Originalveröffentlichung in: Representations 10 (1985), S.

102-123

WOLFGANG KEMP

Death at Work: A Case Study

on Constitutive Blanks in
Nineteenth-Century Painting

IN PAINTING, THEN, the chief thing is the portrayal of a situation,

the scene of an action. In this connection the first law is intelligibility."1 This
requirement—and it may come as a surprise—is laid d own in Hegel's Aesthetics.
Even at the acme of the id ealist philosophy of art, recognition was accord ed to
the necessity of offering a plausible, clearly understandable art to a greatly expand ed
public, one that was as impond erable as it was unknown. In their famous essay
of 1798, "Uber d ie Gegenstande d er bild end en Kunst" (On the Objects of Plastic
and Graphic Art), Goethe and Meyer stated with an unmistakable clarity:

We require o f every work o f art that it constitute a separate totality, and o f every work o f
the plastic and graphic arts in particular that it express itself fully. It must be ind epend ent.
T h e action presented , the object must be apprehend ed and und erstood for the most part
without external assistance, without ancillary explanation that would have to be d rawn
f r o m a poet or an historiographer. J u s t as we would find fault with a poem whose plot
and motifs could be und erstood only f r o m append ed notes, so we have cause to be d is­
satisfied with paintings or statues whose meaning is not obvious to the eye, but must first
be look ed u p in a book or recounted to us. 2

However, the theory of art of this period did not construe the "law of intel­
ligibility" in an abstract manner, nor did it require that this law be observed at
any price. Submersion in an unproblematic reality, mak ing the themes of art
radically topical—what Hegel called "the subjective stress on the contemporary
civilization" 3 —was not what this theory had in mind. Intelligibility and action
("plot") are a closely link ed pair of concepts in the idealist theory of art, as the
quotation with which we began our discussion mak es clear. By means of the
condensation of the historical material—the manifest significance of the pictures
as well as the depicted subject matter itself—the meaning of history, it was hoped,
might be reached. In 1843 Ernst Forster wrote: " T h e historical conception in art
is not concerned with the accidental happening, which is often understandable
only for the participants, but instead with the content of an event, with that which
remains intelligible for all and forever, with its meaning in history."4

102 REPRESENTATIONS 10 • Spring 1985 © THE REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

 A r t ' s first a n s w e r t o t h e d e m a n d s o f idealist t h e o r y , a n d e v e n m o r e t o t h e
d e m a n d s o f its e n v i r o n m e n t , w a s C l a s s i c i s m — w i t h its c l e a r , e a s i l y g r a s p e d f o r m s ,
its s c h e m a t i c a l l y a r r a n g e d p i c t o r i a l p l a n e s , its m e c h a n i s t i c i d e a l o f c o m p o s i t i o n ,
a n d its i n t e n s e s t r i v i n g t o r e n d e r t h e " n a t u r a l " l a n g u a g e o f b o d i e s , g e s t u r e s , a n d
facial e x p r e s s i o n s . T h i s art d i d n o t m a k e things easy f o r itself. T h e p r e v i o u s ly
mentioned demands f r o m w i t h o u t , as well as a n i n t e r n a l c o m m i t m e n t to an
exacting repertoire o f subject matter a n d the p o n d e r o u s g e n r e o f historical paint­
ing, resulted in a t r e m e n d o u s straining a n d b r o a d e n i n g o f the possibilities o f the
h i s t o r i c a l p a i n t i n g , i n d e e d , as s o m e b e l i e v e , t o t h e v e r y l i m i t s o f t h e medium.5
T h i s ideal o f a n historical p a i n t i n g that "expresses itself" c a n b e e x p l a i n e d briefly,
u s i n g as a n e x a m p l e a w e l l - k n o w n w o r k t h a t d o e s n o t s t r i v e f o r e x t r e m e s o l u t i o n s
t o t h e t a s k s set f o r t h e h i s t o r i c a l p a i n t i n g b u t is s i m p l y e x e c u t e d w i t h a high
degree of consequence.
P i e r r e P a u l P r o u d h o n e x h i b i t e d h i s i m p o s i n g c o m p o s i t i o n Justice and Ven­
geance Pursuing Crime i n t h e S a l o n o f 1 8 0 8 ( t h e w o r k is n o w i n t h e L o u v r e ; f i g . I ) . 6
T h e p i c t u r e was i n t e n d e d f o r the great c o u r t r o o m o f t h e Palais d u J u s t i c e . To
the patron w h o commissioned the painting f r o m him, the prefect o f the Depart­
m e n t o f t h e S e i n e , P r o u d h o n p r o p o s e d first a n a l l e g o r i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n : N e m e s i s ,
the winged goddess o f vengeance, drags before the tribunal o fjustice a murderer,
w h o s e victims, a m o t h e r a n d h e r c h i l d , lie s t r e t c h e d o u t o n t h e g r o u n d in f r o n t
o f t h e t h r o n e . J u s t i t i a is flanked by the allegorical figures o f strength, wisdom,
a n d m o d e r a t i o n (fig. 2).7 A b o u t this p r e l i m i n a r y sketch P r o u d h o n wrote:

Filled by this i d e a [ o f finding a suitable subject m a t t e r f o r t h e c o u r t ] , b u t little t a k e n w i t h

all t h e m a t e r i a l s that h i s t o r y places at o u r d i s p o s a l f o r this p u r p o s e , a n d that are e i t h e r
t o o o b s c u r e o r t o o w o r n o u t , I t o o k r e c o u r s e to t h e n a t u r e o f t h e m a t t e r itself, w h i c h t h e n
p u t in m y h a n d s e v e r y t h i n g that was suitable a n d p r o v i d e d t h e subject m a t t e r f o r a n
especially i m p r e s s i v e p i c t u r e : it is a p p r o p r i a t e f o r e v e r y age a n d b e l o n g s to e v e r y p e o p l e ,
a n n o u n c e s a n d e x p l a i n s itself, a n d at t h e s a m e t i m e s h o w s t h e cause a n d its e f f e c t (il est
d e t o u t les t e m p s , a p p a r t i e n t a t o u s les p e u p l e s , s ' a n o n c e et s ' e x p l i q u e d e l u i - m e m e et
p r e s e n t e e n raeme t e m p s la cause et s o n e f f e t ) . 8

T h i s w a s t h e c l a i m m a d e b y b o u r g e o i s a r t , a n d it h a s p r o b a b l y n e v e r been
m o r e precisely a n d clearly formulated. But did the execution o f the picture
a c c o r d w i t h t h i s c l a i m ? H o w d i d five a l l e g o r i c a l figures spring f r o m the "nature
o f the matter itself"? T h r o u g h which indices did melancholy Justitia, sitting
m o t i o n l e s s l y o n h e r t h r o n e , s h o w t h a t s h e , as P r o u d h o n says i n t h e s a m e a r t i c l e ,
" p r o n o u n c e s t h e c r u s h i n g j u d g m e n t t h a t strikes all t h i n g s f a t a l l y " ? A n d h o w c a n
the a u t h o r o f the q u o t e d lines m a i n t a i n that his sketch s h o w s b o t h cause and
effect, w h e n n o t h i n g m a k e s clear w h y the m u r d e r e r has killed the w o m a n and
h e r child? W h e t h e r o w i n g to his o w n r e c o g n i t i o n o f the p r o b l e m , o r because o f
criticism f r o m his p a t r o n , P r o u d h o n subsequently revised the composition in
s u c h a w a y t h a t it c o r r e s p o n d e d t o h i s p r o g r a m m a t i c s t a t e m e n t s . A description

D e a t h at W o r k : A C a s e S t u d y
 FIGURE 1. P i e r r e Paul Proudhon, Justice and Vengeance Pursuing
Crime, 1808. O i l o n canvas. T h e L o u v r e , Paris.
Photo: University o f Marburg.

o f the final version indicates h o w P r o u d h o n ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f the p icture d e v e l ­

o p e d , n a m e l y into a "situation," a "scene o f an action": " I n a wild a n d distant
spot, c o v e r e d by the veil o f n i g h t , the g r e e d y c r i m i n a l strang les his victim, takes
the g o l d , a n d looks o n c e m o r e to see if t h e r e r e m a i n s a n y s p a r k o f life w h i c h
m i g h t u n c o v e r his c r i m e . T h e t h o u g h t l e s s o n e ! H e d i d [sic] n o t see that N e m e s i s ,
that terrible h a n d m a i d e n o f J u s t i c e , follows, a n d , like a v u l t u r e d r o p p i n g o n its
prey, s o o n will catch h i m a n d h a n d h i m o v e r to h e r u n y i e l d i n g c o m p a n i o n . " 9
I n e v e r y respect there has b e e n an increase in the m o t i v a t i o n s h o w n in the
p i c t u r e : to be sure, the d e e d has already b e e n d o n e , b u t it is o b v i o u s h o w it has
c o m e a b o u t . T h e r e is the w e a p o n , a n d t h e r e are t h e w o u n d s ; t h e r e is t h e booty,
a n d there is the o n e w h o has b e e n d e s p o i l e d , s t r i p p e d bare; there is the c r i m i n a l ,
d a r k , g i v e n o v e r entirely to g a t h e r i n g h i m s e l f tog ether, active, fleeing , q u i t t i n g
the picture, a n d there is the l i g h t - c o l o r e d a n d n a k e d ( i n n o c e n t ) victim, stretching

104 REPRESENTATIONS
 FIGURE 2. P i e r r e Paul P r o u d h o n , earlier v e r s i o n o f Justice and
Vengeance Pursuing Crime. R e p r o d u c e d after Gazette
des beaux-arts 6 (1860).

f o r t h all his lim bs, passive n o w f o r all eternity, r e m a i n i n g in the p i c t u r e a n d

c o n f i r m i n g it. A clearly perceptible n e t w o r k o f o p p o s i t i o n a l relations b i n d s the
t w o e a r t h l y protagonists t o g e t h e r ; cause a n d effect s h o w a n d " e x p l a i n t h e m ­
selves." T h e sit e o f t he act ion also plays it s p a r t: n i g h t a n d a desolate place p r o v i d e
t he "classical" set t ing f o r t he c r i m e ; t he b u s h a n d t he rock in t he b a c k g r o u n d
f o r m shapes parallel t o t he vict im w h o has b e e n laid low, w h i l e t h e act ive d i a g o n a l
o f t h e fleeing c r i m i n a l is r e i n f o r c e d by t he d a r k f o r m a t i o n o f rock b e h i n d h i m .
T h e allegorical figures, t oo, n o w i m p r e s s t he b e h o l d e r as b e i n g m o r e m o t i v a t e d :
as e m b o d i m e n t s o f s u p e r n a t u r a l powers, t he u p p e r r e g i o n , t h e t o p h a l f o f t he
pic t ure, b e l o n g s t o t h e m . E v e n t he b e h o l d e r w h o is n o t able t o g r a s p t h e m e a n i n g
o f t o r c h , s w o r d , a n d scales w o u l d u n d e r s t a n d t h e " n a tu r a l f o r m " o f t h e figura
t ive,
allegorical beings. T h e i r heavy a n d yet energet ic mass c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e ele­
m e n t s t hat are a r r a n g e d in a semicircle b e n e a t h t h e m ; it c o r r e s p o n d s t o t he z o n e

