UNIVERSIDAD DE LAS FUERZAS ARMADAS ESPE

SIGNAL AND SYSTEMS

Fausto Granda G.

Sangolqui - Ecuador
Signal and Systems

Filtering

References
• Oppenheim, A. Willsky, and H. Nawab, Signals and Systems, 2ª edición, 1997, Prentice Hall, ISBN # 0-13-
814757-4.
• Hwei P. Hsu, “Signals and Systems”, 2nd Edition, McGrawHill Schaum Outlines, ISBN: 978-0-07-163473-1, 2011.
• Chaparro Luis, “Signal and Systems using Matlab”, Elsevier, Oxford UK, ISBN 978-0-12-374716-7 , 2011
• https://www.ti.com/lit/an/snoa224a/snoa224a.pdf, march 03, 2021
Filtering.
- In circuit theory, a filter is an electrical network that alters the amplitude and/or
phase characteristics of a signal with respect to frequency.

- Ideally, a filter will not add new frequencies to the input signal, nor will it
change the component frequencies of that signal.
- Filters are intender to change the relative amplitudes of the various frequency
components and/or their phase relationships.
- Filters are often used in electronic systems to emphasize signals in certain
frequency ranges and reject signals in other frequency ranges.
Filtering

- Since filters are defined by their frequency-domain effects on signals, it makes

sense that the most useful analytical and graphical descriptions of filters also
fall into the frequency domain.

- Curves of gain vs frequency and phase vs frequency are commonly used to

illustrate filter characteristics and the most widely-used mathematical tools are
based in the frequency domain.

- The frequency-domain behavior of a filter is described mathematically in

terms of its transfer function or network function.
Filtering
 Filtering

• This is a 2nd order system. The order of a filter is the highest power of the variable s in its transfer
function.

• The order of a filter is usually equal to the total number of capacitors and inductors in the circuit. (A
capacitor built by combining two or more individual capacitors is still one capacitor.)

• Higher-order filters will obviously be more expensive to build, since they use more components, and they
will also be more complicated to design. However, higher-order filters can more effectively discriminate
between signals at different frequencies.
Filtering

With no explicit passband limits, the passband

limits are usually assumed to be the
frequencies where the gain has dropped by 3
2
decibels (to or 0.707 of its maximum voltage
2
gain).

These frequencies are therefore called the −3 dB

frequencies or the cutoff frequencies.

However, if a passband gain variation (i.e., 1 dB)

is specified, the cutoff frequencies will be the
frequencies at which the maximum gain variation
specification is exceeded.
Filtering

Since the range of amplitudes may also be

large, the amplitude scale is usually
expressed in decibels (20log|H(jω)|). - > (
logarithmic frequency scales and a decibel
amplitude scale.)
Filtering
The precise shape of a band-pass filter's amplitude response curve will depend on the particular
network. The center frequency is equal to the geometric mean of the −3 dB frequencies:

Another quantity used to describe the performance of a filter is the filter's “Q”. This is a measure of the
“sharpness” of the amplitude response. The Q of a band-pass filter is the ratio of the center frequency to the
difference between the −3 dB frequencies (also known as the −3 dB bandwidth). Therefore:
Filtering: Classification of Filters

Switched-capacitor
Filtering: Classification of Filters
Filtering: Classification of Filters
Filtering: Classification of Filters
Filtering: Classification of Filters
Filtering: Classification of Filters

https://www.softpedia.com/get/Science-CAD/FilterPro-Desktop.shtml
https://filterpro.software.informer.com/download/#downloading

deactivated

40 dB/decade
Filtering: Classification of Filters
• All-Pass or Phase-Shift Filter: has no effect on the amplitude of the signal at different frequencies.
Instead, its function is to change the phase of the signal without affecting its amplitude.

• Are typically used to introduce phase shifts into signals in order to cancel or partially cancel any
unwanted phase shifts previously imposed upon the signals by other circuitry or transmission media.
 Filtering: Classification of Filters

• The differences between different filter responses within one filter type
(e.g., low-pass) can include, among others, characteristic frequencies, filter
order, roll-off slope, and flatness of the passband and stopband regions.

• The transfer function ultimately chosen for a given application will often be
the result of a tradeoff between the above characteristics.

