standard information to
include on a map: – an indication of north
• orientation
• legend – symbols on the map that represent

• border – natural
the limits of the
or artificial areaoncovered
features bylegends
the ground; a map Figure 57
are sometimes referred to as ‘keys’ as they ‘unlock’

• orientation
the – an indication
meaning of north
of the symbols • scale – a ratio indicating distance on a map in
relation to distance on the ground
• title – the name of the map, identifying the
• legend – geographic
symbols area
on the
that itmap
coversthat represent • source – where the information on the map
natural or artificial features on the ground; legends originated.
are sometimes referred to as ‘keys’ as they ‘unlock’
the meaning of the symbols.
Example:
Docklands
Example:
Figure 54 Source: o
Figure 58 (Source: onthemap.com)

• title – the name of the map identifying the
geographic area that it covers
• scale – a ratio indicating distance on a map in
XXX: XXX
KEY IDEAS in
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
Chance: key ideas

of work in chance. The specific key ideas in chance are: probability, randomness,
fairness, bias, independent event and dependent event.
Probability Randomness
Probability is a measure of likelihood. It quantifies Randomness is the unpredictability of an outcome
the chance of an event occurring. occurring. It is not possible to predict which outcome
in a trial will occur because randomness is not
Example: when flipping a coin there is a 50% influenced by any factor other than chance.
chance of it landing on heads.
Example: a roll of a dice has six possible
Experimental probability is calculated by the frequency outcomes. It is not possible to predict which
of an event occurring based on repeated trials. outcome will occur.
Example: flipping a coin 30 times

Fairness
Theoretical probability is determined by systematically Outcomes are fair when there is an equal chance
finding all the possible outcomes of an experiment of occurrence.
(the sample space).
The number of favourable outcomes is compared to Example: the toss of a coin is fair because heads
all the possible outcomes to express the probability or tails are equally likely.
as a fraction, decimal, percentage or ratio. The more
trials within an experiment the more experimental A weighted dice is not 'fair' because the possible
probability aligns to theoretical probability. outcomes do not have an equal chance of occurring.

Bias ×
Biased outcomes do not have an equal chance of
occurrence. They are not fair.
Independent event
An independent event is an event that is not affected
by the outcome of another event.
Example: the spinner below has a greater Example: when a coin is tossed, it is equally
likelihood of landing on 2. It is random but not fair. likely to land on either heads or tails in
subsequent tosses.
1 Dependent event
2 A dependent event is an event that is affected by the
outcome of a prior event.
3 Example: the probability of drawing a red counter
from a bag holding 5 red counters and 5 black
counters is affected by whether the counters are
Figure 59
replaced or not replaced after previous draws
(Van de Walle et al. 2010).

CHANCE
Chance: important concept knowledge

Describing chance Outcome
The probability of events can be described using An outcome is one possible result for a single trial.
language and/or numerical terms.
Example: the red dice may land on 6 and the blue
Language descriptions dice may land on 4.
Words can be used to describe and order probabilities.
Frequency
Example: ‘Impossible’ describes an event that Frequency refers to the number of times an outcome
can never occur, whereas ‘certain’ describes an occurs.
event that will always occur.
Sample space
Equally
Impossible Unlikely likely Likely Certain The sample space is the set of all the possible
outcomes of an experiment.
Figure 60
Event
An event is a subset of the sample space for a
Numerical descriptions
random experiment (ACARA 2019).
Numbers from zero to one can be used to express
probabilities. A probability of zero describes an Example: what are the chances of getting a total
event that is impossible to occur. A probability of one of 5 when two dice are rolled? Getting a total of
describes an event that is certain to occur. A probability 5 is an event. There are four outcomes that result
of one-half describes an event that has the same in that event: (1,4), (2,3), (3,2) and (4,1).
chance of occurring as the chance of it not occurring.
Example:
1
Representations
0................................... .................................... 1
2 There are several ways to systematically determine
0%.............................. 50%................................100% the number of possible outcomes (i.e. sample space)
for situations involving elements of chance.
Figure 61
Consider the situation of a game played with a paper
cup containing four marbles (two white and two
Ratios are sometimes used to represent the odds of black). Two marbles are drawn out. The following are
an event occurring. representations of the possible outcomes.
Example: the odds ratio of getting a head with a Systematic list
single coin toss is 1:1, since there is one outcome
In a systematic list, the most important step is
that gives a head to one outcome that does not.
to label each marble individually then match the
The odds of getting 6 with one dice roll is 1:5.
marbles into pairs systematically. That way, no
possible pairings are missed. Note that the order
Experiment of marbles coming out is considered:
An experiment is an enactment of a situation.
• W1W2, W1B1, W1B2
Example: carrying out 30 trials of rolling two dice • W2W1, W2B1, W2B2
and finding the totals each time • B1W1, B1W2, B1B2
• B2W1, B2W2, B2B1.
Trial
Tree diagram
A trial is a particular performance of an experiment.
In a tree diagram, the end of each arm is a different
Example: a single roll of two dice outcome (see Figure 62). Note that each marble has
an individual code.

