Advanced Fluid Mechanics

CHAPTER 6: WATER TURBINES

What is a water turbine?

A water turbine is a rotary machine which converts kinetic energy of water into mechanical
energy by the impulse (momentum) or reaction of water with a series of buckets, or blades
arranged about the circumference of a wheel. This rotary machine uses the kinetic energy
of a continuous stream of water to turn a shaft.

Water turbines are mostly used to generate electric power from water kinetic energy. They
are mostly installed in hydropower plants located at dams.

The basic principle to generate electricity in hydroelectric power plants is that river water
is diverted to a dam to harness the energy of river water. Then, river water is made to fall
through a height (called a head) so it picks up speed (in other words, so its potential
energy is converted to kinetic energy), then channel it through a pipe called
a penstock past a turbine and generator. This way, hydroelectricity is a 3-step energy
conversion as explained below:

1. The river water original potential energy is turned into kinetic energy when the
water falls through a height.

2. The kinetic energy in the moving water is converted into mechanical energy by a
water turbine.

3. The water turbine drives a generator that turns the mechanical energy into electrical
energy.

Different kinds of water turbine are used depending on the geography of the area, how
much water is available (the flow), and the distance over which it can be made to fall (the
head).

Some hydroelectric plants use bucket-like impulse turbines (typically Pelton wheels);
others use Francis or Kaplan reaction turbines. The type of turbine is chosen carefully
to extract the maximum amount of energy from the water.

Water Turbine Operation (How does a water turbine work?)

Flowing water is directed onto the blades of a turbine runner (see Fig. 1), creating a force
on the blades. Since the runner is spinning, the force acts through a distance (force acting

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through a distance is the definition of work). In this way, energy is transferred from the
water flow to the turbine.

Figure 1: The runner of a small water turbine.

Hydropower plants capture the energy of falling water to generate electricity. A water
turbine converts the kinetic energy of falling water into mechanical energy. Then a
generator converts the mechanical energy from the turbine into electrical energy as
shown in Figure 2 given below.

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 Figure 2: A view of a water turbine (Kaplan turbine) and an electrical generator.

Types of Water Turbines

Water turbines are divided into two groups; impulse turbines and reaction turbines.

1. Impulse turbines

In an impulse turbine, a fast-moving fluid is fired through a narrow nozzle at the turbine
blades to make them spin around. The blades of an impulse turbine are usually bucket-
shaped so they catch the fluid and direct it off at an angle or sometimes even back the
way it came (because that gives the most efficient transfer of energy from the fluid to the
turbine). In an impulse turbine, the fluid is forced to hit the turbine at high speed.

It works based on Newton's second law of motion. This law tells us that the momentum
gained by the turbine when a jet of water hits the turbine is equal to the momentum lost
by the water jet; the longer a water jet touches the turbine, and the harder (more forcefully)
it hits, the more momentum it will transfer.

Impulse turbines are simple in design, easy to build, and cheap to maintain. They don't
need to be contained inside a pipe or housing (unlike reaction turbines).

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Impulse turbines change the velocity of a water jet. The jet pushes on the turbine's curved
blades which change the direction of the flow. The resulting change in momentum
(impulse) causes a force on the turbine blades. Since the turbine is spinning, the force
acts through a distance (work) and the diverted water flow is left with diminished energy.

An impulse turbine is one in which the pressure of the fluid flowing over the rotor blades
is constant and all the work output is due to the change in kinetic energy of the fluid.

Figure: An impulse turbine (Pelton wheel).

Figure: Showing how does a Pelton water wheel works.

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Prior to hitting the turbine blades, the water's pressure (potential energy) is converted to
kinetic energy by a nozzle and focused on the turbine. No pressure change occurs at the
turbine blades, and the turbine doesn't require a housing/casing for operation/hydraulic
function. Newton's second law describes the transfer of energy for impulse turbines.

Impulse turbines are often used in very high (>300m) head applications. Main types of
impulse turbines consist of:

• Pelton wheel
• Water wheel

2. Reaction turbines

Reaction turbines are acted on by water, which changes pressure as it moves through
the turbine and gives up its energy. They must be encased to contain the water pressure
or they must be fully submerged in the water flow. Newton's third law (action and
reaction are equal and opposite) describes the transfer of energy for reaction
turbines.

A reaction turbine is a type of turbine that develops torque by reacting to the pressure or
weight of the water. The water pressure changes as it passes through the rotor blades.