Deat h at Work: A Case St udy

of the victim. Where the curves diverge from each other, on the left, they leave
the perpetrator free—on ly temporarily, though, as Nemesis' clutchin g gesture
an d the resolute movemen t of Justitia make clear. T h e allegories, too, are part
of the cause-effect relation here; they are actin g figures. "At the heart of such
reason in g," explain s Rosalin d Krauss, writin g about the classicist man n er of
composition ,

is the notion of causality, of the connection between effects and their causes which depen d
for their very relatedn ess upon the passage of time. In the eighteen th an d n in eteen th
cen turies ambitious pain ters an d sculptors accepted without dispute the n otion that time
was the medium through which the logic of social and moral in stitution s revealed itself—
hen ce the exalted position they gave to history pain tin g as a gen re an d to historical
mon umen ts. History was understood to be a kind of n arrative, in volvin g the progression
of a set of sign ifican ces that mutually rein force an d explicate each other, an d that seem
driven as if by a divine mechanism toward a conclusion, toward the meaning of an event. 10

T h e depiction of subject matter of un iversally valid sign ifican ce in an un der­

standable way without the help of prior literary treatment of the subject matter—
there can be no doubt that the entire nineteenth century profited from what
painting accomplished around 1800. When motivational art, for which Proud-
hon's great composition shall here serve as a representative, has developed the
feeling for the dramatic or even merely scenic connection of a picture's elements
with each other to this degree, then only a new ordering of those elements, o f
almost negligible extent, is required in order to replace the last remaining "con­
ventional signs," the allegorical figures. Once that has been achieved, would the
immanent goal of bourgeois art then have been definitively attained—the "pic­
ture that explains itself," the visual language that "belongs to all ages and to all
nations," consisting o f "words" made of what is manifestly intelligible in every­
day life?
If one considers the quantitative shifts in the production of paintings during
the nineteenth century, this question must be answered in the affirmative. T h e
kinds of paintings most in demand—portraits, landscapes, and genre pictures—
doubtless strengthened the artists' claim that they were making comprehensible
pictures; they stabilized aesthetic communication by acknowledging the "dictates
of reality." T h e same question, however, would have to be answered with a "no"
if one were to give thought to the great difficulties that realist artists had with
their public." Reality—as has been said often enough—exists only as a concept
defined by common agreement, and realism is not, as has been asserted, the
attempt "to safeguard consciousness from doubt." But it would be a mistake to
distinguish overhastily here between an affirmative and a critical realism, between
run-of-the-mill mass production and complex creations. That the relations between
all levels of language are very intimate and productive may today be considered
j ust as much an established fact as that nineteenth-century painting often pre-

REPRESENTATIONS
s e r v e s critical capacities a n d b r i n g s t h e m i n t o play w h e r e o n e least e x p e c t s to find
t h e m . E v e n , a n d especially, a realism that was well received b y the p u b l i c d i d n o t
o n l y s u p p l y c o m p l e t e pictures that were clearly a n d i m m e d i a t e l y understandable,
d i d n o t o n l y rest o n t h e p r i o r a c h i e v e m e n t s o f classicist p a i n t i n g , b u t , i n a d d i t i o n ,
b r o a d e n e d a n d s t r a i n e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f its m e d i u m a n d t h e a b i l i t i e s o f its
1
recipients. "

II

I n t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n u s e w i l l b e m a d e o f a c o n c e p t t h a t is i n t r o ­
duce d, with some he sitancy, into the te rminology o f art history f r o m that of
l i te r a r y c r i t i c i s m . I n t h e w o r k s o f R o m a n I n g a r d e n a n d W o l f g a n g Ise r, re spe c­
t i v e l y , t h i s c o n c e p t is r e f e r r e d t o a s " p l a c e o f i n d e t e r m i n a c y " a n d " b l a n k " o r " g a p . "
In film ae s t he t i c s a r e l a t e d n o t i o n h a s h a d c u r r e n c y f o r s o m e y e a r s ; it is c a l l e d ,
in b o t h F r e n c h a n d E n g l i s h , "suture ," m e a n i n g "se am," t h e line o f j u n c t i o n b e t w e e n
the vie we r and the work;13 he re o n e c o u l d p e r h a p s also spe ak o f a tying o f the
vie we r into the w o r k . T h e s e t w o conce pts are n o t coe xte nsive in the ir m e a n i n g s ;
rathe r, the y c o m p l e m e n t o n e anothe r. T h e y do, howe ve r, share the fundame ntal
pre mise t h a t e v e r y w o r k o f a r t is l e f t i n c o m p l e t e , i n a p r e c i s e l y f o c u s e d manne r
b y its m a k e r , i n o r d e r t h a t it m i g h t b e b r o u g h t t o c o m p l e t i o n i n a n d t h r o u g h t h e
be holde r. In the formulation o f this p r e m i s e , the e mphasis is p l a c e d o n t he
p re c i se l y focuse d, programmatic, or constructive characte r o f the art work's
i n c o m p le te ne s s .
I n vie w o f the m a n y concre te a n d mate rially e ffe ctive aids to u n d e r s t a n d i n g
that the plastic a n d g r a p h i c arts o f f e r the be holde r, the que stion of what could
justify the a d o p t i o n o f such a the ore tical conce pt by the discipline s c o n ce r ne d
w i t h t h o s e arts a u t o m a t i c a l l y arise s. I n a c e r t a i n re spe ct, L e s s i n g a n t i c i p a t e d s u c h
a r e s e r v a t i o n i n h i s Laocoon w he n h e wrote : "Poe try shows us bodie s only from
one s i d e , o n l y in o n e a t t i t u d e , o n l y as r e g a r d s a s i n g l e p r o p e r t y , a n d l e a v e s e v e r y ­
t h i n g e lse about the se b o d i e s i n d e t e r m i n a t e . P a i n t i n g c a n n o t d o t h i s . I n it o n e
p a r t d r a w s t h e o t h e r afte r itse lf; o n e quality e ntails t h e othe r. P a i n t i n g m u s t m a k e
e v e r y t h i n g de finite ."14 A r e the re the n n o place s o f i n d e t e r m i n a c y in the plastic
a n d g r a p h i c arts? W h a t L e s s i n g m e a n s in this s h o r t passage is c l e a r : n o o n e will
re quire o f a l i t e r a r y t e x t t h a t it r e p r o d u c e its o b j e c t s i n t h e s a m e d e t a i l a s p a i n t i n g
a n d sculpture . D o e s Virgil de scribe the c o i f f u r e s o f L a o c o o n a n d his sons? D o e s
he c o n s i d e r it n e c e s s a r y t o m e n t i o n t h e n i p p l e s o f t h e i r b r e a s t s a n d t h e i r n a v e l s ?
N o — f o r the "natural signs" o f art p r o d u c e a more comple te picture , showing
m o re o f the p e r t i n e n t obje ct, t h a n d o e s lite rature 's "artificial" a n d se le ctive capac­
ity t o p r e s e n t .
A n d ye t the first s e n t e n c e o f the q u o t a t i o n f r o m Le ssing can also be applie d
t o p a i n t i n g . O n e c a n , a f t e r all, say: " P a i n t i n g s h o w s us b o d i e s o n l y f r o m o n e side ,

D e a t h at W o r k : A C a s e Study
only in one attitude, only as regards a single property, and leaves everything else
about these bodies indeterminate." One is then addressing the perspectival nature
of painting, which Lessing, too, includes in his media-based aesthetics as an
important category. In addition to other characteristics, the perspectival com­
position of painting also re sults in the withholding from the be holde r of many
aspe cts of the de picte d sce ne —information about the obje cts shown, for e xam­
ple , but also moments of the scene's te mporal dime nsion. For the system o f line ar
pe rspe ctive is a spacio-te mporal one —this fact, too, Le ssing e stablishe d with
clarity: in this conve ntion of painting, the unity of space and the unity of time
condition e ach othe r. As a re sult, "what pre ce de s and what follows," and many
aspe cts of the spatial continuum, re main inde te rminate , pote ntial blanks.
Le ssing himse lf, in his famous de finition of the "fruitful mome nt," put for­
ward the de mand that room must be le ft for the supple me nting activity of the
be holde r: "Now that only is fruitful which allows fre e play to the imagination.
T h e more we see the more we must be able to imagine; and the more we imagine ,
the more we must think we see."15 In Dide rot, another the ore tician of the picture 's
unity, of the picture as "machine ," Le ssing found support for his the sis: "Whe n
one paints, is it necessary to paint e ve rything? For pity's sake, leave something to
be supplied by my imagination." 16 T h u s e ve n in the classicist theory of art, which
calls for the comple te picture that is intelligible in and of itse lf, we find insights
into the relative indeterminacy e ve n of graphic art. We also find a first sugge stion
that blanks are not ne ce ssarily the enemy of the picture that is "intelligible in and
of itse lf" but inste ad are cle arly among the things re quire d for such a picture 's
actualization.
Now, it signifies little if a portrait withholds from us the rear view o f a pe rson,
if a landscape withholds from us the back side of a house . Ae sthe tic pe rce ption
doe s not diffe r from e ve ryday pe rce ption in this re gard. It is of no inte re st to us
how the road in Proudhon's picture continue s onward, or just whe re the light
come s from, and the re lie f-like e xe cution of the figure s make s the be holde r's
supplying of the ir re ar vie ws completely supe rfluous. Howe ve r, the fact that the
culprit has e ye s only for his victim, thinks only of his e scape , and doe s not se e
what is brewing above him is a functional blank that the viewer must fill in. Only
be cause he sees what the murde re r doe s not se e , and se e s that the latter doe s not
se e it, doe s the picture 's re cipie nt unde rstand "what happe ns ne xt," as we ll as
othe r things pe rtaining to the notions of justice, punishme nt, and viole nce be side s.
T h e work o f art make s a claim to coherence and inte ntionality; at the same time
it aims at achieving communication. T h e blanks contribute to effecting the coop­
e ration of the se de te rminations. Blanks cre ate "e sse ntial conditions for com­
munication," "for the y se t in motion the inte raction that take s place be twe e n te xt
and reader, and to a certain extent they also regulate it." As a means o f structuring
the process of reception the y the mse lve s cannot be "without structure ," e spe cially
in vie w of the fact that the ir "function is pe rforme d by way o f the formulate d

REPRESENTATIONS
d e t e r m i n a c i e s o f the text" (or p i c t u r e ) . 1 ' T h e i r p r i n c i p a l f u n c t i o n , like the aids
to r e c e p t i o n (i.e., what is d e t e r m i n a t e ) , is to link the c o m m u n i c a t i o n between the
picture a n d the b e h o l d e r with t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n within the picture. Iser dis­
cusses this most i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n o f blanks in t e r m s o f a " p o t e n t i a l c o n n e c t i o n . "
For texts, b u t easily also f o r pictures, b l a n k s " a r e the u n s e e n j o i n t s o f the text,
a n d as they m a r k o f f s c h e m a t a a n d textual perspectives f r o m o n e a n o t h e r , they
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y trigger acts o f i d e a t i o n o n the reader's part. C o n s e q u e n t l y , w h e n
t h e s c h e m a t a a n d perspectives have b e e n l i n k e d together, the b l a n k s 'disap­
pear.'" 1 8 T h e y can be c o n s i d e r e d an e l e m e n t a r y m a t r i x f o r the interaction o f text
a n d reader.
It m i g h t n o w s e e m as t h o u g h b l a n k s are t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t aids to the
f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e "law o f intelligibility," n o t obstacles, as was in fact to be e x p e c t e d .
Still, c o m m u n i c a t i o n is facilitated or i m p e d e d by f u n d a m e n t a l relationships between
determinate/indeterminate, closed/open, o v e r - / u n d e r d e t e r m i n e d elements in the
w o r k . T h e s e relationships can be so constituted that blanks p o s t p o n e o r i m p e d e
c o n n e c t i o n o f a picture's constitutive e l e m e n t s , m a k i n g p e r c e p t i o n o f the p i c t u r e
d i f f i c u l t o r d i s r u p t i n g it, e v e n m a k i n g the blanks themselves i n d e p e n d e n t a n d
d i s p l a y i n g their willfulness at the e x p e n s e o f the ideal o f p r o b l e m - f r e e c o m m u ­
nication. W e w o u l d d o well to e x a m i n e these c o m p l e x cases by m e a n s o f an
example.

