Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics 125 (2023) 103891

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Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tafmec

Data image correlation analysis of the destruction process of 3D printable

layered beams subjected to the 3-point bending process
Wojciech Zbyszyński a, Daniel Pietras b, Tomasz Sadowski b, *
a
Civil Engineering Laboratory, Lublin University of Technology, Nadbystrzycka 40 Str., 20-618 Lublin, Poland
b
Department of Solid Mechanics, Lublin University of Technology, Nadbystrzycka 40 Str., 20-618 Lublin, Poland

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Technological processes and materials related to Additive Manufacturing (AM) are gaining popularity in civil
3D printing engineering 3D concrete printing is aimed mainly at the process of rising the inner and outer walls of buildings.
Additive manufacturing In these elements, the main load is axial compression with a low fraction of bending. The 3D-printing process of
Digital image correlation
cement-based materials provides the construction elements with appropriate compressive strength. Although
Layered structures
creating elements, which can carry the tensile loading is necessary to make the 3D-printing process used in civil
engineering. Therefore, this paper aims to show the response of the 3D-printed cement-based composites to the
bending process to find the effect of complex layered structures on their effective properties. Instead of the
standard use of an extensometer to obtain Crack Mouth Opening Displacement results, novel Digital Image
Correlation measurement technology was used during research. This technology allows for continuous real-time
measurements that are extremely difficult when testing brittle materials such as concrete and avoids the addi­
tional introduction of external forces caused by the classical measuring device. The proposed AM material
contains the interlayer polymeric net and smeared polymeric reinforcement to enhance flexural strength. The use
of the polymeric net and smeared reinforcement introduces residual strength into the composite allowing for its
further work after brittle phase failure. However, the obtained results showed that analysed layered beams had
decreased interlayer resistance. The process of layer cracking occurs subsequently layer by layer and the failure
in different layers developed as an independent process including cracks arresting.

1. Introduction The internal structure of the AM composites is very complex because

Technological processes and materials related to AM are gaining
popularity in civil engineering. 3D-concrete printing is aimed mainly at
the process of rising the inner and outer walls of buildings [1,2,3].
In these elements, the main load is axial compression with a small
portion of bending. There is a well-known fact that the 3D-printing
process of cement-based materials provides the construction elements
with appropriate compressive strength [4]. Although creating elements
able to carry the tensile loading is necessary to make the 3D-printing
process used in civil engineering and material science [5,6]. Recent
studies of 3D-printable materials show rising research interest in the
area of flexural strength and fracture energy estimated by 3-point
bending (3-PB) or 4-point bending (4-PB) tests [7,8]. Classical studies
of fracture energy demand additional assessment of Crack Mouth
Opening Displacement (CMOD) measurements for fracture energy
calculation [9,10].
researchers apply different types of reinforcement such as uniformly
distributed short fibers and 3D-printed polymeric mesh which lead to
increased flexural strength [11,12,13]. The structure of the AM com­
posite can be considered similar to functionally graded material (FGM)
with layers bonded in the interface region [14,15]. Different types of
fibers can be used as smeared reinforcement, the most popular of which
are Polypropylene, Polyethylene, Polyvinylalcohol and steel fibers
[7,16].
The constant development of 3D-printable materials requires addi­
tional research to improve the capability of the AM method to withstand
tensile loading and to allow a deeper understanding of the destruction
process [17]. Therefore, this paper aims to show the response of the 3D-
printed cement-based composites subjected to the bending deformation
process to find the effect of complex layered structures strengthened by
smeared short fibers and polymeric net on their effective properties. The
study estimated the fracture energy of the layered materials produced by

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: aw.zbyszynski@pollub.pl (W. Zbyszyński), bd.pietras@pollub.pl (D. Pietras), ct.sadowski@pollub.pl (T. Sadowski).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tafmec.2023.103891
Received 22 December 2022; Received in revised form 3 April 2023; Accepted 3 April 2023
Available online 7 April 2023
0167-8442/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
W. Zbyszyński et al. Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics 125 (2023) 103891

