ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

Introduction

In a region of electric field every point is assigned some electric potential (a scalar quantity
whose value at any point may be positive or negative). A positive charge can move from a
point at higher electric potential to a point at lower electric potential on its own under the
effect of electrostatic force. It can never on its own (under the effect of electrostatic force
alone) move from a point at lower potential to a point at higher potential. If we want to
make a positive charge move from a point at lower potential to a point at higher potential
an external agent is required which must do work against the electrostatic force.

In order to make a positive charge ‘q’ move from a point A to a point B the work done by an
external agent is given by the relation
Wexternal  q (VB  VA )  (i)
q
A 
B

Where VA and VB are the potentials of points A and B respectively

(Note that the external force must be directed opposite to the electrostatic force and its
magnitude must be almost equal to the electrostatic force)
From the above equation
(So SI unit of potential difference is Joule per Coulomb or Volt, J C-1 = Volt )

Thus potential difference between any two points in an electric field can be defined as the
work done by external agent in moving a unit positive charge from one point to the other (
from the point at lower potential to the point at higher potential ) against the electrostatic
force.

Calculation of potential difference between two points in an electric field

(i) In a uniform electric field :

Consider the situation shown in figure 1 where there is Uniform Electric field (E)
uniform electric field of strength E in the rightward x
direction and there are two points A and B such that
the line joining A and B is parallel to the field. Now we A +q Fel= q E B
want to move a positive charge +q very slowly (i.e.
quasi-statically) from A to B with help of some
external force Fext. We want the particle to be moving
very slowly,i.e with almost zero acceleration and for fig.1
this the external force must almost balance the
electrostatic force,
Fext  Fel  q E
This external force must be directed leftwards (i.e. opposite to the electrostatic force)
The work done by this external force in moving the charge from A to B is

Wexternal  Fext S cos   (q E) (x) cos180o  q Ex

q
A 
B
In the above equation we may substitute the value of work done form eq (i) to have,
q( VB  VA )  q Ex  VA  VB  Ex
Thus we may conclude that
If we move along the direction of electric field E through a distance ‘x’ potential decreases by
E x and if we move opposite to the direction of field E through a distance x the potential
increases by E x.

We can derive more general formula for potential

difference between two points in a region of uniform Uniform Electric field (E)
electric field by vector formulations as follows. B
Consider the situation shown in figure 2 where there is   x


uniform electric field in the rightward direction and Fext Fel
+q
there are two points A and B such that the line joining
A and B makes angle  with the electric field. Now we 
A
want to move a positive charge +q very slowly (i.e.
quasi-statically) from A to B with help of some external fig.2

force . We want the particle to be moving very slowly,i.e with almost zero acceleration
and for this the external force must almost balance the electrostatic force,

This external force must be directed leftwards (i.e. opposite to the electrostatic force)
The work done by this external force in moving the charge frm A to B is

Wexternal  Fext  AB  q E  AB
q
A 
B

In the above equation we may substitute the value of work done form eq (i) to have,
q( VB  VA )  q E  AB  VA  VB  E  AB
This is a more general formula which can be used to find potential difference between two
points in a region of uniform electric field.

Note :
If E  AB    0 so VA  VB  E ( AB ) , this is the same result which we derived earlier,
i.e. if we move along the direction of electric field E through a distance ‘x’ the potential
decreases by E x.

If E  AB    90o so VA  VB  0  VA  VB , i.e. if we move perpendicular to the direction

of field the potential remains the same.

(ii) In a non- uniform electric field :

If electric field in a region is non-uniform then the external force acting on the particle
(while moving it quasi-statically from any point A to B) is also not a constant. So the work
done by the external force in this case is
B B
Wexternal  A Fext dr  A q E dr ( F ext  F el  q E )
q
A 
B

Substituting the value of work done from eq (i) we have,

 B
q( VB  VA )  q A E dr
B
VA  VB  A E dr  ( ii)

This is a quite general relation which can be used to find the potential difference between
any two points if the electric field is known at all points on any a line joining the two points
A and B.