Ill

T h e title o f the w o r k that I h a v e c h o s e n suffices to indicate its suit­

ableness f o r o u r u n d e r t a k i n g , f o r o f itself t h e title causes the b e h o l d e r difficulty.
The Death of Marshal Ney by L e o n G e r o m e was e x h i b i t e d originally, i n t h e S a l o n
o f 1868, with t h e title December 7, 1815, 9 o'clock in the Morning (fig. 3). 1 9 T h i s
a p p e l l a t i o n is at least as c h a l l e n g i n g as the p i c t u r e itself. Little is e x p r e s s e d clearly;
m u c h is o n l y i n t i m a t e d ; m o s t o f w h a t the p i c t u r e is a b o u t has to be guessed o r
must already be k n o w n . T h e picture calls f o r an experienced a n d receptive viewer;
the "law o f intelligibility" seems n o t to h o l d a n y m o r e f o r the picture's a u t h o r , o r
at least n o t to h a v e first priority f o r h i m . C o n t e m p o r a r y criticism was n o t reticent
a b o u t its d o u b t s r e g a r d i n g such u n c o n v e n t i o n a l historical p a i n t i n g .

J u s t i m a g i n e that a c e n t u r y h a s p a s s e d , a n d that The Death of Marshal Ney is h a n g i n g in

s o m e E u r o p e a n gallery. T h e n o n e will o n l y b e a b l e t o r e c o g n i z e , v e r y g e n e r a l l y , a n act o f
v i o l e n c e that has b e e n c o m m i t t e d a g a i n s t a civilian, in a d e s e r t e d s p o t , by a d e t a c h m e n t
o f m i l i t a r y w h i c h is n o w q u i t t i n g t h e site o f t h e h a p p e n i n g a n d c a s t i n g b a c k f u r t i v e g l a n c e s
as t h o u g h it felt itself c a u g h t . J u s t like t h o s e p a i n t e r s w h o c l i n g o n l y t o t h e letters o f t h e
historical e v e n t , M o n s i e u r G e r o m e , t o o , r u n s t h e d a n g e r that in t h e f u t u r e h e will n o t b e
a p p r e c i a t e d a n d u n d e r s t o o d . H i s u n d e c i d e d p a r t i s a n s h i p is a l o n e e n o u g h t o p r e v e n t t h e
a l e r t interest w h i c h a w a k e n s to life all i m p o r t a n t d o c u m e n t s o f h i s t o r y , f r o m a t t a c h i n g
itself t o his p i c t u r e s , w h i c h a r e u n d e n i a b l y e x e c u t e d w i t h v e r y g r e a t d e l i b e r a t i o n . M o n s i e u r
V i b e r t is, in c o m p a r i s o n , m u c h m o r e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e . 2 0

D e a t h at W o r k : A C a s e S t u d y
 T h a t is what the o t h e r w i s e o p e n - m i n d e d J u l e s G r a n g e d o r wrote, a s uccinct b u t
dens ely s ignificant o p i n i o n to w h i c h we s hall have to r e t u r n in the cours e o f the
f o l l o w i n g dis cus s ion. T h e j u d g m e n t o f G e r m a n art criticis m was m o r e global,
but in its t e n d e n c y it c o n f o r m e d to that o f the F r e n c h critics : " O n e c a n n o t s peak
o f dignity a n d s elf-res pect in an art that pres ents s uch objects in s uch a m a n n e r .
For a d r u n k lying in the gutter the h u m o r w o u l d be lacking; f o r a N e y t h e r e
w o u l d be lacking o n l y — e v e r y t h i n g . . . . W h o has the right to take as his s ubject
h u m a n n a t u r e in its mos t s h a m e f u l h u m i l i a t i o n , in o r d e r to us e it as an o p p o r ­
tunity to s h o w that h e can a d m i r a b l y paint m a r k s le ft by bulle ts in a plaste re d
wall." 21
T h e G e r m a n critic is hitting h o m e at a ce ntral f e a t u r e o f the painting. A f t e r
the passage o f m o r e t h a n a ce ntury, what we first take notice o f in this picture
h a n g i n g in a E u r o p e a n galle ry, the G r a v e s A r t G a l l e r y in S h e f f i e l d , g u i d e d by
its pe rspe ctive a n d the lighting, a n d by the s c h o o l i n g we have re ce ive d f r o m
m o d e r n p a i n t i n g , is the s u r f a c e o f a wall, a bare , b e s m e a r e d stone wall c o v e r e d
with scratche s, f r o m w h i c h t h e plaste r is f l a k i n g away, the stre e t side o f a l o n g ,
low b u i l d i n g that r a p i d l y re ce de s a n d tape rs pe rspe ctivally t o w a r d the le ft. T h i s
wall face can be c o n s i d e r e d a large f r a g m e n t o f p u r e p a i n t i n g , such as we find
n o t s e l d o m a m o n g the w o r k s o f the most p a i n s t a k i n g re alists o f the p e r i o d afte r
1850. Ye t we c a n n o t dwe ll u p o n it f o r any le ngth o f time , f o r h e r e we e n c o u n t e r
a b l a n k that f u n c t i o n s as a "joint." O u r re gard slide s f r o m the wall i n t o the
picture 's d e p t h , o r d o w n to the prostrate de ad man, and from him onward,
f o l l o w i n g the line o f t h e b u i l d i n g a n d the tracks o f w a g o n whe e ls in the road,
i n t o the pe rspe ctival d e p t h o f the composition, whe re a squad o f u n i f o r m e d
soldie rs is le aving the sce ne o f t h e action a n d t h e picture .
O u r r e g a r d is n o t , howe ve r, p u l l e d o n into the picture 's d e p t h a n d lost the re .
I n s t e a d , it is halte d a n d re dire cte d by the figure o f the b a c k w a r d - l o o k i n g m a n
clothe d in black, p r e s u m a b l y the a d j u t a n t in c o m m a n d o f the e xe cution. His
glanc e re quire s that it be i n t e r p r e t e d ge ne rally as a " l o o k i n g back"; it is n o t
dire cte d ve ry pre cise ly, a n d so r e t u r n s us to the wall o r to the d e a d m a n , r e g a r d ­
le ss o f w h e t h e r we first f o l l o w e d the wall or w h e t h e r we c o n s i d e r e d the d e a d m a n
afte r l o o k i n g at the wall a n d t h e n we nt o n into the d e p t h o f the c o m p o s i t i o n .
T h u s we find, afte r o u r first c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f the p a i n t i n g , a c o m p o s i t i o n a l
s c h e m a consisting o f t h r e e e l e m e n t s p r e s e n t e d as ide al type s: a b l a n k ; a partici­
p a n t in the action, m o r e accurate ly an obje ct o f t h e action; a n d a n e l e m e n t
h e l p i n g to cre ate t h e picture 's pe rspe ctive , m o r e e xactly a figure that he lps to
cre ate the pe rspe ctive a n d that is the re pre se ntative o f a g r o u p o f participants
in the action.

FIGURE 3 (opposite). Le o n G e r o m e , The Death of Marshal Ney,

1868. O i l o n canvas. G r a v e s A r t Galle ry, S h e f f i e l d ,
England. Photo: Muse um.

110 REPRESENTATIONS
 When we ex amine this last figure more closely, we ascertain that it is larger
than the picture's perspectival construction, which can be verified with relative
ex actness, allows. Further, attention needs to be paid to the figure's direction of
movement. In contrast to the soldiers, who are marching precisely parallel to the
house wall and follow the stretch of road, the black-garbed man is executing a
movement that will, upon its completion, bring him into the wake of the marching
detachment; he is still coming from a direction in which the corpse also channels
the viewer's attention. Just what the significance of this direction is can be sur­
mised: the executed man stood in front of the light-colored section of the wall
to the right; the firing sq uad stood facing him, outside of the picture. Following
the execution, after the victim had fallen forward away from the wall, toward
the squad of soldiers, the squad, in perfect order, had swung back onto the road.
T h u s the black-clothed man unites in himself a number of functions. He is a
constituent of the perspective in an intradeictic sense; his look and the twist of
his body stop the movement of our attention into the picture's depths and direct
it back. He is a participant in the action; his role is not all that easy to establish,
but the conclusion that he is concerned in a causal fashion with the result to be
seen in the picture's foreground forces itself upon the viewer—the meaning that