the AM using the 3-PB tests monitored to the final failure by the Digital after surface machining, a special notch cut was made in the bottom
Image Correlation (DIC) system ARAMIS [18]. The DIC can be equiva­ centre of every specimen to assure the proper observation of crack
lently used instead of the CMOD, because of the additional horizontal propagation during testing [26]. The notch was made so that it went
external forces applied by the CMOD measuring instrument which could through the first layer of cement-based material and cut through the first
lead to incorrect results and accelerated failure [19,20]. The specimens layer of polymeric net reinforcement [26].
used in the research were notched to observe the whole crack propa­
gation process.
3.2. Testing procedure
2. Materials
The specimen’s dimensions, included in Table 1, were measured with
The analysed AM composite is fabricated of two types of materials. an accuracy of 0.1 mm. In this paper, authors used the following de­
The layers of the composite are manufactured by extrusion of short- notations: the depth of the notch cut a0, length of the sample Lpr and hb
fiber-reinforced cement-based material, which after curing gave the and tb, as height and width of the specimens.
composite properties of the brittle material [20,21]. These layers of AM Measured specimens were subjected to the 3-PB test, under the
composites exhibit brittle nature because they fail mainly by nucleation condition of Loading-Unloading-Reloading-Process (LURP) [27]. MTS
and propagation of micro-cracks. The joining process of multiple micro- (25 kN) model bionix servo-hydraulic test system was used for testing,
cracks leads to the creation of a macro-crack [22], creating the so-called Fig. 1. The distance between bottom supports Lb was fixed at 137.5 mm.
failure zone. This zone after cracking might be able to partially with­ The LURP conditions for specimen No. 1 were constructed in a way that
stand external loads, until the characteristic critical length of the crack the displacement changed from 0 mm to 0.55 mm, by 0.05 mm at the
and crack opening displacement is exceeded [23]. Ductile polyethylene velocity of 0.35 mm/min. Conditions of the LURP for specimens No. 2
net reinforcement placed between layers of the 3DP composite and s­ and 3 were changed to displacement process from 0 mm to 0.50 mm, by
meared polymeric reinforcement in the cement-based mixture should 0.025 mm at the velocity of 0.63 mm/min. Changes in testing conditions
enhance the tensile resistance of the composite [24,25]. Failure of the were needed for acquiring more accurate results. The process of
polyethylene net occurs mainly due to slipping between layers. The unloading was conducted until the minimal force of 25 N to avoid the
slippage leads to a deviatoric state of deformation in the failure zone specimen’s movement in the fixture. The 3-PB test was supported by DIC
[23]. online monitoring of the whole deformation process which allowed for
The cement-based mixture used for the production of the composite further analysis of the destruction process of 3DP layered beams. ARA­
specimens consists of: MIS 5 M 3D cameras were used for DIC and observation of crack
propagation.
• 28.72 % CEM I 42.5 R portland cement,
• 56.35 % sand,
• 1.02 % granulated natural cork with a maximum diameter of 3 mm, 3.3. Data processing
• 13.70 % water,
• 0.11 % plasticizing-aerating admixture, Initial dimensionless crack length α was calculated according to the
• 0.10 % 12 mm polypropylene fiber reinforcement. equation below:
a0 + H0
All of the constituents were measured by mass. The use of sand with a α= (1)
hb + H0
low amount of particles smaller than 0.25 mm was proposed due to the
water demand lowering effect. Coarse aggregates were not used because The distance of the displacement sensor from the edge of the spec­
of the increased risk of extruding machinery jamming. The lack of coarse imen H0 in (1) is equal to 0 because measurements of displacement were
aggregates classifies the cement-based material as mortar rather than taken based on the data acquired by the DIC system ARAMIS. The value
concrete. of the length of the initial crack a0, used in (1), was measured after
conducted tests.
3. Methods Response of the AM composite to applied loads is characterized by
the slope of the line in the correlation of the applied force Pb versus
3.1. Specimen preparation CMOD. The slope of the line before failure is marked as Ci, whereas the
slope of the line in the first cycle after failure is marked as Cu, Fig. 2 [23].
A properly mixed cement-based mortar was extruded in a form of The critical length of crack ac should be estimated by equations
layers with a thickness equal to 14 mm. The extrusion process was which can be expressed as follows:
performed by use of special machinery. The machinery used a spiral Etb Cu h2b tb
screw conveyor for pushing the mixture through the nozzle. After the ac = , (2)
6Lb V(α)
extrusion of each layer, the polyethylene net reinforcement was added
manually, on top of the printed layer. No additional forces were used for Cu
ac = a0 . (3)
embedding the net in the material. After placement of the net, the Ci
extruding nozzle rose and the next layer was fabricated. The poly­
The Eth used in (2) represents the elastic modulus of the composite
ethylene net was not added on top of the last layer. The specimens were
before failure.
cured at room temperature, in humidity varying between 40 and 60 % in
Elastic modulus can be calculated using the statement below:
the natural environmental conditions, without the use of any additional
curing methods.
The specimens were machined after a period of curing (28 days) to Table 1
Dimensions of specimens.
obtain the appropriate dimensions of the samples and proper fixtures in
the test stand. Machining was composed of two methods. The first one Specimen No. Lpr Lb hb tb a0 α
[mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [-]
was abrasive cutting which helped in reducing the dimensions of the
specimen and its external irregularities. Milling was chosen for the 1 161.0 137.5 38.1 40.6 5.2 0.136
second method to get the high-precision flat and parallel surfaces, which 2 163.0 38.8 41.1 10.7 0.276
3 161.0 39.6 41.2 9.3 0.235
were necessary for providing the proper test conditions. Furthermore,

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W. Zbyszyński et al. Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics 125 (2023) 103891

The work of fracture Wf can be described by the area under the

enveloping curve of graph Pb(CMOD) shown in Fig. 2. The area of
fracture Alig is equal to the cross-section of the specimen minus the area
taken by notch cut, [29].