Example: Example: a person who has just bought a new
W2
white car, notices more white cars on the road
B1 and expects to see white cars more frequently.
B2
Independence effect
W1 Students might mistakenly make predictions about
W1
the likelihood of an independent event based on the
B1 outcome of the previous trials. Chance has no memory.
W2
B2 Example: when tossing a coin, on the basis of
previous independent events, the student might
W1 think that because there have been three heads
B1 in a row, the next toss should be tails.
W2
B2 Sampling variability effect

B2
Variations in the results of an experiment due to
W1 sampling often cause students to question their
theoretical model.
W2
B1 Example: a student
Figure 62 might predict that the
spinner below will land
on yellow half of the
Table time. However, after
In a table (sometimes called a matrix), each cell 12 trials, the spinner
represents a different outcome. lands on yellow only
four times. The student
Example: questions their belief
that there is a half chance
W1 W2 B1 B2 of getting yellow on each spin.
W1 W2 W1 B1 W1 B2 W1 Figure 64
W2 W1 W2 B1 W2 B2 W2
B1 W1 B1 W2 B1 B2 B1 Equi-probability bias
B2 W1 B2 W2 B2 B1 B2 Students can mistakenly believe that every chance
situation is fair and has equal probabilities. However,
Figure 63
in more complex situations, events often have
unequal probabilities.
Misconceptions Example: when rolling a single dice, each number

from 1 to 6 is equally likely, however, when rolling
Subjective judgements two dice and finding the total, students often
Students often describe the chance of an event in incorrectly assume that each total of 2 to 12 is
terms of ‘personal feelings’. equally likely.
Example: in a board game, students might

believe that they cannot roll a 6 because ‘they are
Outcomes equal events confusion
very unlucky’, or ‘never win anything’. Related to the equi-probability bias, students often
confuse outcomes with events. In the two-dice
scenario, the event of getting a total of 7 has six
Recency effect associated outcomes. If the dice are assigned labels
Students can mistakenly make predictions about first and second, the outcomes are (1,6), (2,5), (3,4),
the likelihood of an independent event based on the (4,3), (5,2), (6,1). The outcome (3,4) is not the same as
outcome of the previous trials. the outcome (4,3).

DATA INVESTIGATION AND INTERPRETATION
Data investigation and interpretation: key ideas

units of work in data investigation and interpretation. The specific key ideas in
data investigation and interpretation are: classification, variation, expectation,
distribution, randomness and informal inference.
Classification Expectation
Classification involves making decisions about the Expectation is a prediction based on patterns and
categorisation of data. Data is often sorted into differences in data.
categories by characteristic.
Example: ‘I expect that the highest daily
Example: pets might be sorted into dogs, cats, temperature will occur in February’, or ‘I expect
birds and so on; and test scores might be sorted that most Year 6 students are usually taller than
into class intervals, such as 0–10%, 11–20%, most Year 3 students’.
21–30% and so on.
The following five key ideas are interrelated. Distribution

Distribution is a shape or relationship that represents
Variation a whole dataset. Common features of the shape of
a distribution include centre, symmetry and non-
Variation describes the differences observed around symmetry (i.e. skewness), most frequent values or
us in every measurable aspect of life, such as age, categories, and spread. Categorical data might be
height, eye colour and temperature. Variation is represented by a bar graph that shows how the data
fundamental and directly connected to the other is distributed across the categories.
four key ideas.
Example: the highest frequency in the graph below