stK

Death at Work: A Case Study

has c o m e to be attached to the m o t i f w o u l d be su fficient to e n s u r e that this
h a p p e n s . R e c a l l P r o u d h o n ' s p a i n t i n g : t h e c u l p r i t is l o o k i n g b a c k o n e m o r e time
o n his victim, o n the scene o f the o c c u r r e n c e . I n G e r o m e ' s pictu re, the m o v e m e n t
o f t h e b l a c k - c l o t h e d m a n b r i n g s i n t o t h e p i c t u r e a p a r t o f t h e hors du champ, a
p a r t o f t h e s p a c e i n f r o n t o f t h e p i c t u r e . T h a t t h i s m a n , i n v e s t e d a s h e is w i t h
several f u n c t i o n s , s h o u l d b e c o m e larger t h a n his location w i t h i n the p i c tu r e ' s
p e r s p e c t i v a l s y s t e m p e r m i t s s e e m s o n l y n a t u r a l , a n d is, i f o n e c o n s i d e r s other
w o r k s b y R e a l i s t s a n d I m p r e s s i o n i s t s — i t is n o t h i n g e x t r a o r d i n a r y f o r t h i s p e r i o d .
H e n c e t h e r e a r w a r d - l o o k i n g m a n is a q u i t e i n t e g r a l e l e m e n t o f G e r o m e ' s com­
p o s i t i o n , a n e l e m e n t t h a t is m o t i v a t e d i n s e v e r a l r e s p e c t s : h e is a n a i d t o th e
reception o f th e picture th at h as taken th e f o r m o f a person; h e c o n f i r m s and
h elps us to grasp th e significance o f two large b l a n k s — t h e wall a n d th e space in
front o f th e picture.
L e t us n o w t u r n to th e q u e s t i o n — b o t h o f th e space with in th e picture and
o f th e space in f r o n t o f th e picture. A f u n d a m e n t a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n G e r o m e ' s
w o r k a n d t h e c l a s s i c i s t c o n c e p t i o n o f P r o u d h o n is t h e c o n s e q u e n t a n d m e a n i n g f u l
linking togeth er o f th e two spaces in th e former. T h e diagonal position o f th e
scene, th e e x t e n s i o n o f th e wall b e y o n d th e picture's b o u n d a r y o n th e righ t, th e
vectors th at th e b a c k w a r d - l o o k i n g m a n a n d th e d e a d m a n b o t h direct into th e
space b e f o r e th e w a l l — a l l o f th ese establish a c o n t i n u u m th at situates th e viewer
a n d is a l s o i d e n t i f i e d a s a p a r t o f t h e s p a c e i n w h i c h th e action took place. In
P r o u dh o n ' s painting, th e space in f r o n t o f th e p a i n t i n g h as n o relevance to th e
scene in th e picture. F r o m th at space c o m e n o decisive o r a d d i t i o n a l impulsions
t o t h e a c t i o n . I n d e e d , a s f a r a s t h i s f r o n t w a r d o p e n i n g is c o n c e r n e d , Proudh on's
p a i n t i n g r e a f f i r m s — i n M i c h a e l Fried's w o r d s — t h e " h i g h e s t fiction" o f classicist
p a i n t i n g , i n w h i c h e v e n t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e b e h o l d e r a t t h e d e p i c t e d s c e n e is o u t
o f th e question.22 T h e isolated crime, a n d along with it t h e p i c t u r e , l o s e s its
m e a n i n g i f a n o b s e r v e r is p r e s e n t a s c l o s e a t h a n d a s t h e p i c t u r e m a k e s p o s s i b l e .
So P r o u d h o n integrates th e function o f th e beh older, th e all-seeing eye o f Justice,
i n t o t h e p i c t u r e , a n d p e r s o n a l i z e s it i n t h e t w o a l l e g o r i c a l figures. His picture
p r e t e n d s to b e c o m p l e t e in itself.
G e r o m e ' s p i c t u r e is a d i f f e r e n t m a t t e r . I n it t h e n o n v i s i b l e a r e a i n f r o n t of
th e d e p i c t e d scene h as t h e task o f s u p p l y i n g space f o r b o t h th e picture's action
a n d its v i e w i n g . O n e c a n s p e a k h e r e o f n a r r a t i v e s p a c e , a l s o , a n d e s p e c i a l l y , w i t h
r e g a r d t o t h e hors du champ.23 For wh at h a p p e n e d in th e t e m p o r a l ph ase preced­
i n g t h e d e p i c t e d m o m e n t , w h a t is n o l o n g e r v i s i b l e b u t is n o n e t h e l e s s o f c r u c i a l
i m p o r t a n c e for th e action o f th e p i c t u r e — n a m e l y , th e firing squad, th e sh ots,
t h e e x e c u t i o n o f state p o w e r — a l l r e m a i n s situated in t h e a r e a b e f o r e t h e p i c t u r e ,
in t h e b l a n k , invisible a n d yet p r e s e n t b o t h i n its t r a c e s i n t h e p i c t u r e d e s c r i b e d
a b o v e a n d as p i c t u r e . S p a c e a n d t i m e , t h e a r e a b e f o r e t h e p i c t u r e a n d t h e a r e a
s h o w n in th e picture, th e b e h o l d e r a n d th e d e p i c t e d scene, b l a n k a n d intelligible
f a c t s a r e i n t e r c o n n e c t e d i n t h e m o s t i n t i m a t e w a y . T h e o n e e l e m e n t is i n c o m p l e t e

REPRESENTATIONS
without the other, and their relationship w ith one another is governed by the
law of distance, w hich has very little to do w ith the "law of intelligibility" but a
great deal to do w ith the law of tension.
This is made evident by the treatment of space within the picture. Proudhon's
w ork is in accordance w ith Lessing's pronouncement that "the proper subject of
painting" consists in the depiction of "things whose parts lie side by side"—surely
this is the way that the "fitting relationship" betw een medium and subject matter
that Lessing sought to determine for every art form is to be understood. 24 T h e
perpetrator of the crime still stands in immediate physical contact with his victim.
T h e knife in his clenched fist is still pointed in the direction, indeed appears still
to have the energy, of the fatal thrust—and above the scene already hover men­
acingly the goddesses of vengeance. T h e occurrence is so punctually condensed
that one can hardly speak of a narrative space: a place is presented that in its
symbolic expressivity gives support to the action but does not become the medium
of narration. T h e distance of the elements participating in the action from each
other, and of these from the beholder, remains always the same; perspectival
depth, spatial distance as a means of recounting an action are unknown to Proud-
hon, while in Gerome's painting we encounter them as essential devices of pic­
torial narration.
T h e movement of the squad of soldiers and the direction of its movement
constitute the first, unproblematic narrative moment of Gerome's picture. They
establish a narrative direction: the group is quitting the site of the occurrence.
More important and more critical is the distance between the soldiers and the
dead civilian in the foreground, a distance that is expressed in the relative size
of the figures and in the differential precision with which they are rendered, as
well as in the empty stretch of road. A distance that has been traversed can be
translated into time—no problem with that. Still there is the question: how much
time and distance is admissible if one wants to maintain a causal relationship
between two bodies that are drawing apart from each other? Gerome is clearly
work ing on this problem; however, he does not arrive at a "fitting relationship"
among the elements of his composition. Rather, Gerome puts such a heavy strain
on the temporal and spatial extension of the participants in the depicted action
that there can be no question either of "unity of the whole" or of the "concurrence
of all parts for the attainment of a final purpose"—accepting Lessing's definition
of "final purpose" as the clearly intelligible and consequent unfolding of an
action. Once again a blank emerges, the third in this picture after the wall and
the area in front of the picture. A n d once again what remains unoccupied has
at least as much expressive power as the inanimate objects and human bodies.
When Gerome extends this distance very far, then the strained, "unfitting"
relationship, the tendential discontinuity, becomes an object of the beholder's
attention, a bearer of the action shown in the picture and a means of expression.
Space, the scene, appear as actors in the picture; this is the highest, most active

Death at Work: A Case Study

form of narrative space (compare, purely quantitatively, how much of the paint­
ing's surface is given to the figures and how muc h to the setting in the works of
Proudhon and Gerome). Space, significant distance communicate something that
the "machine" of the historical picture constructed with logical consistency c learly
refuses to c onvey, and that is probably an experienc e spec ific to the era
in question: the forc e of c irc umstanc es, of external fatality; the tendenc y to
disjointedness, to lac k of resolution, to profound fortuitousness. T h e emptiness
surrounding the dead hero, the ostentatious desolation of this emptiness, also
c alls for a reading as an historic al fac t: ac c ording to the law regarding "normal"
exec utions in effec t at that time, the dead person had to remain lying for fifteen
minutes at the site where the sentenc e had been c arried out before he c ould be
removed. T h e applic ation of this law to a marshal and a peer of Franc e had to
be understood as a dishonor, as much so as the c ommonness of the plac e where
the famous man was gotten rid of.
Realist painting was prepared to take the reality of these c irc umstanc es into
ac c ount, even to let them exerc ise a guiding influenc e. It then c ould not prevent,
and in all likelihood did not want to prevent, the objec t of historic al painting
from surreptitiously c hanging: in the plac e of history, happening; instead of
manifest intelligibility, c ontingenc y; instead of sense, sensory data; instead of
c omprehension on the part of the beholder, suspense. Suc h were—expressed
epigrammatic ally—the new options.
While Proudhon devotes half of his pic ture—using the c riterion of mere
quantity—to what prec eded the depic ted sc ene, the murder, and the other half
to the future, the vengeance for the crime, the past's portion in Gerome's pic ture
goes c ounter to the whole; the painting of the "fruitful moment" gives way to a
painting of the ac c omplished event. T h e c onsc ious retreat from the idealist c on­
struc tion of history and of the pic ture does not just result in a changed attitude
toward reality and to "Sc hool Mistress History" but also, of c ourse, affec ts the
artist's c onc eption of his role, his responsibility to the public . A displac ement o f
ac tivities takes plac e—the artist is no longer the fabric ator of solid data and
relations; instead he arranges spac es and surfac es, whic h are open to the pro­
jec tive ac tivity of the beholder. T h e old notion that art should "stimulate ideas
in the beholder, but not demand them" proves brilliantly its applicability to the
fragmented c onstruc tions of Realism. "It is the last, the making of demands on
the beholder, that c onfronts us so maladroitly and c lumsily in the more rec ent
art, and must, by degrees, disgust us," complained a critic in 1844, looking bac k
on the painting of the first half of the century. 25 But the pic tures that no longer
make demands are nevertheless c onstruc tions like their predec essors. What has
not c hanged is the fundamental c ondition o f their existenc e: the fac t that they
must gain ac c eptanc e from a large, undefined public , in the salon, the art exhi­
bition, and the marketplac e. T h e forms of guidanc e of the rec eption of art, to