• The pole-zero diagram can be helpful to filter designers as an aid in visually

obtaining some insight into a network's characteristics. We obviously want to
avoid filter designs with poles in the right half-plane!
 Filtering: shape

• The basic shape of the curve is determined by the filter's Q, which is

determined by the denominator of the transfer function. The change in the
gain scale factor (Ho) or frequency scale factor (Wo) will alter the amplitude or
frequency scale on an amplitude response curve, but the shape, will remain
the same.
 Filtering: Filter approximations
• Deciding the best filter response involves making a compromise between various
properties of the filter’s transfer function:
• Filter Order: related to the number of components in the filter, therefore, higher-order
filters are more expensive, take up more space, and are more difficult to design,
however they will have a steeper rolloff slope than a similar lower order filter.
• Ultimate Rolloff Rate: Usually expressed as the amount of attenuation in dB for a
given ratio of frequencies. The most common units are “dB/octave” and “dB/decade”.
• Transient Response. It is often of interest to know how the filter will behave under
transient conditions. An input step function signal provides a good indication of this.
As a rule of thumb, filters with sharper cutoff characteristics or higher Q will have
more pronounced ringing.
 Filtering: Filter approximations
• Monotonicity: A filter has a monotonic amplitude response if its gain slope never
changes sign (ej. low-pass or high-pass filters).

• Passband Ripple. Some not monotonic filters (pass-band and stop-band filters) have
responses with “ripple” within the passband. Some systems don't necessarily require
monotonicity but do require that the passband ripple be limited to some maximum
value (usually 1 dB or less).

• Stopband Ripple. Some filter responses also have ripple in the stopbands. We are
normally unconcerned about the amount of ripple in the stopband, as long as the
signal to be rejected is sufficiently attenuated.

The acceptability of a filter design will depend on many interrelated factors,

including the amplitude response characteristics, transient response, the
physical size of the circuit and the cost of implementing the design.
Filtering: Filter approximations
Filtering: Filter responses
In real filters, various tradeoffs are made attempting to approximate the ideal:
Some filter responses are optimized for gain flatness in the passband; some trade off
gain variation (ripple) in the passband for steeper roll-off; still others trade off both
flatness and rate of roll-off in favor of pulse-response fidelity

Filter responses

Linear
Butterworth Chevyshev Bessel Gaussian
Phase
Filtering: Filter responses
Filter responses

Linear
Butterworth Chevyshev Bessel Eliptic Gaussian
Phase
Filtering: Filter responses
Filtering: Passive filters
Filters made up of passive components: resistors, capacitors, and inductors, so they are
referred to as passive filters. A passive filter is simply a filter that uses no amplifying
elements (transistors, operational amplifiers, etc.).

ADVANTAGES
✓ It is the simplest (in terms of the number of necessary components) implementation of
a given transfer function.
✓ Require no power supplies.
✓ Work well at very high frequencies.
✓ Can be used in applications involving larger current or voltage levels than can be
handled by active devices.
✓ Generate little noise (thermal noise from the resistive components ) when compared
with circuits using active gain elements. With careful design, the amplitude of this noise
can be very low.
Filtering: Passive filters
DISADVANTAGES

▪ They cannot provide signal gain.

▪ Input impedances can be lower and output impedances can be higher, so buffer
amplifiers may be needed.

▪ Inductors are necessary for the synthesis of most passive filter characteristics, and
these can be prohibitively expensive if high accuracy, small physical size, or
large value are required.

▪ Tuning these to the required values is time-consuming and expensive when

producing large quantities of filters.

▪ Complex passive filters (higher than 2nd-order) can be difficult and time-consuming
to design.
Filtering: Active filters
Active filters use amplifying elements, especially op amps, with resistors and capacitors in
their feedback loops, to synthesize the desired filter characteristics.

ADVANTAGES

✓ They have high input impedance, low output impedance, and virtually any arbitrary
gain
✓ They are also usually easier to design than passive filters.

✓ Possibly their most important attribute is that they lack inductors, thereby reducing the
problems associated with those components
Filtering: Active filters
Active filters use amplifying elements, especially op amps, with resistors and capacitors in
their feedback loops, to synthesize the desired filter characteristics.

DISADVANTAGES

▪ Performance at high frequencies is limited by the gain-bandwidth product of the

amplifying elements, but within the amplifier's operating frequency range, the op
amp-based active filter can achieve very good accuracy, provided that low-tolerance
resistors and capacitors are used.