Example: is in the meerkat category and the lowest is in the
the daily maximum temperature varies over a chimpanzee category.
year
Animals at the waterhole
heights of students vary (i.e. natural deviation)
7
6
students might vary in the accuracy with which
Frequency
5
they measure their height (i.e. measurement 4
variation) 3
2
a sample of students might vary in terms of 1
‘middle height’ (i.e. sampling variation) 0
us
on
fe
at
ee
br
m
f
rk
nz
Li
ra
Ze
ta
ee
Gi
pa
po
im
o
pp
Ch
Hi
Animal
Figure 65

Numerical data might be displayed in a dot plot.
Randomness
Randomness occurs when all possible outcomes of a
Example: the distribution below is mostly situation have an equal chance of being selected.
grouped around 55–75 beats per minute.
Example: a random process, such as rolling a

Pulse rates for students in Room 9
dice, requires that all six numbers have an equal
chance of being drawn.
50 60 70 80 90 100
Informal inference
Number of beats per minute
An informal inference is a generalised claim that is
Figure 66 formulated from the data collected (Watson n.d.).
Example: generally, February has the highest

temperature.

Data investigation and interpretation:

important concept knowledge
Statistical inquiry Data
Statistics is the process of answering questions Data involves the collection of data and the
using data. The data may need to be collected or may representation of the collected data into a
already exist. Five interconnected stages make up the communicable format. Data can be organised
statistical inquiry cycle, as shown in Figure 67. into two types: catagorical and numerical.
Variables
Problem
• Define the problem
• Investigative question
Conclusion Categorical/ Numerical/

Plan
• Answer the question
• What to measure Qualitative Quantitative
• May lead to other
• Study design
questions
• Variables
• Communicate
Ordinal Nominal Discrete Continuous

Analysis
•Explore using graphics Data Figure 68
and summary statistics • Collect and clean
•Think hard!
•Relate to context Categorical data, also known as qualitative data, may
be represented by a name, symbol or a number code.
Below are some examples of data types.
Figure 67 (Adapted from https://ecstep.com/statistics) • Nominal data is a set of data that can be separated
into distinct grouping or categories that cannot be
organised in a logical sequence.
Problem Example: different colours of jelly beans in a
Inquiry begins with an issue or defining the problem. packet
The inquiry problem is refined into inquiry questions.
Types of questions include:
• Ordinal data is a set of data that can be logically
• summary (for example, how tall are seven-year-old ordered or ranked.
students?)
• comparison (for example, are seven-year-old girls Examples: clothing size (S, M, L), academic
taller than seven-year-old boys?) grades (A, B, C) or scale scores (1–5)
• relationship (for example, is there a relationship

between children’s heights and their arm spans?). Numerical data, also known as quantitative data,
is data that can be expressed as counts (numbers)
and specific measures (units).
Plan
Planning involves considering what data is needed • Discrete data is a set of data that can take distinct
to answer the inquiry question and how it is to be and specific number values.
collected. Sometimes the data already exists and can
be accessed without the need to collect new data. Example: the number of goals scored by a
The critical consideration is whether the data can football team or shoe sizes
be used to answer the inquiry question.

• Continuous data is a set of data consisting of Frequency table
measurements that can take on any decimal value Frequency refers to the number in a category. In the
along a continuous scale. frequency table in Figure 70, 10 people surveyed had
brown hair.
Example: the height of Year 3 students (Note
that continuous data is expressed to an elected Example:
precision, such as time to the nearest minute,
price to the nearest dollar or height to the Hair colour Tally Frequency
nearest centimetre.)
Black |||| || 7
Data collection tools Brown |||| |||| 10

Data can be collected using a range of tools. These
may include: Red |||| 5
• surveys Blonde |||| || 7

• questionnaires
Pink | 1
• interviews
• observations Figure 70
• measurements
• experiments (usually associated with probability). Categorical data
Pictographs
Data displays Each symbol in a pictograph refers to a number within
Data displays are a tool for investigation, as well as
a category.
a way to communicate findings. The choice of data
display should be directly related to the investigation
and the type of data collected. Example: three participants in the sample wore a
yellow hat.
All data
Yellow
Tally chart
Each mark in the tally chart below represents one Blue
participant’s hair colour. A count of five is shown as
four vertical lines crossed with a diagonal line. White
Example: Green
Red
Hair colour Tally
Orange
Black |||| ||
Figure 71
Brown |||| ||||
Red ||||
Blonde |||| ||
Pink |
Figure 69