4. Results and discussion

The derived results show that printed structures behave as layered

with reduced interlayer resistance. The process of layer cracking occurs
subsequently layer by layer, Fig. 3a. In the course of the failure of one of
the layers, the crack is arrested, while the other layers’ failure process
proceeds independently. After the occurrence and propagation of brittle
material cracking, the polymeric reinforcement bear up to 50 % of
cement-based material’s failure loads, Fig. 3b. Then beams behave as a
ductile material, i.e. withstands further LURP iterations without further
cracking growth and final failure process. The arresting of the crack in
the interface layer can be seen as a 90 ⁰ turn after the crack reaches the
interface layer or a visible change of crack propagation angle. It can be
Fig. 1. Test stand for 3-PB. also observed as an independent crack propagation on another layer or
splitting of the crack into multiple macro-cracks which later accumulate
and propagate onto another layer, e.g. Fig. 3a. Fig. 3a shows the visual
6Lb a0 V(α)
Etb = . (4) result of the cracking process derived from the DIC program. The result
Ci h2b tb
from Fig. 3a is shown in correlation to Fig. 3b which represents the
The function V(α) used in (4) is described by: graph obtained during the test. The red line intercepting the graph
shows at which point of the test, the visual result was presented.
0.66
V(α) = 0.76 − 2.28α + 3.87α2 − 2.04α3 + . (5) Fully propagated cracks are shown in Fig. 4. The exemplary results
(1 − α)2 obtained by the DIC system are shown in Fig. 5.
Critical stress intensity factors proposed in the year 1965 [28] KS­
I
During the 3-PB test, under conditions of LURP differences in the
RAVLEY
can be expressed by: behaviour of both materials is highly perceptible. The brittle material
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ failure phase is visible at the beginning of the test. The phase ends with
KISRAVLEY =
Pb Lb 130α − 262α2 + 820α3
. (6) the sudden drop of applied forces and at the same time, the ductile
response of the AM composite begins. During multiple iterations of
3
4tb h2b
LURP, the 3-PB samples behave similarly to a ductile material, i.e. the
The use of critical intensity factors, which by nature are burdened by residual force is almost constant and the specimen does not fail.
high measuring error, can be skipped by the use of fracture energy Gf Although the failure of the net reinforcement does not occur, it should
dependent on CMOD. Fracture energy should be calculated by use of the be stated that the whole AM composite failure occurs at the moment of
following equation: brittle fracture, i.e. the load capacity is reduced to less value than 50% of
Wfc 1
∫ CMODi the maximum, Fig. 6. Besides visible similarities of graphs such as the
Gf = = Pb CMODi . (7) high peak at the beginning of the test and plateau in the residual region,
Alig Alig 0

Fig. 2. Calculation of the slopes and work values.

3
W. Zbyszyński et al.
Fig. 3. Cracking process during the 3-PB test of the layered cement-based specimen. Fig. 3a - visual result, Fig. 3b - graph.
Fig. 4. Specimens with the cracks.
Fig. 5. DIC derived results for specimen No. 3.
there are differences between results. The differences focus mainly on
the aspect of maximal forces obtained during tests, the values vary in
both regions of the graphs. Moreover, in the residual region of the
graphs, there is a difference in the overlapping of the graph lines. In
some cases, the overlapping occurs more frequently than in others. This
behaviour might be correlated with differences in the internal structure
of the specimens and the arrangement of the fibers of the fiber rein­
forcement in the layers of the composite.
The geometrical dimensions of the specimens were collected in
4
Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics 125 (2023) 103891
Table 1, whereas Table 2 presents results obtained during tests and
calculated specifications according to equations (1)–(7).
High dispersion of the results may be caused by the presence of
precracks in the structure of the specimens and differences in their in­
ternal structure, such as pores and interlayer connections [30,31]. The
difference in value may be caused by the peculiarity of the used printing
method, which may have led to the non-uniformity of the composite’s
structure. The low value of elastic modulus Etb can be associated with the
high volume of cork addition and the high volume of air pockets in the
structure of the composite. The precracks might have an additional Etb
lowering effect. Fracture energy Gf was averaged and the standard de­
viation was calculated. The result of these calculations is shown in
Table 2 as Gf .
The behaviour of 3D-printed cement composites changes with the
addition of fiber reinforcement. The addition of different types of fibers,
both polymeric and steel fibers, gives a similar result of improvement in
the area of fracture energy and flexural strength. Composites with
smeared reinforcement should behave more ductile than cement-based
composites without it and the crack propagation of fiber-reinforced
composites should be slower, [9,12,13]. Compared to results from
[13], the average fracture energy Gf of material studied in this paper,
Table 2, is 10 times lower than the average value obtained by purely
cement-based material with smeared reinforcement and 12 times higher
than the average value obtained by cement-based composite without
smeared reinforcement. According to the same studies, the addition of
fiber reinforcement, in case of 3D-printed composites, should improve
the fracture energy by 126 times on average. Differences in values ob­
tained by the authors and those shown in [13], may mostly be related to
W. Zbyszyński et al. Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics 125 (2023) 103891