REPRESENTATIONS
p u t it e l e g a n t l y , a r e e f f e c t i v e i n v a r y i n g d e g r e e s , b u t t h e y r e m a i n f o r m s o f g u i d ­
a n c e o f the r e c e p t i o n o f art.
B l a n k s are structured, a n d they can f u n c t i o n o n several levels.26 T h e emp­
tiness a r o u n d the d e a d h e r o in c o m b i n a t i o n with the d e p a r t i n g soldiers expresses
o n the actional level a p o i n t o f t i m e in the s e q u e n c e o f events that can b e d e t e r ­
m i n e d with relative exactness. B u t this distance also n e e d s to b e understood
s y mb o l i c a l l y — a s t h e s o l i t u d e o f d e a t h , a s d i s h o n o r i n g i n d i f f e r e n c e . T h e capac­
ity o f t h e b l a n k f o r i n v e s t m e n t w i t h m u l t i p l e m e a n i n g s b e c o m e s m o s t clear w h e n
we t u r n o u r attention b ack to the wall, w h i c h first a t t r a c t e d it. T h e r e , where
a p p a r e n t l y t h e r e is n o t h i n g , e v e r y t h i n g is i n f a c t i n s c r i b e d : h i s t o r y , h i s t o r y a s
painting, a n d the history o f painting. B e g i n n i n g f r o m the e m p t y wall we gained
a c c e s s t o t h e p i c t u r e , a n d w e n o w r e t u r n t o it; t h e " j o i n t " o b v i o u s l y h a s s o m e t h i n g
t o say. I n t h e l a s t m o m e n t s o f h i s l i f e , N e y c o n c e a l e d t h e f a c e o f t h e w a l l . The
b l a n k o f t h e w a l l is t h e b l a n k l e f t b y N e y . T h e b u l l e t s t h a t m i s s e d h i m s c o r e d t h e
w a l l ; t h e l i g h t lies o n t h e s c a r r e d s u r f a c e like t h e d e a d m a n ' s a u r a . T h i s b l a n k c a n
b e r e g a r d e d as t h e i n t r a p i c t o r i a l c o u n t e r p a r t o f t h e a r e a i n f r o n t o f t h e p i c t u r e :
t h e a c t i o n that b e g a n t h e r e w a s left as a p r e c i p i t a t e o n t h e wall, as t h e m a r k s o f
t h e b u l l e t s a n d a s e m p t i n e s s . T h u s , G e r o m e m a d e p e r h a p s t h e first, i n a n y c a s e
t h e m o s t r e m a r k a b l e , a t t e m p t to r e d u c e in a picture history, o r m e r e o c c u r r e n c e ,
w h i c h p r e s e n t s i t s e l f realiter in the f o u r d i m e n s i o n s o f space a n d time, radically
t o a s u r f a c e . T h e f a c t t h a t i n h i s p i c t u r e t h e s u r f a c e i n q u e s t i o n is c r o p p e d on
t w o s i d e s i n s u c h a w a y t h a t it l o s e s its p e r s p e c t i v a l a l i g n m e n t a n d a s s u m e s a
p o s i t i o n t h a t is p a r a l l e l t o t h e p i c t u r e a n d t e n d e n t i a l l y w i t h o u t d i s t a n c e i n the
c o m p o s i t i o n indicates a p r o d u c t i v e relation b e t w e e n t h e b l a n k , w h i c h itself b e c o m e s
a focus o f the b eholder's attention, a n d p u r e painting. W h e n the level o f the
o c c u r r e n c e is p e e l e d b a c k , a s is d o n e h e r e , t h e n p a i n t i n g ' s field o f a c t i o n p r e s e n t s
itself to view.
W i t h this w h a t was i n d e t e r m i n a t e s h o u l d , strictly s p e a k i n g , b e sufficiently
d e t e r m i n e d . B u t G e r o m e g o e s e v e n f u r t h e r . H e a d d s t o t h e wall's a l r e a d y l a r g e
repertoire o f signs the highly d e t e r m i n e d c o d e o f written language. H a l f w a y u p
the wall, vertically o v e r the corpse, are written the b l u r r e d w o r d s " V I V E L'EM-
P E R E U R , " w h i c h s o m e o n e has crossed o u t with d i a g o n a l strokes. T o the right o f
this inscription the s a m e text b e g i n s again. B u t o n l y t h e w o r d " V I V E " has b e e n
c o m p l e t e d , a n d its l a s t l e t t e r s a r e i n d i s t i n c t . T h e r e s t is m i s s i n g e n t i r e l y , this
t i m e — o n e might b elieve—dissolved in the auratic light, erased b y the hail of
b u l l e t s . T h a t is a n a r t i f i c e o f t h e p a i n t e r , w h i c h a c k n o w l e d g e s t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s
w a l l o f t h e A v e n u e d e l ' O b s e r v a t o i r e w i t h its s i x p o c k m a r k s f r o m t h e firing squad's
b ullets was soon piously " r e a d " b y m a n y a n d inscrib ed further, with a n t i - B o u r b o n
s l o g a n s t h a t m a d e it n e c e s s a r y t o p l a s t e r o v e r t h e f a c e o f t h e w a l l a n d t o p a i n t it
r e p e a t e d l y — " b u t t h e f a i t h f u l d i d n o t let t h e m s e l v e s b e d i s c o u r a g e d . " 2 7 T h i s " s u r ­
f a c e " v e r s i o n o f h i s t o r i o g r a p h y m i g h t h a v e s e r v e d as a m o d e l f o r G e r o m e , i n d e e d

D e a t h at W o r k : A C a s e S t u d y
m i g h t have exercised a c o m p e l l i n g influence o n h i m . Nonetheless, with this o v e r -
c o d i n g in his picture G e r o m e has, in o u r o p i n i o n , g i v e n his a u d i e n c e t o o much
o f a g o o d t h i n g . M a n e t , w h o w a s o c c u p i e d , a s is w e l l k n o w n , w i t h t o p i c s s i m i l a r
to those o f G e r o m e , w o u l d n e v e r have i n c l u d e d in the picture such auxiliary
i n f o r m a t i o n . G e r o m e is a n a r t i s t w h o t a k e s i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n h i s a u d i e n c e ' s r e a c ­
tions, a n d w h o counters habitual expectations o n the part o f the b e h o l d e r with
well-aimed shocks a n d carefully calculated d iscontinuities. H e puts a great strain
o n b o t h the m e a n s h e e m p l o y s a n d his public, b u t n o t b e y o n d the limits o f w h a t
t h e y c a n b e a r . 2 8 T h e v i e w e r w h o s u c c e s s f u l l y e n d u r e s t h e p i c t u r e ' s t e n s i o n s is a l s o
r e w a r d e d for his pains.

IV

It s h o u l d b e clear by n o w that within o n l y a few d e c a d e s F r e n c h art

b r o u g h t f o r t h at least t w o f u n d a m e n t a l l y d i f f e r e n t m o d e l s o f historical paint­
ing.29 B y way o f c o m p a r i s o n , the f o r m s in literary history that c o r r e s p o n d to
t h e s e t w o m o d e l s a r e t h e roman a these a n d the serial story: " I n t h e roman a
these . . . t h e p u r p o s e is d i d a c t i c o r p r o p a g a n d i s t , a n d s o t h e c o n n e c t a b i l i t y o f t h e
t e x t u a l s c h e m a t a is c a r e f u l l y r e g u l a t e d . T h e n u m b e r o f b l a n k s is r e d u c e d , and
s o t o o is t h e a c t i v i t y o f i d e a t i o n g r a n t e d t o t h e r e a d e r . 3 0 T h e r e a d e r is p e r m i t t e d
o n l y the latitud e necessary to give h i m the illusion that his o w n u nd e r s t a nd i n g
has l e d h i m to a d o p t t o w a r d t h e state o f a f f a i r s r e g u l a t e d b y t h e text t h e a t t i t u d e
that in fact was e x p e c t e d o f h i m . I n contrast, the serial story, o r s p e a k i n g more
g e n e r a l l y t h e s u s p e n s e f u l , realistic n a r r a t i v e o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , relies o n
accumulation and variation o f blanks, o n cutting techniques, parallel plots, arti­
ficially l i m i t e d p e r s p e c t i v e s , a n d so o n . T h e r e a d e r o f s u c h f i c t i o n "is f a c e d with
a w h o l e n e t w o r k o f possibilities, a n d thus himself begins to formulate missing
links. T h e t e m p o r a r y w i t h h o l d i n g o f i n f o r m a t i o n acts as a s t i m u l u s , a n d t h i s is
f u r t h e r intensified by d etails suggestive o f possible solutions. T h e b l a n k s make
t h e r e a d e r h i m s e l f b r i n g t h e s t o r y to life."31 T h e e x t e n s i v e a n d e f f e c t i v e utilization
o f blanks by nineteenth-century realism can reach a point w h e r e these acquire
an autonomy and can thus lead over into m o d e r n i s t art, w h i c h interrupts or
misd irects c o m m u n i c a t i o n b o t h w i t h i n a n d with the work, which "not only pre­
v e n t s c o n n e c t a b i l i t y w i t h i n t h e t e x t b u t a l s o m a k e s it i m p o s s i b l e f o r t h e t e x t t o b e
connected u p t o t h e r e a d e r ' s s t o r e o f e x p e r i e n c e . " 3 2 T h e g o v e r n i n g p r i n c i p l e is
t h e n the law o f r u p t u r e , w h i c h succeed s the laws o f intelligibility a n d suspense.
G e r o m e d o e s n o t , a s w e h a v e s a i d , g o t o t h i s e x t r e m e , b u t it is u n q u e s t i o n a b l e
t h a t h e is f e e l i n g h i s w a y u p t o t h e v e r y b o r d e r s o f t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y .
T h e system o f historical painting practiced b y G e r o m e is f o u n d e d on the
m a k i n g o f m u c h greater d e m a n d s o n the b e h o l d e r ' s activities t h a n a r e m a d e in
P r o u d h o n ' s art. Let us c o n c l u d e , t h e n , b y s p e a k i n g o f the b e h o l d e r , w h o has to

REPRESENTATIONS
a c c o m p l i s h a l l o f t h i s : b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r w h a t is u n c o n n e c t e d ; e n d u r i n g t h e t e n ­
sions; d e t e r m i n i n g w h a t is i n d e t e r m i n a t e . W e h a v e s e e n t h a t t h e s p a c e o f the
b e h o l d e r f o r m s a c o n t i n u u m w i t h t h e s p a c e o f t h e p i c t u r e , a n d t h a t t h i s s p a c e is
a l s o i n c l u d e d as p a r t o f t h e p i c t u r e ' s l e v e l o f a c t i o n i n t h e f o r m o f a l a r g e b l a n k ,
o f a space in f r o n t o f the picture a n d o f a phase o f time prior to the depicted
s c e n e . T h e b e h o l d e r is, h o w e v e r , i n s c r i b e d i n t h i s s p a c e a s a r e l a t i v e l y fixed ele­
m e n t : his position can b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d . F o r m a l l y a n d g eometrically, the result
is n o t h i n g s p e c t a c u l a r . T h e r e is n o e c c e n t r i c s t a n d p o i n t f o r t h e v i e w e r , n o e x t r e m e
p e r s p e c t i v e s u c h a s t h e p a i n t i n g o f t h i s p e r i o d l i k e s t o u s e t o i m p r e s s its p u b l i c .
A t t h e m i d d l e o f t h e p i c t u r e ' s h e i g h t a n d o n e t h i r d o f its l e n g t h f r o m t h e p i c t u r e ' s
r i g h t e d g e , w e c a n l o c a t e t h e p o i n t at w h i c h t h e viewer's r e g a r d e n t e r s t h e p i c t u r e .
T h e p o s i t i o n o f t h i s p o i n t is a n o r m a l o n e a n d , g i v e n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f G e r o m e ' s
p i c t u r e , is w e l l c h o s e n , a s t h e e y e , b e g i n n i n g a t t h i s p o i n t , m u s t first m o v e a s m a l l
distance to the rig ht, to the painting 's lig htest patch, to the blank, thus making
first a c o u n t e r m o v e m e n t b e f o r e it f o l l o w s t h e s t r o n g pull to the left, into the
composition's perspectival depth.
T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e b e h o l d e r ' s s t a n d p o i n t is n o t a r e s u l t o f g e o m e t r y b u t
r a t h e r o f h i s p o s i t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e o c c u r r e n c e (nota bene, r e l a t i v e t o , n o t w i t h i n
the occurrence). T h e b e h o l d e r does not stand in a p r o l o n g a t i o n o f o n e o f the
t w o a x e s o f t h e a c t i o n , n o r is h e a l i g n e d w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n d e f i n e d b y t h e s o l d i e r s
or the direction d e t e r m i n e d by their victim. In the space in front o f the picture
the soldiers f o r m e d a n axis with N e y m a d e u p o f two antag onistic vectors; in the
p i c t u r e t h e y s t a n d i n a r i g h t - a n g l e d r e l a t i o n t o e a c h o t h e r . T h u s t h e y still r e m a i n
antag onistic p a r t n e r s , a n d in each case the viewer r e m a i n s " o u t s i d e a n d in f r o n t
o f " their relation, unaffected by what transpired between them. His oblique
position relative to the scene m a k e s h i m the eyewitness o f a n e v e n t w h o s e reality
is p r e s u p p o s e d . T h i s e x p r e s s e s c l e a r l y t h e g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n Gerome's
a n d Proudhon's pictures that was briefly m e n t i o n e d earlier.
I n the case o f P r o u d h o n ' s picture, the beholder's p o i n t o f view, in t e r m s of
the depicted o c c u r r e n c e , in n o way c o r r e s p o n d s to the log ic o f the event. N o o n e
was able to stand there in the presence o f the crime. I n a c c o r d a n c e with the
g e n e r a l artistic practice o f the p e r i o d , a n ideal viewer, a p r e s u p p o s i t i o n l e s s r e c e p ­
t i v i t y is a s s u m e d , a n d t h i s is a n t i c i p a t e d b y t h e a r t i s t h i m s e l f i n t h e p i c t u r e . The
u n r e s t r i c t e d , s o t o s p e a k a b s o l u t e v i s i b i l i t y o f t h e e v e n t is r e c e p t i o n aesthetics'
way of rendering the "thesis" o f this picture, n a m e l y that n o t h i n g escapes the
a l e r t n e s s o f t h e g o d s a n d t h e s t a t e , a n d t h a t e v e r y c r i m e is p u n i s h e d . Recent
studies in cultural history h a v e p o i n t e d o u t the p r o g r a m m a t i c a l l y p u b l i c nature
a n d theatrical stag ing of judicial punishments during the Revolutionary era:
" P u n i s h m e n t s o u g h t t o b e c o n s i d e r e d (1) n o t w i t h r e g a r d to t h e g uilty, b u t (2)
w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e interests o f society; n o w , t h e interests o f society lie in setting
a g reat example. T h e spectator must return h o m e filled with terror. I d o not
believe that b e h e a d i n g as a f o r m of execution is p h y s i c a l l y h a r s h e r t h a n the