Pictographs with a key usually have icons that Pie graph

represent more than one item within a category. In a pie graph, the size of each sector shows the
In the pictograph in Figure 72, each drop represents proportion of people/items in that category compared
the blood type of four people. to the entire group.
Example: Example:
Eye colour of Year 6 students
Blood type Number of people
Type A  Brown
 Blue
Type B  Hazel
 Green
 Grey
Type AB  Other
Type O
Figure 74
= 4 people
Figure 72 Numerical data
Stem-and-leaf plot
Column graph
The stem-and-leaf plot in Figure 75 shows 13 students’
A column graph (also known as a bar graph) estimates for the mass of an apple in grams. (Note
represents the frequency within each category. that the stems are the place values in tens and the
Column graphs can be oriented either vertically or leaves are the ones digits of the estimates.)
horizontally. In the column graph shown in Figure 73,
40 people sampled had brown eyes.
Example: 15|5 represents 155
Example: Stem Leaf

Eye colour of Year 6 students
45 10 0
40
35 11
30
Frequency
25 12 0
20
15 13
10
5 14 0
0
Brown Blue Hazel Green Grey Other 15 5
Colour 16 0 0 5
Figure 73 17 0 5 6
18 0
19 0
20
21 0
Figure 75

Dot plot Quartiles are the result of splitting a distribution into
Each dot on a dot plot represents the data of one quarters. The lower quartile (LQ) is the value at which
item, so the height of each line of dots represents the one-quarter of the data values are below. The upper
number of items with that data value. quartile (UQ) is the value at which one-quarter of the
data values are above. The interquartile range is the
difference between upper and lower quartiles.
Example: two mothers have an age of 45 years.
Histogram
Dot plots are used to display discrete numerical data, A histogram represents discrete or continuous
like what’s shown in Figure 76. numerical data. The height of each column represents
the frequency with the matching range of values.
Example:
Note that the graph in Figure 78 is not the same
as a column graph. The columns are joined as the
numerical data is continuous.
Example:
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
50
Age of mother
40
Figure 76
Frequency
30
Box and whisker plot 20
Note: Box and whisker plots are introduced in the 10

Year 9 curriculum. The following has been included
as supplementary information. 0
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
The box and whisker plot for the data of mothers’ ages Weight of babies (grams)
in Figure 77 gives five measures of the distribution of
Figure 78
ages. The extreme ends of the whiskers are the lowest
and highest ages. The central measure is the median,
and the left and right ends of the box are the lower and Scatterplot
upper quartile (LQ and UQ). This means that 50 per A scatterplot represents the relationship between two
cent of the data lies inside the box. variables. Each point represents a pair of values for
a single person/item; in Figure 79 foot length and
Example: height are shown, both measured in centimetres.
A line of best fit (i.e. a regression line) through the
points is used to establish a correlation between
the variables. The closer the points to the line, the
stronger the correlation between variables.
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Age of mother
Figure 77
Box and whisker plots can be used for both discrete

and continuous numerical data.

In Figure 79, the line would have a positive slope and Comparison of groups
show that people with longer feet tend to be taller. Statistical investigations often involve looking for
similarities and differences among groups. The data
Example: displays shown below can be used for comparison.
On the top line, 6|11|8 represents the resting pulse
Foot Length vs Height
rate of 116 for netball players and the resting pulse
193
rate of 118 for AFL players.
184
Example: a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot
175 might be used to compare the fitness of netball
and AFL players, as measured by resting pulse
Height (cm)
166
rate.
157 Netball Players AFL Players
6 11 8
148
10 04
9 2266
139
64400000 8 0004888
130
66622222 7 226666
8 13 18 23 28 33 38 43 888400 6 004488
Foot length (cm)
5 22266
Figure 79
Figure 81
Line graph Column graphs can be used to compare different

A line graph is used to display time-series data. groups. The side-by-side graph in the example in
The example in Figure 80 shows how the times for Figure 82 compares the favourite fast food of two
the 100-metre men's world record have changed groups: boys and girls in Year 5.
from 1900 to 2020. Line graphs are used to look for
trends and patterns over time.
Example:
Example: Favourite Fast Food of Year 5 Students