We could derive our previous result( for uniform electric field) using this one as
B B
VA  VB  A E dr  E  A dr ( E  constant, for uniform field)
B
VA  VB  E  AB ( A dr  Sum of all elementary dislacements for A to B  AB )

Example 1 : In the figure shown aside which point has the Uniform Electric field (E)
maximum potential. Also find the value of C
VA  VC , and Vp  VC
Solution : We know that moving along the direction of field
the potential decreases and moving opposite to it potential
increases. So, A has the maximum potential.
A x
The line PC is perpendicular to the field so P and C have the P
same potential, i.e. Vp  VC . fig.3

VA  VC  VA  VP  E ( AP )  E x

Example 2 : If the electric field in a region is given by E  ( 2 iˆ  5 ˆj ) N /C , then find the

potential difference between the points A (6m,2m) and B ( 10m, 5m)
Solution : Here AB  ( 4 iˆ  3 ˆj ) m ,
Now we know VA  VB  E  AB
 ( 2 iˆ  5 ˆj )N /C  ( 4 iˆ  3 ˆj ) m  ( 8  15 )Nm/C  23Volt

Simple Exercise-1

1. If 12 J of work is done in moving a charge of 8C from A to B then which of the two
points has higher potential. Also state the value of VA  VB .

2. If 0.03 J of work is done in moving a charge of  6 C from P to Q find VP  VQ .

3. If the electric field in a region is 40 N/C along the east then state how does the potential
change as one moves (i) 12 cm east (ii) 5 cm north (iii) 50 cm south (iv)
6 cm west (v) 50 cm upwards (vi) 75 cm downwards.

4. If the electric field in a region is E  4 iˆ then find potential difference between A(6,2)
and B(2,3).
5. If the electric field in a region is E  5 ˆj then find potential difference between A(2,7)
and B(6,3).

6. If the electric field in a region is E  6 iˆ  4 ˆj then find potential difference between

A(5,6) and B(3,  5).

7. An infinite plane sheet with uniform surface charge density s is placed in the x-y plane.
Find the potential difference between the points A ( x1 , y1 ,z1 ) & B ( x2 , y2 ,z2 ) .

8. If the electric field in a region is E  4 x iˆ then find potential difference between the
points P(x = 3) and S(x = 5).

9. If the electric field in a region is E  3 x 2 iˆ then find potential difference between the
points (i) A (5,0) & B(7,0) (ii) P(4,7) & S(11,7) (iii) R(0,0) & T(  3,6).

10. If the electric field in a region is E  2 x iˆ then find potential difference between the
points A (6,0) & B (  6,0).

11. If the electric field in a region is E  4 y ˆj then find potential at any point P(x,y)
assuming the potential at origin to be zero.

12. If the electric field in a region is E  3 y2 ˆj then find potential at any point P(x,y)
assuming the potential at point A(0,5) to be zero.

13. If the electric field in a region is E  (  / x 2 ) iˆ , then find potential at any point P(x,y)
assuming the potential at infinity to be zero. (  is a positive constant)

14. If the electric field in a region is E  2 ( x iˆ  y ˆj ) , then find potential at any point P(x,y)
assuming the potential at the origin to be zero. (  is a positive constant).

15. A solid sphere of radius R has uniform volume charge density  inside it. Find the
potential difference between its centre and any point on its surface. [ Hint : Field inside
the sphere at a distance ‘x’ from the centre is  x / 3 o radially away from the centre]

16. Using the expression for field due to an infinitely long wire with linear charge density 
, find the potential difference between two points A and B which are at distance r1 and
r2 from the wire.
 Potential due to a point charge

Electric field due to a positive point charge is directed radially away

from it as shown in the figure aside. So as we move away from the
positive charge we are moving along the direction of electric field and
hence the potential goes on decreasing.
+q
At distance ‘r’ from a positive point charge ‘q’ the electric field is given
by
1 q
E
4 o r 2
If we move further through a distance ‘dr’ along the direction of the
electric field the potential decreases by E.dr . As the potential V r dr
decreases, the change in potential dV must be negative so we have +q P E
dV   E dr
1 q
 dr
4 o r 2
V r 1 q
Integrating both sides, we have  0 dV   dr
4 o r 2
q r1
 V  V0   dr
4 o  r 2
q r 2
 (V  0 )   r dr
4 o 
r
q  r 1 
V   1 
4 o  
1 q
V 
4 o r