▪ Active filters will generate noise due to the amplifying circuitry, but this can be minimized
by the use of low-noise amplifiers and careful circuit design
 Filtering: Which approach is the best?
Each filter technology offers a unique set of advantages and disadvantages:

- Cost: A passive RC network may be an ideal solution for a single pole. Active filters are
a good choice when speed and accuracy are not important concerns.
- Noise: Passive filters generate very little noise (the thermal noise of the resistors), and
conventional active filters generally have lower noise than switched-capacitor IC’s.
- Offset Voltage: Passive filters have no inherent offset voltage.
- Frequency Range: Operation at very low frequencies in passive/active filters will
require large/expensive reactive components.

▪ Tunability: It is difficult to vary the center frequency without changing the values of
several components in active/passive filters.
▪ Circuit Board Area: The lack of inductors made the active filters a good choice.
Filtering: Analysis and Design
Filtering: Fly your mind!

https://www.cartagena99.com/recursos/alumnos/apuntes/Teoria_Tema_3a.pdf
Filtering: Fly your mind!
For complex designs, use SAPWIN: to find the transfer function

Orden: n=6
 Filtering: Fly your mind!
Half – power cut-off frequencies
Simulate in LTSPICE for detailed analysis

F1 (cut-off) = 951.8 Hz / F2 (cut-off) = 1051.7 Hz /

From 10Hz to 100Hz = 60db/decade - > order n=3
Bandwidth -> AB = F1 – F2 = 100Hz
From 10Khz to 100Khz = 60db/decade - > order n=3
Central-Freq -> Fc = sqrt (F1*F2) = 999.7 Hz
Band-pass filter / n= 6 / m = 60 dB/Dec Quality factor = fc/AB = 9.9
https://www.cartagena99.com/recursos/alumnos/apuntes/Teoria_Tema_3a.pdf
 Filtering: Classwork

From Analysis
1) Transfer function?
2) Filter order: n=?
3) Step roll-off =?

From simulation:
4) Half-power cut-off frequencie/s
5) Bandwidth (Hz)= ?
6) Central frequency (Hz) = ?
7) Quality factor = ?

https://www.cartagena99.com/recursos/alumnos/apuntes/Teoria_Tema_3a.pdf
Filtering: Design.
Filtering: Design: Low-pass / High-pass filter

phase angle = +45o

phase angle = -45o
Filtering: Design: Low-pass / High-pass filter(n=1)

Capacitive reactance Circuit impedance

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/filter
 Filtering: Design: Low-pass / High-pass filter (n=2)

- As the order increases, the gain and accuracy of the final filter declines.

- Cascading passive filters to produce larger-order filters: is difficult to implement accurately

- To reduce the loading effect: R2 = 10*R1 and C2 = 1/10th of C1.

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/filter
Filtering: Design: Low-pass / High-pass filter (n=2)

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/filter
Filtering: Design: Band-pass filter (n=2)

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/filter
Filtering: Design: Band-pass filter

https://ctools.ece.utah.edu/Filters/RLCFilters/FilterRLCGallery.pdf
Filtering: Design: Notch- filter

- Notch filters are highly selective

- high-Q
- Can be used to reject a single or very small band of frequencies.
Filtering: Design: Notch- filter
Filtering: Design: Notch- filter
Filtering: Design: Notch-filter
Design a parallel LC notch filter according to the following characteristics:
Filtering: Passive filters
https://rf-tools.com/lc-filter/
Filtering: References
• Filter Pro:
https://www.ti.com/lit/an/sbfa001c/sbfa001c.pdf?ts=1615854006761&ref_url=https%253A%252F%252Fwww.google.com%252F,
march 2021
• A Basic Introduction to Filters - Active, Passive,and Switched Capacitor, https://www.ti.com/lit/an/snoa224a/snoa224a.pdf, march 2021
• Filter designer : https://www.ti.com/design-resources/design-tools-simulation/filter-designer.html, march 2021
• Filter design software: https://www.nutsvolts.com/magazine/article/filter-design-software
• Filter design tool: https://webench.ti.com/filter-design-tool/filter-type, march 2021
• RF Tools : https://rf-tools.com/lc-filter/, marzo 2021
• ANALOG FILTERS, https://www.analog.com/media/en/training-seminars/design-handbooks/Basic-Linear-Design/Chapter8.pdf, march
2021
• http://www.analogzoo.com/2015/12/deriving-the-rc-filter-transfer-function/
• https://wilaebaelectronica.blogspot.com/2017/01/filtro-pasa-banda-pasivo-de-2do-orden-rc.html

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hzGb6FVRU8E