D e a t h at W o r k : A C a s e S t u d y
g a l l o w s ; b u t it h a s t h e a d v a n t a g e , f o r society, o f b e i n g more frightening."
A c c o r d i n g to an i n f o r m e d c o m m e n t a t o r o n the p r e c e d i n g reflections, " O n e c o u l d
h a r d l y express m o r e clearly a n d forcefully that r e v o l u t i o n a r y justice was inscribed
in a system o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n , rather than a system o f values, a n d that the spec­
tacle d e a t h o f f e r e d t h e s p e c t a t o r was a m e s s a g e t h e e x c h a n g e o f w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e d
t h e law."34
T h i s c e r t a i n t y is t h e s t u f f o f w h i c h P r o u d h o n m a d e h i s p i c t u r e . T h e painting
is i n t e r n a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h g r e a t a s s u r a n c e , a n d it is e q u a l l y c o n f i d e n t o f its
e f f e c t o n t h e b e h o l d e r . W i t h G e r o m e ' s p i c t u r e , t h e v i e w e r is p l a c e d i n p o s i t i o n t o
g r a s p t h e " p r e - p i c t o r i a l " e v e n t , w h i c h is n o l o n g e r i n t e n d e d a s a m o n i t o r y exam­
p l e . H i s p o s i t i o n is t h a t o f t h e e y e w i t n e s s , n o t t h a t o f t h e o n e a f f e c t e d b y the
d e p i c t e d a c t i o n o r that o f t h e actor. T h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e v i e w e r w i t h a figure
i n t h e p i c t u r e , o r a j u d g m e n t o n t h e a c t i o n , is n o t " a s k e d " o f h i m o r prescribed
f o r h i m , as is d o n e b y P r o u d h o n ' s p i c t u r e . I n t h i s r e g a r d , t h e r e f o r e , t h e c r i t i c o f
the Salon was correct w h e n he spoke o f Gerome's " u n d e c i d e d partisanship." T h e
b e h o l d e r s t a n d s o n t h e " d e a d g r o u n d " b e t w e e n t h e p a r t i e s t o t h e e v e n t ; it is j u s t
this fact that gives h i m t h e f r e e d o m to e n t e r into t h e c o m p l i c a t e d g a m e o f " s h o w ­
i n g b u t n o t telling" that awaits h i m in the picture. T h e p i c t u r e was p a i n t e d in a n
e r a t h a t n o l o n g e r p r a c t i c e d p u b l i c l y t h e "spectacle o f d e a t h , " o n e t h a t h a d lost
t h e firm b e l i e f i n t h e e f f e c t o n t h e p u b l i c o f t h e "mis a mort" a n d w i t h it b e l i e f i n
t h e s p e c t a t o r ' s u n e q u i v o c a l r e a c t i o n . I t is n o a c c i d e n t t h a t t h i s p i c t u r e s h o w s a n
e x e c u t i o n t h a t w a s c a r r i e d o u t p u b l i c l y , i n k e e p i n g w i t h t h e law, b u t t h a t was
d e c r e e d by those w h o f e a r e d the public's reaction a n d was f o r that r e a s o n per­
f o r m e d at a n u n a n n o u n c e d time and in a n u n a c c u s t o m e d place. Proudhon's
v i e w e r is a n i n t e r e s t e d p a r t y a n d a l s o sits i n j u d g m e n t ; h e r e p r e s e n t s t h e f u n c t i o n
o f t h e p u b l i c b y t h e v e r y fact o f b e i n g p r e s e n t ( w i t h o u t b e i n g p r e s e n t as an
i n d i v i d u a l ) . I n c o n t r a s t , G e r o m e ' s b e h o l d e r i m p r e s s e s u s a s s o m e o n e w h o is a s
isolated a n d t h r o w n e n t i r e l y u p o n his o w n r e s o u r c e s as w h a t c o n f r o n t s h i m in
t h e p i c t u r e . H e is s o m e o n e w h o c o m e s u p o n t h e s c e n e a l m o s t b y a c c i d e n t and
m u s t first m a k e s e n s e o f w h a t h e s e e s .
T h e r e a l i s m t h a t w e t r e a t e d first a n d t h e n e u t r a l i t y o f t h e b e h o l d e r ' s stand­
p o i n t t h a t w e d i s c u s s e d last b o t h i n d i c a t e t h a t this f o r m o f h i s t o r i c a l p a i n t i n g n o
l o n g e r c o n v e y s explicitly political messages. T h e c o n d e m n a t i o n o f N e y a n d his
execution on 7 December 1 8 1 5 h a d b e e n a p o l i t i c a l a f f a i r o f t h e first o r d e r of
i m p o r t a n c e in E u r o p e . T h e marshal had incurred a grievous guilt w h e n he
betrayed the cause o f the B o u r b o n s in 1815 a n d w e n t o v e r to N a p o l e o n , taking
his t r o o p s with h i m . T h e legal p r o c e e d i n g s initiated against h i m , h o w e v e r , w e r e
not only extremely questionable f r o m a juridical point o f v i e w — i n addition, their
c o n c l u s i o n was dictated by the political m o t i v e o f finding a scapegoat for the
" H u n d r e d Days." Ney's rehabilitation was n o t a c c o m p l i s h e d quickly, b u t by the
1 8 6 0 s it h a d b e e n a c h i e v e d : h i s b u s t w a s p l a c e d i n t h e P a n t h e o n ; t h e j u d g m e n t
o n h i m was a n n u l l e d ; a n d in 1853 Francois Rude's m o n u m e n t to h i m was d e d i -

REPRESENT AT IONS
 FIGURE 4. T h o m a s C o u t u r e , ske tch f o r a d e s t r o y e d p a i n t i n g ,
1815. Pre se nt location u n k n o w n . R e p r o d u c e d a f t e r
A l b e r t B o i m e , Thomas Couture and the Eclectic Vision
( Ne w H a v e n , 1980; se e n o t e 35).

cate d o n the site o f his e x e c u t i o n , w h i c h h a d b e e n a m o d e s t place o f p i l g r i m a g e

since Ne y's d e a t h . 3 5 H e n c e G e r o m e d i d n o t i n t e r v e n e in a n u n d e c i d e d re habili­
tation suit with his choice o f a subject, n o r d i d h e ingratiate h i m s e l f with t h e
g o v e r n m e n t o f N a p o l e o n I I I . T h e topic h a d r e v e r t e d to the p u b l i c d o m a i n , a n d
a n y o n e w h o l o o k e d f o r a pro o r a contra i n G e r o m e ' s t r e a t m e n t o f it c o u ld discover
e v i d e n c e f o r b o t h positions. T h e artist r e s p o n d e d to the p r e d i c t a b l e criticism o f
t h e N e y f a m i l y with the a r g u m e n t that " p a i n t e r s h a v e the s a m e r i g h t to write
h i s t o r y with their b r u s h e s as writers with their pens. F u r t h e r m o r e , the picture
was o n l y the statement o f a w e l l - k n o w n fact, w i t h o u t any c o m m e n t a r y . " 3 6
H i s t o r y s u p p l i e s materia l f o r this k i n d o f historica l painting, not theses—
material f o r the g e n e r a t i n g o f tension a n d f o r s e l f - p r e s e n t a t i o n . Indubitab l y, a
confl ict a p p e a r s in this t y p e o f historical p a i n t i n g that quickl y grows in size, a n d
that al so r u n s t h r o u g h G e r o m e ' s picture. T h e e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y skil l ful use o f space

Death at Work: A Case Study

for narrative purposes and the no less masterful way the wall is painted both
ultimately call for independent treatment in their own right, which they in fact
received in the subseq uent decades. T h e successors of the narrator Gerome are
the cameramen and the film directors. Eisenstein found that Griffith's cutting
techniq ue and the way he managed the action of his films had been anticipated
by the narrative methods of the realist Dickens. 37 It is not difficult to extend the
parallels further, to nineteenth-century painting. A r t was the great school for
the cultivation of an attitude on the part of the viewer that is active, without being
an existential engagement, for the continuation of a medium that seems to have
more blanks than places of determinacy, and yet consists entirely of "special
arrangements."