In a reaction turbine, the blades sit in a much larger volume of fluid and turn around as
the fluid flows past them. A reaction turbine doesn't change the direction of the fluid flow
as drastically as an impulse turbine: it simply spins as the fluid pushes through and past
its blades.

With a reaction turbine, you want the water to touch the blades smoothly, for as long as
it can, so it gives up as much energy as possible. The water isn't hitting the blades and
bouncing off, as it does in an impulse turbine: instead, the blades are moving more
smoothly, going with the flow.

Figure: A typical reaction turbine

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 Figure: Showing how does a reaction turbine works.

Most water turbines in use are reaction turbines and are used in low (<30 m) and medium
(30–300 m) head applications. In reaction turbine pressure drop occurs in both fixed and
moving blades. It is largely used in dam and large power plants.

Main types of reaction turbines include:

• Francis turbine
• Kaplan turbine

Difference between Impulse and Reaction Turbine

The term impulse and reaction denote the basic type of turbine. The basic and main
difference between impulse and reaction turbine is that there is pressure change in the
fluid as it passes through runner of reaction turbine while in impulse turbine there is no
pressure change in the runner. In the impulse turbine first all pressure energy of water
convert into the kinetic energy through a nozzle and generate a high speed jet of
water. This water jet strikes the blade of turbine and rotates it. In the reaction turbine
there is pressure change of water when it passes through the rotor of turbine. So it uses
kinetic energy as well as pressure energy to rotate the turbine.

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Sr # Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine
1. In impulse turbine only kinetic energy is used to rotate the turbine. In reaction turbine both kinetic and pressure energy is used to rotate the
turbine.
2. In this turbine water flow through the nozzle and strike the blades of In this turbine water is guided by the guide blades to flow over the turbine.
turbine.
3. All pressure energy of water converted into kinetic energy before striking In reaction turbine, there is no change in pressure energy of water before
the vanes. striking.
4. The pressure of the water remains unchanged and is equal to The pressure of water is reducing after passing through vanes.
atmospheric pressure during process.
5. In impulse turbine all hydraulic energy is converted into kinetic energy In reaction turbine only some amount of the available energy is converted
by a nozzle and it is the jet so produced which strikes the runner into kinetic energy before the fluid enters the runner.
blades.
6. The velocity of jet which changes, the pressure throughout remaining Both pressure and velocity changes as fluid passes through a runner.
atmosphere Pressure at inlet is much higher than at outlet.
7. Water-tight casing is not necessary. Casing has no hydraulic function to The runner must be enclosed within a watertight casing.
perform. It only serves to prevent splashing and guide water to the tail
race.
8. Water is admitted only in the form of jets. There may be one or more jets Water is admitted over the entire circumference of the runner
striking equal number of buckets simultaneously
9. Water is admitted over the entire circumference of the runner Water completely fills at the passages between the blades and while flowing
between inlet and outlet sections does work on the blades.
10. The turbine is always installed above the tail race and there is no draft Reaction turbine are generally connected to the tail race through a draft tube
tube used. which is a gradually expanding passage. It may be installed below or above
the tail race.
11. Flow regulation is done by means of a needle valve fitted into the nozzle. The flow regulation in reaction turbine is carried out by means of a guide-
vane assembly. Other component parts are scroll casing, stay ring runner
and the draft tub.
12. Example of impulse turbine is Pelton wheel. Examples of reaction turbine are Francis turbine and Kaplan turbine, etc.
13. Impulse turbine have more hydraulic efficiency Reaction turbine have relatively less efficiency.
14. Impulse turbine operates at high water heads. Reaction turbine operate at low and medium heads.
15. Water flow is tangential direction to the turbine wheel. Water flows in radial and axial direction to turbine wheel.
16. Needs low discharge of water. Needs medium and high discharge of water
17. Degree of reaction is zero. Degree of reaction is more than zero and less than or equal to one.
18. Impulse turbine involves less maintenance work. Reaction turbine involves more maintenance work.

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Design and application of water turbines

Turbine selection is generally based on the available water head. In general, impulse
turbines are used for high head sites, and reaction turbines are used for low head sites.

Kaplan turbines with adjustable blade pitch are well-adapted to wide ranges of flow or
head conditions, since their peak efficiency can be achieved over a wide range of flow
conditions.

Small turbines (mostly < 10 MW) may have horizontal shafts. Large turbines (up to 100
MW or so) may be either horizontal or vertical.

Very large reaction (Francis and Kaplan machines) generally have vertical shafts because
this makes best use of the available head, and makes installation of a generator more
economical.