12
Men's 100 m World Record Times
10
1920–2020
12 8
Frequency
10 6
10.6 10.3 10.2 10.2
10 9.95 9.9 9.92 9.79 9.69 9.58
8 4
Time (seconds)
2
6
0
4 Pizza Hamburgers Fish Sushi Lasagne Other
‘n’chips
2  Boys  Girls
0 Figure 82
1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Year
Figure 80

Appearance of data Measure of variation
• Symmetrical: the mean, median and mode are The measure of variation refers to the spread of data
close together. and includes the:
• Skewed: the mean, median and mode are not • range – the difference between the greatest and
close together. smallest values in the dataset
When comparing groups, distributions usually • interquartile range – the difference between
overlap, so measures of central tendency, such as the the upper and lower quartile in the dataset.
median or mean, are used to represent each group. It represents the middle 50% of the dataset.
In the graph below, the scores of female and male
Measures of central tendency
Australian students on a memory test are compared.
The median score for males is 43 and for females is Measures of central tendency refer to averages,
40, showing an insignificant difference. such as the:
• mean – the sum of all values in the dataset divided

Example: by the number of data points (e.g. scores or values)
F
• median – the middle value in an ordered set of
numeric data
Gender
M
• mode – the value that occurs most frequently in the
numeric dataset.
The shape of distributions is also used to compare

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
groups and to describe single distributions. A normal
Score in visual memory test distribution is bell shaped. However, distributions
 Female  Male ID(s) of points removed: 1 can be skewed positively or negatively, can have more
than one mode and can even be rectangular.
Figure 83
Conclusion
Analysis The conclusion is an answer to the inquiry question
that is supported by the data. Context informs the
Data analysis is the process of making sense of the
significance attached to findings.
data with respect to the inquiry question. Statisticians
use displays, such as graphs and tables, and The data is interpreted to develop inferences in
measures, such as medians and ranges, to look for relation to the original investigation and the findings
patterns (consistencies), differences among groups, are communicated.
and trends (patterns over time).
Findings may lead to other questions that require
Data measures further investigation, prompting a new data inquiry
Data measures are calculated to represent a single cycle.
feature of a whole dataset. Usually the dataset
is composed of numbers. Mean and median are
measures that represent the centre of a dataset,
whereas range and interquartile range (IQR)
measure spread.

References
Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) 2019, Kieren, TE 1988, 'Personal knowledge of rational
‘Statistical language: quantitative and qualitative numbers: Its intuitive and formal development' in
data’, accessed 14 September 2020 https://www.abs. J Hiebert & M Behr (eds.), Number concepts and
gov.au. operations in the middle grades, Lawrence Erlbaum
Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Associates & National Council of Teachers of
Authority (ACARA) 2019, ‘The Australian Curriculum: Mathematics, Reston, VA.
Mathematics glossary’, accessed 14 September 2020 Kieren, TE 1993, 'Rational and fractional numbers:
https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au. From quotient fields to recursive understanding' in
Charles, R 2005, ‘Big ideas and understandings as TP Carpenter, E Fennema & TA Romberg (eds.),
the foundation for elementary and middle school Rational numbers: An integration of research,
mathematics’, Journal of Mathematics Education Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ, 49–84.
Leadership, 7 (1), 9–24. Lehrer, R 2003, ‘Developing understanding of
De Klerk, J 2007, The Illustrated Maths Dictionary 4th measurement’, in J Kilpatrick, WG Martin &
Edition, Pearson Australia, Melbourne. D Schifter (eds), A research companion to principles
and standards for school mathematics, National
Downton, A 2008, ‘Linking multiplication and division Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Reston, USA,
in helpful and enjoyable ways for children’, paper 179–192.
presented to the Mathematical Association of
Victoria Conference, Melbourne, 4–5 December 2008, Roche, A 2005, ‘Longer is Larger: Or is it?’, Australian
accessed 14 September 2020 https://www.mav.vic. Primary Maths Classroom, 13–14.
edu.au/Conference/MAV19-Conference/Previous- Steinle, V & Stacey, K 1998, Students and decimal
annual-conferences. notations: Do they see what we see? accessed
Gelman R & Gallistel, CR 1978, The child’s 14 September 2020 https://www.researchgate.net/
understanding of number, Harvard University Press, publication/237577071_Students_and_decimal_
London. notation_Do_they_see_what_we_see.
Gervasoni, A 2011, Mathematics Assessment Van De Walle, J, Karp, K & Bay-Williams, J 2010,
Interview: Growth Point Descriptions – Number, Elementary & Middle School Mathematics, Allyn &
Measurement and Space growth points, accessed Bacon, USA.
14 September 2020 https://ceobmaths.weebly.com/ Vergnaud, G 1988, 'Multiplicative structures'
uploads/7/1/5/6/7156403/mai_-_growth_points_ in J Hiebert & M Behr (eds.), Number concepts and
descriptions.pdf. NB. Growth points not used operations in the middle grades, 141–161.
in 2nd edition
Watson J, AAMT top drawer resources – Statistics,
Greer, B 1992, 'Multiplication and division as AAMT, accessed 14 September 2020 https://
models of situations' in DA Grouws (ed.), Handbook topdrawer.aamt.edu.au/Statistics/Big-ideas.
of research on mathematics teaching and learning,
Macmillan, New York, 276–295.
Kieren, TE 1980, 'The rational number construct – Its