—Translated by Raymond Meyer

Notes

T h i s article is a n a t t e m p t to c o n t i n u e f r o m t h e o t h e r e n d , so t o s p e a k , t h e i n v e s t i g a ­
t i o n s c o n t a i n e d i n m y b o o k Der Anteil des Betrachters: Rezep tionsasthetische Studien zur
Malerei des 19. Jahrhunderts ( T h e Beholder's Share: Reception-Aesthetic Studies o n
t h e P a i n t i n g o f t h e N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y ; 1983). T h e r e I was c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e
" d e t e r m i n a c i e s " i n t h e p i c t u r e , w i t h t h e " a i d s t o r e c e p t i o n " ; h e r e it is a m a t t e r p r i n ­
c i p a l l y o f t h e " p l a c e s o f i n d e t e r m i n a c y , " w h i c h a r e n o less s u i t e d t h a n t h e a i d s t o
r e c e p t i o n t o g u i d e t h e viewer's p e r c e p t i o n . T h e title c o m e s f r o m a r e m a r k b y J e a n
C o c t e a u , o n e t h a t was i n fact m a d e a b o u t t h e c i n e m a . Cocteau's s t a t e m e n t c a n b e
f o u n d in S t e p h e n H e a t h , Questions of Cinema ( L o n d o n , 1981), 114.
1. G e o r g W i l h e l m F r i e d r i c h H e g e l , Aesthetics: Lectures on Fine Art, trans. T . M . Knox
( O x f o r d , 1975), 2: 8 5 8 - 5 9 .
2. J o h a n n W o l f g a n g v o n G o e t h e a n d J o h a n n H e i n r i c h M e y e r , " U b e r d i e G e g e n s t a n d e
d e r b i l d e n d e n K u n s t , " in Prop ylaen 1, n o . 1 ( 1 7 9 8 ; r e p r i n t e d . , S t u t t g a r t , 1965): 72.
3. H e g e l , Aesthetics, 1: 2 6 5 .
4. E r n s t Forster, " A u s d e m g e g e n w a r t i g e n K u n s t l e b e n a m R h e i n u n d i n d e n N i e d e r -
l a n d e n , " i n Kunstblatt ( 1 8 4 3 ) , 11 Off., q u o t e d f r o m Kunsttheorie und Kunst des 19. Jahr­
hunder
t s in Deut schland, e d . W e r n e r B u s c h a n d W o l f g a n g B e y r o d t ( S t u t t g a r t , 1983),
188. O n t h e idealist d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t r u t h a n d v e r i s i m i l i t u d e , i d e a a n d fact o f
history, see t h e c h a p t e r d e v o t e d to these topics i n K a r l S c h a w e l k a , Eugene Delacroix:
Sieben St udien zu seiner Kunst t heorie ( M u n i c h , 1979), 9 4 f f .
5. T h e m o s t r e c e n t w o r k o n this s u b j e c t is J o r g T r a e g e r , " A l s o b e i n e m d i e A u g e n l i d e r
w e g g e s c h n i t t e n w a r e n , " in Kleist -Jahrbuch ( 1 9 8 0 ) , 8 6 f f . ; a n e a r l i e r t r e a t m e n t is R o b e r t
R o s e n b l u m , Transformat ions in Lat e Eight eent h-Cent ury Ar
t ( P r i n c e t o n , 1969).
6. W i t h r e g a r d t o this w o r k , see t h e m o n o g r a p h i c d i s c u s s i o n o f it b y H e l e n Weston,
" P r o u d h o n : J u s t i c e a n d V e n g e a n c e , " i n The Burlingt on Magazine 117 ( 1 9 7 5 ) : 3 5 3 f f .
See also t h e c a t a l o g u e o f t h e e x h i b i t i o n The Age of Neoclassicism ( L o n d o n , 1972), 139.

REPRESENTATIONS
 7. A s r e g a r d s this v e r s i o n , see W e s t o n , " P r o u d h o n , " 3 5 4 , figs. 2 4 - 2 7 .
8. Q u o t e d f r o m Gazette des beaux-arts 6 (I860): 3lOff.
9. Q u o t e d f r o m W a l t e r F r i e d l a n d e r , Davi d to Delacroix ( C a m b r i d g e , Mass., 1952), 57.
10. R o s a l i n d K r a u s s , Passages i n Modern Sculpture ( C a m b r i d g e , Mass., 1981), 10.
11. It is n o t possible, n o r is it n e c e s s a r y h e r e , t o c o m p i l e a list o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e o n t h e
subjec t o f r e a l i s m . I shall n a m e o n l y t w o r e c e n t artic les r e p r e s e n t i n g o p p o s e d p o s i ­
tions, w h i c h p r o v i d e extensive bibliographies: J o r g T r a e g e r , " D i e S p r e n g u n g des Idylls:
E i n B e i t r a g z u r R e a l i s m u s d e b a t t e , " i n Katalog der Ausstellung W
i lhelm Busch (Hanover,
1982), 1: 3 f f . , a n d F r i e d r i c h G r o s s , " R e a l i s t e n d e s 19. J a h r h u n d e r t s als Idylliker," i n
Kri ti sche Beri chte 11, n o . 2 ( 1 9 8 3 ) : 5 8 f f . T h e best i n t r o d u c t i o n is still L i n d a N o c h l i n ,
Reali sm ( H a r m o n d s w o r t h , 1971). T h i s w o r k also c o n t a i n s d i s c u s s i o n s at s o m e l e n g t h
o f t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f d e a t h in t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
12. O n this q u e s t i o n , see t h e n u m e r o u s w r i t i n g s o f W e r n e r H o f m a n n , w h i c h c a n b e f o u n d
i n his Das i rdi sche Paradi es ( M u n i c h , 1960), Nana ( C o l o g n e , 1972), a n d Bruchl
ii n en
M( u n i c h , 1979).
13. O n t h e c o n c e p t o f " p l a c e o f d e t e r m i n a c y , " see R o m a n I n g a r d e n , The Li terary Work of
Art, t r a n s . G . G . G r a b o w i c z ( E v a n s t o n , 111., 1973), a n d The Cogni ti on of the Literary Work
of Art, trans. R . A . C r o w l e y a n d K . R . O l s o n ( E v a n s t o n , 111., 1973). O n " b l a n k , " see
W o l f g a n g Iser, The Act of Readi ng ( B a l t i m o r e , M d . , 1978), 1 7 0 f f . , a n d " I n t e r a c t i o n
B e t w e e n T e x t a n d R e a d e r , " i n The Reader i n the Text, e d . S. R . S u l e i m a n a n d I. C r o s m a n
( P r i n c e t o n , N . J . , 1980), 1 0 6 f f . O n Iser's c o n c e p t , see W . R e e s e , Li lerari sche Rezept
i on
( S t u t t g a r t , 1980), 3 6 f f . (this w o r k also gives a practical i n i t i a t i o n i n t o t h e m e t h o d s o f
r e c e p t i o n aesthetics); P. U . H o h e n d a h l , " I n t r o d u c t i o n t o R e c e p t i o n Aesthetics," in New
German Cri it que 10 ( 1 9 7 7 ) : 2 9 f f . ; H . J . S c h m i d t , " T e x t - A d e q u a t e C o n c r e t i z a t i o n s a n d
R e a l R e a d e r s : R e c e p t i o n T h e o r y a n d Its A p p l i c a t i o n s , " in New German Cr
iit que 17
( 1 9 7 9 ) : 1 5 7 f f . ; G . H . H a r t m a n n , Cri ti ci sm i n the Wi lderness ( N e w H a v e n , 1980), 2 6 5 f f .
( o n t h e p r o b l e m o f i n d e t e r m i n a c y in g e n e r a l ) .
O n " s u t u r e , " t h e m o s t r e c e n t w o r k s a r e S t e p h e n H e a t h , Questi ons of Ci nema (Lon­
d o n , 1981), 7 6 f f . , a n d N o e l C a r r o l l , " A d d r e s s t o t h e H e a t h e n , " i n October 2 3 ( 1 9 8 1 ) :
8 9 — 163, w h i c h also lists t h e o l d e r l i t e r a t u r e . T h e c o n c e p t o f " s u t u r e " s e e m s t o h a v e
a r i s e n i n d e p e n d e n t o f l i t e r a r y aesthetics. A l t h o u g h it uses " s u t u r e " t o r e f e r , o n t h e
f u n c t i o n a l a n d s t r u c t u r a l levels, t o t h e s a m e p h e n o m e n o n d e s i g n a t e d b y " p l a c e o f
i n d e t e r m i n a c y " a n d " b l a n k , " film t h e o r y h a s s o m e t h i n g m u c h l a r g e r i n m i n d t h a n
l i t e r a r y t h e o r y . It r e g a r d s t h e " s u t u r e " n o t j u s t as t h e " m a t r i x o f t e x t - r e a d e r i n t e r a c ­
t i o n " b u t also as t h e l o c u s o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f i d e o l o g y , a m a t t e r t h a t c a n n o t b e
treated here.
I k n o w o f n o p r e v i o u s a p p l i c a t i o n o f these c o n c e p t s to t h e objects s t u d i e d b y a r t
history. T h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n m o s t closely a p p r o x i m a t i n g t h e a n a l y s e s o f l i t e r a r y t h e o r y
a n d o u r o w n r e f l e c t i o n s p r e s e n t e d h e r e is D o n a t d e C h a p e a u r o u g e , " D i e P h a n t a s i e
d e s B e t r a c h t e r s , " i n Der fri i he Reali smus, 1800-1850 (exhibition catalogue; Niirnberg,
1970), 3 - 1 1 .
I n a c e r t a i n respect, h o w e v e r , t h e i n v e n t i o n o f t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e " b l a n k " c a n b e
c l a i m e d b y a r t history. I a m a l l u d i n g t o a s t a t e m e n t m a d e b y P a o l o V e r o n e s e in his
f a m o u s i n t e r r o g a t i o n b y t h e I n q u i s i t i o n in V e n i c e in 1573: " B u t w h e n a space is e m p t y
i n a p a i n t i n g [se n e l q u a d r o si a v a n z a spacio], t h e n I e n r i c h t h e p i c t u r e w i t h a d d i t i o n a l
figures d r a w n f r o m the H o l y Scriptures." T h e d i f f e r e n c e between "spacio avanzato"
a n d " b l a n k " is that w h a t is d e l i b e r a t e l y filled i n t h e case o f t h e f o r m e r is i n t e n t i o n a l l y
left e m p t y in t h e latter case. I was r e m i n d e d o f V e r o n e s e ' s r e l e v a n c e t o t h e c o n c e r n s
o f t h e p r e s e n t article b y M a x K o z l o f f ' s l o v e l y essay, " T h e A w n i n g T h a t F l a p p e d in