Impulse turbines (Pelton wheels) may be either vertical or horizontal shaft machines
because the size of the machine is so much less than the available head.

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DETERMINATION OF EFFICIENCY OF THE INPULSE TURBINES

Some Important Concepts

1. Impulse-Momentum Principle: It states that ‘the impulse of a force acting on a

fluid mass in a short interval of time is equal to the change of momentum in the
direction of flow”.
Mathematically:
∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
Or
dv
∑ F =m
dt
Or
d (m v)
∑F =
dt
The above equation states that sum of the external forces on a body/fluid is equal to the
time rate of change of momentum of that body/fluid in the direction of force.
Above equation can also be written as:
∑ F d t = d (mv)
Above equation is Impulse momentum principle or equation.
For a steady incompressible flow, impulse-momentum equation can also be written as:
γ
∑ F = ρ Q (dv) = ρ Q (V1 - V2 ) = Q (V1 - V2 )
g
2. Power available at the nozzle (Pn)
Pn = QH
Where
Pn = power at the nozzle (KN – m/s  K W)
 = specific weight of water (9.81 k N/m3)
Q = Flow nozzle (jet) (m3/s)
H = Head of water at nozzle/jet or head of water under which turbine is working
(m)
3. Velocity of the Jet (V)
V = Cv √2 g H
Where
V = velocity of jet at nozzle (m/s)
Cv = coefficient of velocity (0.98)
g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2)
H = Head on nozzle or jet (m)
4. Tangential /Principal Velocity of Buckets or Wheel (𝛎)

πDN
ν=
60
Where
ν = Tangential or peripheral velocity of bucket or wheel (m/s)

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D = wheel diameter (m)
N = rotational velocity of (wheel) rpm)

5. Velocity Triangles
In order to analyze the working of turbines, velocity triangles are drawn at
the inlet and outlet tips of moving blades/vanes or buckets of the turbine. Then,
impulse momentum principle or equation is applied to determine the force being
exerted by the water on the turbine and finally work done by the turbine.
A) Velocity triangles for low speed impulse turbines (when 𝝂 < Vr)
- Velocity triangle at inlet & outlet: In case of impulse turbine, inlet velocity triangle
is a straight line as shown in Figure. Here Vw = V
- Vw will be negative (means it is in opposite direction to that of the jet)

Figure 1: Velocity triangle at inlet and outlet of an impulse turbine.

B) Velocity triangles for high speed impulse turbines (Where 𝝂 > Vr)
- Velocity triangle at inlet & outlet: Inlet velocity triangle will be a straight line as
was the case of low speed turbine (Fig. 1)
- Outlet velocity triangle for high speed turbine is shown in the following Figure (Fig.
2)
- ϕ = 180 − θ and Vw1 is positive.

Figure 2: Velocity triangles for high speed turbines

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Notations used in Velocity Triangles
 = angle of bucket tip at outlet
V = Absolute velocity of entering water at inlet
ν = velocity of buckets or wheel
Vr = relative velocity of water and bucket at inlet
Vw = Whirl velocity at inlete (horizontal component of V)
V1, ν1, Vr, Vw1 = Corresponding values at outlet
Vf1 = velocity of flow at outlet (vertical component of V)
6. Work Done by an Impulse Turbine
a) For an impulse turbine (high speed turbine)
ν1 = ν
Vr1 = Vr = (V - ν)
(ν > Vr and Vw1 is +ve as jet and Vw1 directions are the same)
W = weight of water striking the bucket per second  Q =  a V
Where
W = water weights striking the wheel per second (kN/s)
 = specific weight water (9.81 kN/m3)
Q = flow at nozzle or jet (m3/s)
a = cross section area of water jet/nozzle (m2)
V = Velocity of water jet (m/s)
Now
Force exerted by water jet on the wheel (F) is given by (application of impulse momentum
equation) i.e., F = m d v
Force on the bucket = mass of water/jet x change in velocity
So,
𝑤
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑑𝑉 = (𝑉𝑤 − 𝑉𝑤1 ) (kN) Eq. (1)
𝑔

work done by turbine (WD)can be calculated by

Work Done = W.D. = force x distance (kNm/s)

So,
W
W.D. = [ (Vw - Vw1 )] × ν
g
W
Where ν = distance per unit time, and [ (Vw - Vw1 )] = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
g

Where W=Q=aV
W
W.D. = (Vw - Vw1 ) ν Eq. (2)
g
(Equation for work done by the turbine)

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 b) for a low speed impulse turbine (𝜈 < Vr & Vw1 is –ve)