elements and mechanisms' in TE Kieren (ed.), Recent
research on number learning, Columbas, OH, ERIC/
SMEAR, 125–149.

James Goold House, 228 Victoria Parade
East Melbourne VIC 3002
T: 9267 0228 www.cem.edu.au

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KEY IDEAS

for Conceptual Development

KEY IDEAS for CONCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT in MATHEMATICS 01

Catholic Education Melbourne

© Catholic Education Melbourne 2020

T: (+61 3) 9267 0228

Licensed under NEALS

Suggestions for using this resource................................................................................................................................iv

Overarching key ideas for ALL mathematical concepts................................................................................................. 1

Key ideas in number and algebra........................................................................................................................ 3

Key ideas in measurement and geometry..................................................................................................... 29

Key ideas in statistics and probability............................................................................................................. 44

KEY IDEAS for CONCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT in MATHEMATICS i

Key Ideas for Conceptual Development in Mathematics is based on a culmination

ii KEY IDEAS for CONCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT in MATHEMATICS

Highly effective mathematics teachers understand the importance of key ideas

Learning Consultants, Mathematics

KEY IDEAS for CONCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT in MATHEMATICS iii

• building a shared understanding of conceptual development

• building a deep understanding of the mathematics curriculum

iv KEY IDEAS for CONCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT in MATHEMATICS

Estimation Example: a young student might visualise two

An estimation is an educated approximation about a

Benchmarks Example: the equation 13 = 7 + 6 expresses the

These images can be true-to-life pictures of real-life

KEY IDEAS for CONCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT in MATHEMATICS 1

Example: once students know the terms ‘odd

Symbols and diagrams, such as tables and graphs,

Example: recording multiplication equations

2 KEY IDEAS for CONCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT in MATHEMATICS

Algebra: key ideas

Pattern In mathematics, patterns are important because they

Example: Example: two odd numbers always add up to an

Example: 7 + n = 15, when n = 8.

Example:  + ◊ = 16, or a × b = 36, where the

KEY IDEAS for CONCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT in MATHEMATICS 3

Function In the function ∆ + 5 = , each value of ∆ results in

4 KEY IDEAS for CONCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT in MATHEMATICS

• spoken and written language

KEY IDEAS for CONCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT in MATHEMATICS 5

Relational thinking Order of operations

Example: if 4 + 5 = 3 + 6, then 5 + 6 = 4 + 7. • in the absence of brackets, carry out operations

An equation is one way of showing equality.

A mathematical model is a representation

Example: the equation 35 ÷ 7 = 5 models the

6 KEY IDEAS for CONCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT in MATHEMATICS

Quantity Order-irrelevance principle

The term ‘manyness’ applies to discreet quantities.

Abstraction principle Conservation of number

In the one-to-one principle, words in the forward or

Cardinality principle Subitising

KEY IDEAS for CONCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT in MATHEMATICS 7

Counting: important concept knowledge

odd numbers Students begin to learn the number word sequence

square numbers, e.g. 1, 4, 9, 16 ...

8 KEY IDEAS for CONCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT in MATHEMATICS

Quantity Base-10 system

Example: 836 = 800 + 30 + 6 (compact and

The relative size of two quantities can be compared,

Example: in 729, the seven has a face value of 7,

Zero can be a placeholder and a digit representing

KEY IDEAS for CONCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT in MATHEMATICS 9

92 ÷ 4 (Divide dividend and divisor by 2)