Potential due to a system of point charges

If there are a large number of point charges then the net potential r1 P
r4
at point can be found by the algebraic sum of potential due to all q
q1
the charges present nearby. r2
4
1 q1 r3
The potential at P due to q1 is V1 
4 o r1
q
1 q2 2
The potential at P due to q2 is V2  q3
4 o r2
1 q3 1 q4
Similarly the potentials due to q3 and q4 are V3  & V4  respectively
4 o r3 4 o r4
The net potential at P is thus given by
1  q1 q2 q3 
V  V1  V2  V3  .....      ... 
4 o  r1 r2 r3 
 1 q
So, the general formula is V   i
4 o i ri
In case the distribution is charge is continuous the formula takes the form,
1 dq
V  
4 o r
(where r is the distance elementary charge from the point P where we need to find the field)

Example 3 : Four point charges q each are located at the four vertices of a square of side
‘a’. Find the potential at the centre of the square.
Solution : The distance of each charge from the centre is a / 2 .
1 q 1 q
So the potential at centre due to a single charge is V1   .
4 o r 4 o ( a / 2 )
The potential at the centre due to each charge has the same value so the net potential at
2 q
the centre is V  V1  V2  V3  V4  4 V1 
 o a

Example 4 : A ring of radius r has charge ‘q’ distributed on its

circumference. Find the potential at any point on its axis at a P
distance ‘x’ from its centre.

+x 2
Solution : Consider an elementary charge dq on the ring. The

r2
distance of this charge from point P is r 2  x 2 . So the potential
+ + + + + +
at P due to this elementary charge is + r +
1 dq ++ +
+ ++++++ +++ +
dV 
4 o r 2  x 2
dq
1 dq
  dV  
4 o r 2  x 2
1
V   dq ( all the terms except' dq' are constant)
4 o r 2  x 2
q
V  (  dq  q)
4 o r2  x 2

Example 5 : A spherical shell of radius ‘a’ is given a charge ‘q’ which is spread uniformly
on its surface. Find potential of
(i) The center of the sphere.
(ii) A point P inside the shell at a distance ‘x (x < a )’ from the centre.
(iii) Outside the shell at a distance ‘r’ from the centre.
Solution :
(i) In the figure it can be seen that all the charges are at equal + +
+
+ +
+
+ +

distance R from point O so the potential of point O is

+
R
+
+
q
+
+ +

1 q +
+
+
V  O +
+
+ M
4 o R
+ +
P+ +++
+
+
+ + + +

(ii) We know that the electric field at all points inside a uniformly
charged spherical shell is zero.
 1 q
VP  VO   E dr  0 ( E  0 )  VP  VO 
4 o R
Note that electric potential at all points inside a spherical shell is same(as
that of the centre) as there is no electric field inside the shell.

1 q
(iii) Outside the shell at point M the field is E  .
4 o r
So, as we move away from point M by a distance dr the potential drops by E dr
and we have, dV  Edr
1 q
 dV   dr
4 o r
r r 1 q
 0 dV    dr
4 o r
1 q
V 
4 o r
Note that the potential at any point outside a uniformly charged spherical shell can
calculated by assuming all the charge of the shell to be concentrated at the centre of the
shell.

Simple Exercise-2

1. Find the electric potential at a distance of 50 cm from a point charge of 6 C.

2. Four point charges q each are located on the four vertices of a square of side ‘a’. Find the
potential at the mid-point of any one side.

3. Find the potential at the point P (3m, 4m,12m) if a 130 C charge is placed at the origin.

4. Two point charges 30 C and  20 C are located 150 cm apart. At which point(s) on the
line joining the two charges is the potential zero.

5. A hemisphere of radius R has a uniform surface charge density . Find the electric
potential at the centre of the hemisphere.

6. A thin ring of radius R has a charge 3Q distributed uniformly over three-fourth of its
circumference and –Q over the rest. What is the potential of the centre of the ring.