Fig. 6. Graph Pb(CMOD) of the specimen No. 1, No. 2 and No. 3.

Table 2
Obtained results and calculated specifications of the composite.
Spec. A Pbmax Ci•10-5 Cu•10-5 Etb Etb ac KSRAVLEY
I KSRAVLEY
I Alig Wfc Gf Gf [N/m]
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
No. [mm] [N] [mm/N] [mm/N] [GPa] [GPa] [mm] [MPa mm] [MPa mm] [mm2] [Nm] [N/m]

1 17.6 608.6 1.624 1.883 6.28 6.06 ± 1.40 6.0 8.471 8.276 1336 0.144 107.81 95.34 ± 11.36
2 19.1 394.5 3.053 3.038 7.65 10.7 7.838 ±0.289 1158 0.093 80.33
3 23.5 487.7 4.338 6.289 4.25 13.5 8.520 1236 0.121 97.88

Fig. 7. Comparison of test results evaluating the fracture energy Gf.

5
W. Zbyszyński et al.
the use of the matrix material and the type of net reinforcement. Based
on recent studies, the use of polymeric net reinforcement proposed by
the authors shows similar results to those of the polymeric mesh used in
the article [11]. Geopolymer composites with polymeric mesh rein­
forcement presented residual strength after cracking, the absence of
additional reinforcement led to brittle cracking and rapid crack propa­
gation after a peak load. Certain similarities between the composite
proposed by the authors and the composite used in [7,11] were observed
and thus conclusions were made. Nevertheless, further investigation of
3D-printed composites without net reinforcement is required.
Fig. 7 presents a comparison of fracture energy Gf of material studied
in this paper and the average value of materials studied in [13]. For
better visualization, the fraction energy of material without fiber rein­
forcement and material with fiber reinforcement from [13] were shown.
A visible line intersecting the graphs represents the averaged results of
specimens 1, 2 and 3. The line was added to show how much the results
deviate from the obtained average.
5. Conclusion
Specimens of composite made out of brittle cement-based material
and additional ductile polymeric reinforcement were tested in the 3-PB
test under Loading-Unloading-Reloading-Process conditions. Digital
Image Correlation was used to acquire a deeper understanding of com­
posite behaviour for the complex degradation process of the AM com­
posite. The tests were focused on experimental investigation and method
of calculation concerning the fracture energy properties. A comparison
of test results is shown in Fig. 7.
The following conclusions can be formulated:
• A positive effect of the use of a polymeric net on the post-failure
strength of the brittle material of the composite was found during
conducted tests.
• The residual strength induced by the polymeric net and smeared
reinforcement allows for the further work of the composite after the
failure of the cement-based material. The net reinforcement with the
addition of smeared reinforcement can withstand up to 50 % of
maximal forces [11,13].
• Used net reinforcement lowers the quality of interface connections
by lowering the area of cement-based material contact.
• Crack arresting occurs due to changes in material structure and
mechanical properties in the interface layer connections. In case of
this composite interface, the layer works as the weakest point of the
composite.
Further analysis of the interface layer and changes in the structure of
the composite is needed for a deeper and proper description of the
composite’s effective properties. Investigation of 3D-printed composites
without net reinforcement is required in future studies. The acquired
knowledge can be used for further development of the composites used
in this area of material science and engineering. Moreover, in the nu­
merical modelling of crack propagation under flexure a fracture process
zone will be included in the analysis by introducing damage models
presented in [32-34].
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare the following financial interests/personal re­
lationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:
Tomasz Sadowski reports financial support was provided by Lublin
University of Technology. Tomasz Sadowski reports a relationship with
Lublin University of Technology that includes: employment.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
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Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics 125 (2023) 103891
Acknowledgements
This work was financially supported by the Ministry of Science and
Higher Education (Poland) within the statutory research number FN-1/
2021.
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