Putting “- Vw1” in Eq. (2)

W
W.D. = [ Vw - (-Vw1 ) ] ν
g
W
W.D. = [ Vw + Vw1 ] ν
g
From Figure 1 (Outlet velocity triangle of Low speed impulse turbine), it is evident
that Vw1= Vr1 Cosϕ – ν1
So, putting value of Vw1 into the above equation, we get
W
W.D. = [ Vw + Vr1 Cosϕ – ν1] ν Eq. (3)
g
As we know that V = Vw , Vr1 = Vr = V- ν , ν1 = ν , putting all of these values
in the Eq. (3)
W
W.D. = [ V + (V– ν) Cosϕ – ν] ν
g
W
W.D. = [ (V– ν) + (V– ν) Cosϕ] ν
g
W
W.D. = (V - ν) (1 + Cosϕ) ν (kNm/s)
g
7. Kinetic Energy supplied by jet (K.E.)
1
K.E. = m V2
2
W = mg  m = W/g
1 W 2
K.E. = V
2 g
8. Efficiency of an Impulse Turbine
An impulse turbine has 3 types of efficiencies as mentioned below:
1. Hydraulic efficiency (h)
2. Mechanical efficiency (m)
3. Overall efficiency ()

1. Hydraulic Efficiency (h)

It is the ratio of work done by the wheel to the energy supplied by the jet of water i.e.
Work done
ηh = × 100
KE supplied

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For high speed impulse turbine:
So,
W
ηh = (Vw - Vw1 ) ν
g (½ W/g V2)
W (Vw - Vw1 ) ν ×g ×2
g ×W × V2
2 ν (Vw − Vw1 )
=
V2

2 ν (Vw − Vw1 )
𝜂ℎ =
V2
For low speed turbine:
W
Work done (V - ν) (1 + Cos ϕ) ν
g
ηh = × 100 =
KE supplied 1 W
× × V2
2 g
Or
2 ν (V- ν) (1+Cos ϕ)
ηh =
V2

2) Mechanical Efficiency (m)

Considering the dissipation of energy for overcoming friction of the bearings and
other moving parts, mechanical energy is defined as the ratio of actual work (output)
available at the turbine to the energy supplied to the wheel.

3) Overall Efficiency (o)

It is the ratio of actual power produced by the turbine to the energy actually supplied to
the turbine. i.e.
Po
ηo = ×100
Pi

Po
ηo = ×100
γQH
Where
Po = output power (power produced by the turbine)
Pi = Input power supplied to the turbine by jet of water = γ Q H

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Example Problem 1

A Pelton wheel has a tangential velocity of buckets of 30 m/s. The water is being
supplied under a head of 150 meters at the rate of 200 liters/s. The buckets deflect the
jet through an angle of 160o. If the coefficient of velocity for the nozzle is 0.98, find the
power produced by the wheel and its hydraulic and overall efficiency.
Solution
Given:
ν= 30 m/s
H = 150 m
Q = 200 l/s = 0.2 m3/s
θ = 160o = 180 – θ = 180 – 160 = 20o
CV = 0.98
FIND
i) Power produced by the wheel?
ii) Hydraulic efficiency of the wheel?
iii) Overall efficiency of the wheel?
For this case,
V = 𝐶𝑉 √2 g H = 0.98 √2 ×9.81 ×150 = 53.2 m/s
ν= 30 m/s & Vr = V - ν = 53.2 – 30 = 23.2 m/s
As ν is greater than Vr i.e. , 30 > 23.2 m/s so, given turbine is a high speed turbine. In this
case, shape of the outlet velocity triangle will be as shown in the following Figure.

Figure: Outlet Velocity triangle

Vw1 = +ve as it is in the same direction as that of the jet

i) Power produced by the wheel = work done by wheel

W W = Q
= (Vw - Vw1 ) ν
g = 9.81 x 0.2
1.96 = 1.96 KN/s
Now (53.2 – 8.2) 30
9.81 Vw = V = 53.2 m/s
Power by wheel = 269.7 KN-m/s = 269.7 KW

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 Hydraulic efficiency h Vr = V - ν = 53.2 – 3.0 = 23.2 m/s
2 ν (Vw - Vw1 ) ν = 30 m/s
As ηh =
ν2 From outlet velocity triangle
2 × 30 (53.2 − 8.2)
ηh = Vr1 = Vr = 23.2 m/s
(53.2)2 ν1 = ν = 30 m.s
ηh = 0.95398 ~ 0.954 Velocity of whirl at outlet
ηh = 0.954 × 100 = 95.4 % Vw1 = ν1 - Vr1 Cost 
ηh = 95.4 % = 30 – 23.2 Cos 20o
= 30 – 23.2 x 0.9397
V𝑤 1 = 30 – 21.8 = 8.2 m/s
Overall efficiency ηo
Po 269.7 269.7
η0 = = = = 0.92
Pi γQH 9.81 × 0.2 × 150
ηo = 92 %

CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER TURBINES

Performance of Turbines

Turbines are often required to work under varying conditions of head, discharge, speed
and output (power produced by the turbine). In order to predict the behavior of turbines,
it is necessary to study the performance of the turbines under varying conditions.

• The head and output of the turbine may change. In this case, keeping the discharge
constant, the speed is adjusted so that the efficiency remains constant.

• Keeping the head and the speed constant, the output may vary by adjusting the
discharge.
These are the normal operating conditions, and the curves drawn for these conditions are
called operating characteristics curves.

• Keeping the head and discharge constant, the speed may vary by adjusting the load
on the turbine. These conditions are possible only in the laboratories. The curves so
obtained for such conditions are known as main characteristics curves.

• The head and speed may vary. This is common in turbines working under low heads.

Performance of Turbines under unit quantities

In order to predict the behavior of a turbine working under varying conditions of head,
speed, and power, the concept of unit quantities is used.

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The unit quantities give the speed, power and discharge for a particular turbine under a
head of 1m assuming the same efficiency. The following are the three important unit
quantities.

1. Unit speed
2. Unit power
3. Unit discharge

1. Unit speed (Nu)

The speed of the turbine, working under unit head (say 1m) is known as unit speed of the
turbine.

The tangential velocity (u) is given by:

Or

Nu = N/√H

Where

H = head of water under which turbine is working

N= speed of turbine under a head, H
u= tangential velocity
Nu= speed of the turbine under a unit head

2. Unit Power (Pu):

The power developed by a turbine, working under a unit head (say 1m) is known as unit
power of the turbine.
Power developed by a turbine is given by:

Or

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3. Unit discharge (Qu)
The discharge of the turbine working under a unit head (say 1m) is known as unit
discharge.

If a turbine is working under different heads, the behavior of the turbine can easily be
known from the unit quantities.

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Where

H1, H2 are the heads under which a turbine works

N1, N2 are the corresponding speeds
Q1, Q2 are the discharges
P1, P2 are the power developed by the turbine

Example Problem 1
A turbine is to operate under a head of 25 m at 180 rpm. The discharge is 10 cumec. If
the efficiency is 90%, determine the performance of the turbine under a head of 20 m.

Solution:

Given:
Head on turbine, H1=25 m
Speed, N1=180 rpm
Discharge, Q1 =10 cumec
Overall efficiency = 90% = 0.9
H2= 20 m
N2, Q2, and P2 =?

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Page 19 of 21
Specific Speed (Ns) of Turbines
The specific speed of a turbine is determined by the relationship given below:
Ns = (N/√P)/H5/4
Importance of Specific Speed
The specific speed helps in selecting a turbine suitable for a given situation (project). First
of all specific speed of a turbine is determined by the above mentioned relationship, i.e.
Ns = (N/√P)/H5/4. Then the type of the turbine is selected. Following Table shows the type
of turbine to be selected based on specific speed.

Sr. # Specific speed Type of turbine

1 8-30 Pelton wheel with one nozzle
2 30 - 50 Pelton wheel with 2 or more nozzles
3 50-250 Francis turbine
4 250-1000 Kaplan turbine

Example Problem 2

A turbine develops 10,000 kW under a head of 20 m at 150 rpm. What is the specific
speed? What would be its normal speed and output under a head of 25 m?

Solution:
Given

Power, P= 10000 kW
Head, H=20 m
Speed, N=150 rpm;

Using the relation for specific speed, we will get:

To find normal speed under a head of 25m:

Using the relation will get:

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To find normal output power:
Using the relation, we will have:

Example Problem 3

Find the type of turbine, which should be used under a head of 150 m to produce 1500
kW while running at 300 rpm.

Solution:
Given

Power, P= 1500 kW
Head, H=150 m
Speed, N=300 rpm;

First find specific speed by:

Ns = (N/√P)/H5/4

So
Ns = (300√1500)/1505/4 = 11610/525 = 22.1 rpm

Looking at the above Table, Ns lies between 8 and 30, so Pelton wheel with one nozzle
should be selected for the given situation.

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