7. A thin plastic rod 20cm long caries 3.2 nC charge distributed uniformly over its length.
(a) If the rod is bent into a ring, find potential at its
centre. r/3 r/3
A B
(b) If the rod is bent in the form of a semi-circle then find -q +q
r
the potential at the centre (i.e. centre of the circle of
which the semi-circle is a part)
8. Two point charges +q and  q are held fixed at a distance r from each other as shown in
the figure. Find the work done to move a charge q1 from A to B.

9. A charge of 60 nC (nano-Coulomb) is placed at corner A of a square ABCD of side 10 cm.

Another charge of  40 nC is located at the centre of the square. Find the work done in
carrying a charge of 5 nC from corner C to corner B of the square.

10. Two co-axial rings each of radius ‘r’ have their centers separated by a distance ‘x’. The
two rings are given charges +q and  q. Find the potential difference between the
centers of the two rings.

11. Two concentric spherical shells of radii a and b ( a < b ) are given charges q1 &q2
respectively. Assuming the potential at infinity to be zero find the potential at (a) the
centre (b) a point on smaller shell (c) a point on larger shell.

12. Calculate the potential at a point on the perpendicular bisector of a uniformly charged
thin rod ( linear charge density  ) of length 2l at a distance ‘a’ from the centre of the
rod.

13. A circular plate of radius R has a uniform surface charge density . Find the electric
potential at any point on its axis which is at a distance ‘x’ from its centre.

14. Two fixed charges  2Q and Q are located at points (  3a,0) and (3a, 0) respectively.
Show that all points in x-y plane where electric potential is zero lie on a circle. Also find
the radius and centre of the circle.

15. An open-ended cylinder of radius a and length 2a carries a charge q spread uniformly
over its surface. Find the potential on the cylinder axis at its centre.

16. A line charge extends along the x-axis from  L/2 to +L/2. Its linear charge density is
   o ( x / L) 2 where  o is a constant. Find the expression for potential on x-axis for x >
L /2. Check that your expression reduces to an expected result for x >> L/2.

17. A disc of radius a carries a non-uniform surface charge density given by   o ( r / a) ,

where  o is a constant.
(a) Find potential at an arbitrary point on the disc, at a distance ‘x’ from its centre.
(b) Show that the result reduces to an expected form for x >> a.

Electric field as potential gradient

Earlier we have studied how to find out the potential difference between two points if
electric field known. Now we need to find out the electric field if the electric potential at all
points are known.
Consider a region of space in which the electric potential V(x,y) Y
is known as a function of position and the electric field is dy
E  E iˆ  E ˆj .
P (x,y)
x y dx
Now let there be a point P (x,y) where the potential is V and if
we move through a distance ‘dx’ in the rightward direction the
change is potential is given by X
dV  E  dr  ( Ex iˆ  Ey ˆj )  dx iˆ  Ex dx
O

dV
 dV  Ex dx  Ex  
dx
Suppose in the same way we move through a distance dy along y axis, dr  dy ˆj . In this
case the change in potential is given by
dV  E  dr  ( Ex iˆ  Ey ˆj )  dy ˆj  Ey dy
dV
 dV  Ey dy  E y  
dy
dV
Exactly in the same way we can prove that Ez  
dz
So, the component of electric field along any direction is equal to the rate of decrease of
potential with respect to distance in that direction.

Example 6 Find the electric field at a distance ‘r’ from a point charge using the formula
for potential due to point charge.

Solution : In the figure shown aside the potential at P is r

1 q E
V  . The electric field at P is directed rightwards, i.e. +q P
4  o r
along the increasing direction of ‘r’ so the component of electric field in that direction is
dV d  1 q q d 1  q d 1 q q
E       (r )   ( 1r 2 ) 
dr dr  4  o r  4  o dr  r  4  o dr 4  o 4  o r 2
Example 7 Find the electric field in a region where potential is given by V   ( x 2  y2 )
where  is a positive constant.