D e a t h at W o r k : A C a s e S t u d y
 t h e B r e e z e . . . ," in Artforum, S e p t e m b e r 1981, 5 3 - 6 0 , w h i c h also s e r v e d as a h e l p f u l
s t i m u l u s to m y t h o u g h t s o n o t h e r aspects o f this study.
T h e great p r e c u r s o r o f t h e t h e o r e t i c i a n s o f t h e b l a n k is E i s e ns t e i n. See his c o n c e p t
o f t h e " z e r o - p o i n t " a n d his an alysis o f W. I. Surikow's p a i n t i n g The Boyaress Morosova,
ni w h i c h h e m a i n t a i n s that t h e g o l d e n section in dicates a n " e m p t y place," w h i c h n e v e r ­
theless e m p h a s i z e s w h a t is m o s t i m p o r t a n t i n t h e p i c t u r e b u t c a n n o t b e p r e s e n t e d
graphically, n a m e l y t h e w o r d s o f t h e b o y a r e s s . See S e r g e E i s e n s t e i n , " U b e r d e n B a u
d e r D i n g e , " in Gesammelte Aufsatze (Zurich, n.d.), 224ff.
14. G o t t h o l d E p h r a i m L e s s i n g , Laokoon, in S dmtliche S chriften, ed. Karl L a c h m a n n and
F r a n z M u n c k e r (Stuttgart, 1893), 14: 3 5 5 .
15. G . E . L e s s i n g , Laocoon, trans. E. F r o t h i n g h a m ( B o s t o n , 1890), 16ff. O n L essing's
a n t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e b l a n k , see Das Laokoon-Projekl: Plane einer semiotischen
Asthetik, e d . G . G e b a u e r (Stuttgart, 1984), 6 6 f f .
16. D e n i s D i d e r o t , S alons: Texte etabli et presents par Jean S eznec et Jean Adhemar (Oxford,
1975), 1 : 2 0 5 .
17. Iser, Act of Reading, 182.
18. I b i d . , 183.
19. O n this w o r k , see C . M o r e a u - V a u t h i e r , Gerdme: Peintre et sculpteur (Paris, 1906), 2 5 3 f f . ;
G . M . A c k e r m a n n , " G e r o m e a n d M a n e t , " in Gazette des beaux-arts 70 (1967): 169ff.; G .
M . A c k e r m a n n , c a t a l o g u e o f t h e e x h i b i t i o n Jean-Leon Gerdme, 1824-1904 (1972-73),
64ff. T h e picture belongs to the Sheffield City A r t Galleries, Sheffield, E n g l a n d . T h e
size o f t h e p i c t u r e is 6 4 x 103 c m . A s h o r t , v e r y a c c u r a t e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f G e r o m e ' s
art is g i v e n by A l b e r t B o i m e , " J e a n - L e o n G e r o m e , H e n r i R o u s s e a u ' s S leeping Gypsy
a n d t h e A c a d e m i c L egacy," i n The Art Quarterly 34 (1971): 3ff.
20. J u l e s G r a n g e d o r , " L e S a l o n d e 1868," i n Gazette des beaux-arts 2 5 ( 1 8 6 8 ) : 18.
21. B . M., "Die akademische Kunstausstellung," in Zeitschrift fur Bildende Kunst 4
( 1 8 6 9 ) : 15.
22. See M i c h a e l F r i e d , Absorption and Theatricality: Painting and Beholder in the Age of Diderot
( B e r k e l e y , 1981).
23. O n t h e c o n c e p t o f n a r r a t i v e space, see S t e p h e n H e a t h , Questions of Cinema, 19ff.
24. L e s s i n g , Laocoon, 126. [I h a v e a m e n d e d t h e t r a n s l a t i o n o f this passage; F r o t h i n g h a m ' s
v e r s i o n r e a d s : " w h o s e p a r t s lie n e a r t o g e t h e r " — T r a n s . ]
25. L u d w i g I g e l s h e i m e r , " D i e b e l g i s c h e n Bilder," i n Jahrbucher der Gegenwart 2 (1844):
2 4 f f . , q u o t e d f r o m Kunsttheorie und Kunstgeschichte, 2 0 0 , n . 3.
26. See R o l a n d B a r t h e s , " S t r u c t u r a l A n a l y s i s o f N a r r a t i v e s , " in Image, Music, Text, t r a n s .
S t e p h e n H e a t h ( N e w Y o r k , 1977), 122: " W h a t has b e e n d i s j o i n e d at a c e r t a i n level (a
s e q u e n c e f o r e x a m p l e ) is m o s t o f t e n j o i n e d a g a i n at a h i g h e r level (a h i e r a r c h i c a l l y
i m p o r t a n t s e q u e n c e , t h e g l o b a l s i g n i f i e d o f a n u m b e r o f scattered i n d i c e s , t h e a c t i o n
o f a class o f characters)."
27. J u l e s L u c a s - D u b r e t o n , Le Marechal Ney, 1769-1815 (Paris, 1941), 3 2 7 .
28. H e r e a r e m a r k o f A l b e r t B o i m e is p e r t i n e n t : " L i k e G e r o m e , C o u t u r e p e r m i t t e d h i m ­
self a d i p i n t o actuality a n d m o d e r n i s t i c e x p r e s s i o n o n l y w h e n t h e y c o u l d b e legiti­
m i z e d b y allegorical o v e r t o n e s " ; Thomas Couture and the Eclectic Vision ( N e w H a v e n ,
1980), 48.
2 9 . It is h a r d l y possible a n y m o r e t o o b t a i n a n o v e r v i e w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e o n n i n e t e e n t h -
c e n t u r y historical p a i n t i n g . See t h e m o s t r e c e n t s u m m a r y in H . T . W a p p e n s c h m i d t ,
Allegorie, S ymbol und Historienbild im spaten 19. Jahrhundert ( M u n i c h , 1984). O n F r e n c h
historical p a i n t i n g , see t h e scattered b e g i n n i n g s o f a c o m p i l a t i o n o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e in
F r i e d l a n d e r (see n o t e 9 a b o v e ) ; J . C . S l o a n e , French Painting Between the Past and the

122 REPRESENTATIONS
 Present ( P r i n c e t o n , N . J . , 1951), a n d t h e m o n o g r a p h i c studies o f C o u t u r e ( A . B o i m e ) ,
D el a r o c h e ( N . D . Z i f f ) , G e r i c a u l t ( L . E i t n e r ) , a n d M a n e t ( N . G . S a n d b l a d , A . C . H a n ­
s o n , G . M a u n e r ) . T h e selection o f m y e x a m p l e s s h o u l d n o t b e u n d e r s t o o d as i m p l y i n g
that P r o u d h o n a n d G e r o m e w e r e p a t h - b r e a k i n g i n n o v a t o r s . T h e g e n e r a t i o n p r e c e d ­
i n g P r o u d h o n was a l r e a d y e l a b o r a t i n g t h e s o l u t i o n h e e m p l o y e d , a n d G e r o m e ' s b l a n k s
p r o b a b l y h a v e t h e i r o r i g i n w i t h his t e a c h e r D e l a r o c h e . T h e w o r k s I c h o s e f o r e x a m ­
i n a t i o n r e p r e s e n t i d e a l types.
3 0 . Iser, Act of Reading, 189.
3 1 . I b i d . , 192. [I h a v e a m e n d e d t h e t r a n s l a t i o n o f this p a s s a g e s l i g h t l y — T r a n s . ]
3 2 . I b i d . , 194.
33. LeMoniteur.no. 155, session o f 4 J u n e 1791. Q u o t e d f r o m M a r i e - H e l e n e Huet, Rehearsing
the Revolution: The Staging of Marat's Death, 1793-1797 ( B e r k e l e y , 1982), 2 9 f f .
3 4 . I b i d . , 3 0 . C f . M i c h a e l F o u c a u l t , Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans.
A l a n S h e r i d a n ( N e w Y o r k , 1977), c h a p s . 1 a n d 2.
3 5 . A n i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t Ney's d e a t h a n d p o s t h u m o u s f a m e a r e t h e
m e m o i r s o f t h e e y e w i t n e s s L e o n R o c h e c h o u a r t , Souvenirs sur la Revolution, I'Empire et
la Restauration (Paris, 1889). O f t h e m o r e r e c e n t b i o g r a p h i e s I r e c o m m e n d J u l e s L u c a s -
D u b r e t o n (see n o t e 2 7 a b o v e ) , a n d H . K u r t z , The Trial of Marshal Ney: His Last Y ears
and Death ( N e w Y o r k , 1957). O n t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r a r t h i s t o r y , especially o n R u d e ' s
statue o f M a r s h a l N e y , see R u t h B u t l e r , " L o n g L i v e t h e R e v o l u t i o n , t h e R e p u b l i c , a n d
E s p e c i a l l y t h e E m p e r o r ! : T h e Political S c u l p t u r e o f R u d e , " i n Art and Architecture in
the Service of Politics, e d . H e n r y A . M i l l o n a n d L i n d a N o c h l i n ( C a m b r i d g e , Mass.,
1978), 9 2 f f .
I n t h e oeuvre o f C o u t u r e t h e r e is a r e m a r k a b l e p a r a l l e l to G e r o m e ' s p i c t u r e , his
allegorical c o m p o s i t i o n 1815, w h i c h was d e s t r o y e d in t h e F r a n c o - P r u s s i a n W a r o f
1 8 7 0 — 7 1 , b u t o f w h i c h a p r e p a r a t o r y sketch has b e e n p r e s e r v e d (fig. 4). A t t h e F r e n c h
b o r d e r , m a r k e d by a b r o k e n post b e a r i n g t h e i n s c r i p t i o n " 1 8 1 5 F r a n c e , " t h e e m b o d ­
i m e n t s o f t h e ancien regime, a r e t u r n i n g e m i g r d a n d a priest, c o m e u p o n f a l l e n s o l d i e r s
o f N a p o l e o n ' s a r m y w r a p p e d in t h e tricolor, w h i l e in t h e b a c k g r o u n d t h e fires o f t h e
b a t t l e f i e l d o f W a t e r l o o a r e b l a z i n g . A s B o i m e a r g u e s , this d e c l a r a t i o n o f a l l e g i a n c e to
N a p o l e o n a n d to his successor N a p o l e o n I I I m u s t d a t e f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e
1860s (see n o t e 2 8 a b o v e ) . I n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e criteria f o r m u l a t e d a b o v e , we w o u l d
c o m p a r e t h e picture's m a n n e r o f d e m o n s t r a t i o n w i t h t h e roman a these a n d call it tableau
a these.
3 6 . Q u o t e d f r o m t h e c a t a l o g u e o f t h e e x h i b i t i o n Jean-Leon Gerome, 1824-1904, 6 5 (see
n o t e 19 a b o v e ) . See also t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e q u o t a t i o n in M o r e a u - V a u t h i e r ' s b o o k ,
w h i c h uses a d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e t h a n A c k e r m a n n : " L e s legitimistes d i s a i e n t : Q u e l fla-
g o r n e u r d u g o u v e r n e m e n t ! L e s b o n a p a r t i s t e s : Q u e lui a - t - o n fait? II n'est d o n e pas
e n c o r e c o n t e n t et p o u r t a n t o n Fa n o m m e n a g u e r e o f f i c i e r d e la L e g i o n d ' H o n n e u r !
etc. . . . Q u e p e n s e z - v o u s d e ces f a c o n s d e p a r l e r c o n t r a d i c t o i r e s ? " [ T h e legitimists
said: H o w h e licks t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s b o o t s ! T h e B o n a p a r t i s t s said: W h a t h a s b e e n
d o n e t o h i m ? He's still n o t satisfied, e v e n t h o u g h h e was m a d e a n o f f i c e r o f t h e L e g i o n
o f H o n o r n o t l o n g a g o ! etc. . . . W h a t d o y o u t h i n k a b o u t t h e s e c o n t r a d i c t o r y w a y s o f
t a l k i n g ? ] , p. 2 5 4 f f .
3 7 . S e r g e i E i s e n s t e i n , " D i c k e n s , G r i f f i t h , a n d t h e F i l m T o d a y , " in Film Form, t r a n s . J a y
L e y d a ( N e w Y o r k , 1957), 1 9 5 f f .

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