dV d  d d 
Solution : Ex    ( ( x 2  y2 )    ( x2 )  ( y2 )    ( 2x  0 )  2 x
dx dx  dx dx 
dV d  d d 
Ey    ( ( x 2  y2 )    ( x2 )  ( y2 )    ( 0  2 y)  2 y
dy dy  dy dy 
(Note : while differentiating w.r.t x consider y as constant, and while differentiating w.r.t y
consider x to be a constant.)
So, the net field is E  Ex iˆ  Ey ˆj  2 ( xiˆ  yjˆ )
Example 8 Two point charges q each are kept at a distance of 2r from each other. Find the
potential at any point on the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the two charges at
distance ‘x’ from the foot of the perpendicular. Using this expression derive the expression
for electric field at that point.
Solution : In this case the distance of each charge from the
E
point P is x 2  r 2 so the potential due to each charge is
P
1 q
V1  .
4  o x  y2
2
x
The net potential at P is the sum of potentials due to the two
charges hence, +q +q
2r
1 q
V  2V1 
2 o x 2  y2
The field at P is directed upwards, i.e. along the increasing direction of y so we have
dV d  1 q  q d  1 
E     
dy dy  2 o x 2  y2  2 o dy  x 2  y2 
   
q  1 2  qy
   ( x  y2 ) 3/2 2 y  
2 o  2 2 2 3/2
 2 o ( x  y )

Example 9 Using the expression for potential at any point on the axis of a uniformly
charged wire ring of radius r having charge q, derive an expression for field. ( eg.4)

Solution : The potential at P on the axis is E

1 q
V  . P
4  o r  x 2
2

The field at P is directed upwards, i.e. along the increasing x

direction of x so we have
+ + + + + +
dV d  1 q  q d  1  + +
E      + r
+
dx dx  4  o x 2  y2  4  o dx  x 2  y2  + ++
++++ + +++
+
   
q  1 2  qx q
   ( x  y2 ) 3/2 2x  
4  o  2 2 2 3/2
 4  o ( x  y )

Example10: Derive an expression for potential at an arbitrary point due to a dipole and
using this result derive an expression for electric field due to the dipole.
P
Solution: In the figure we have an electric dipole
comprising of two charges +q and  q kept at a r-
separation of 2 from each other as shown in them r+
M r
figure aside. We are supposed to find the potential at
point P. A O 
-q B
OM  +q
In  BOM , cos    OM  cos  ,
So the distance of P from +q is N
r  PB  PM  OP  OM  r  cos  and similarly the distance of P from –q is
r  PA  PN  OP  ON  r  cos  .
1 q 1 q q 1 1
So, potential at point P is V      
4  o r 4  o r 4  o  r r 
 q  1 1  q  2 cos  
  r  cos   r  cos    4   2 
4  o
  o r 
2
cos2  
1  ( q2 ) cos   1  p cos  
 
4  o  r  cos   4  o  r  2 cos2  
 2 2 2   2

For a short dipole r  so r2  2 cos2   r2 and substituting this in the above result we have
1 p cos 
V 
4  o r2 E
E net

 Er
Now let us calculate the field using this expression,
The component of electric field along the increasing P dr
direction of ‘r’ is
dV d  1 p cos   p cos  d  1  rd
Er      d r
dr dr  4  o r 2
 4  o dr  r 2  A 
p cos  3 1 2 p cos  -q B
 ( 2 r )  +q
4  o 4  o r3 2
Similarly the component of field along the increasing direction of  (if  is increased by d then the
point moves through a distance r d as shown in the figure) is,
dV 1 d  1 p cos   p d p cos  1 p sin 
E       cos    (  sin  ) 
r d r d  4  o r 2

3
4  o r dr 4  o 4  o r3
As these two components are mutually perpendicular, we have resultant
1 1
Enet  Er2  E2  ( 2 cos  ) 2  (sin  ) 2  1  3 cos2 
4  o 4  o
The angle made by this resultant with line OS is  such that
E  tan   tan  
tan       tan 1  
Er 2  2 

Equipotential surface

An imaginary surface in an electric field where every point has the same value of electric
field is called and equipotential surface.
Let us consider the situation in which there exists a uniform electric E
field directed along the x-axis as shown in the figure. In this given field
configuration we shall try to find out the equipotential surfaces. In this
field configuration we know that if we move rightward the potential
decreases, if we move leftwards the potential increases. The potential
remains constant over the plane surfaces shown in the figure and hence these planes are
equipotential surfaces.
Thus whenever there exists a uniform electric field the equipotential surfaces are planes
perpendicular to the direction of field.

If the electric field is along the y-axis the equipotential surfaces are planes parallel to the x-
z planes and if the electric field is along the z-axis the equipotential surfaces are planes
parallel to the x-y planes.
 Y E
Y Y
uniform field along z-axis
E

X
X
X
Z Z uniform field along y-axis
uniform field along x-axis E

Z
In case of radial electric field generated by a point charge the
equipotential surfaces have spherical shape as shown in the figure
aside.

Properties of equipotential surface :- +q

(i) No work is done in moving a charge on an equipotential
surface.
(ii) The electric field at any point on the equipotential surface is radial electric field
directed perpendicular to the surface. of a point charge

Electrostatic potential energy

Whenever a system does work on its own (by virtue of its internal force) the potential
energy of the system decreases by the amount of work done.( Although the total energy of
the system remains the same.
 Wsystem   U   ( U final  Uinital )  Uinitial  U final
Whenever an external agent does work on the system, the total energy (kinetic energy +
potential energy) of the system increases by the amount of work done.
 Wexi   U   KE
Thus whenever external agent does work on the system then either or both of kinetic and
potential energy of the system increases.
A very special case of interest is that one in which the external force is almost equal to the
internal force of the system. In this case the net force on the system is approximately zero(
F int  F ext  0 ) so there is almost no change in kinetic energy. In this case work done by the
external agent causes only the potential energy of the system to change. Such a process in
which the external force is taken to be almost equal and opposite to the internal force, the
work done by external agent is equal to the increase in potential energy (as there is no
change in kinetic energy).

Potential energy of a charge in an electric field :

We know, Wexternal  q (Vf  Vi )  Uf  Ui so we may put Wexternal  q (Vf  Vi )  U f  Ui

q q
i  f i  f

Thus the potential-energy (U) of a point charge (q) placed at a point with electric potential
V is U  qV
Electrical potential energy of a system of two point charges :

Suppose two point charges q1 &q2 are placed ‘r’ distance apart. By applying some external
force q1 is fixed at its position and q2 is allowed to move
q q2
very slowly in the rightward direction. 1 r Felect.
1 q1 q2 Fext
Fext  Felect.  leftwards (fixed)
4  o r 2
If q2 moves through a small distance ‘dr’ further away from q1 as shown in the figure, the
work done by the external force is,
1 q1 q2 1 q1 q2
dWext  Fext dr cos   2
dr cos180o   dr
4  o r 4  o r 2
Also, it is known that for all slow process (as there is no change in kinetic energy)
dU  dWext
1 q1 q2
 dU   dr
4  o r 2
r
U 1 q1 q2
r q q  r 1  1 q1 q2
  dU   
0 
dr   1 2   
4  o r 2
4  o  1   4  o r
1 q1 q2
U
4  o r

Example10: Two point charges q1 &  q2 are initially kept at distance ‘r’ from each other.
What amount of work has to be done to double the separation between them?

1 q1q2 1 q1q2
Solution : Uinitial   & U final  
4  o r 4  o 2r
1 q1q2  1 q1q2  1 q1q2
Wext  U final  Uinitial     
4  o 2r  4  o r  8 o r

Example11: Four equal point chares q each are placed on the four vertices of a square
ABCD of side a. Find the total electrostatic potential energy of the system. Also find the
amount of work done to bring the charges closer so that the side of the square
reduces to a/2. A D
Solution : There are six pairs of charges and hence there are six terms of
potential energy , U AB ,U AC ,U AD ,U BC ,U BD ,UCD a
( Uij  int eraction potential energy between the ithch arg e and the jth ch arg e )
B C
1 q2 1 q2
U AB  U AD  U BC  UCD  & U AC  U BD 
4  o a 4  o 2 a
  1 q2   1 q2  1 q2
Unet  U AB  U AD  U BC  UCD  U AC  U BD  4    2
 4  o a 
 
 4  o 2 a  4  o a
4 2 
If the side of the square reduces of half, the final energy becomes,
q2
U'net 
1

4  o ( a / 2 )

4 2

1 q2
So the total work done in the process is Wext  U'net  Unet  
4  o a

4 2 .