Construction materials for general
MINERALOGY
 It is a branch of geology that
focuses on the analysis of the
chemical composition, crystal
structure, and physical
characteristics of minerals and
other mineralized artifacts,
particularly their optical qualities.
Mineralogy-specific research
includes examinations of the origin
and development of minerals as
well as their classification,
distribution, and uses.
Georgius Agricula “The Father of
Mineralogy”
 He was born on March 24, 1494,
Glauchau, Saxony (Germany). Died
in November 21, 1555, Chemnitz.
He provided the foundations for
the study of the Earth (and its
rocks, minerals, and fossils), in a
systematic, recorded, way.
Agricula spent a lot of time
studying and observing mining
operations.
 His famous book about minerals
are De Re Metallica, De natura
fossilium, and De Ortu et Causis
Subterraneorum.
IMPORTANCE OF
MINERALOGY TO CIVIL
ENGINEERING
 Mineral properties are just as
important as properties of
construction materials.
purpose buildings are supposed to
perform for a period of at least 50
years, (unless explicitly designed
for alternative age or the purpose
is explicitly defined). Corrosion is a
grave factor which most engineers
overlook/undermine. The basic
chemistry between atmospheric
gases and concrete
surfaces/exposed steel surfaces is
very crucial.
ELEMENTARY KNOWLEDGE
ON SYMMETRY OF
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC
SYSTEMS
SYMMETRY - Observing the
symmetry of a crystal is often a way to
distinguish one mineral from another.
Symmetry is a fundamental property of
crystalline solids' atom arrangements that
is used in crystallography. It is used
describe crystals, find recurring elements
in molecules, and to make almost all
calculations and data collection easier.
The majority of symmetry types in
crystallography can be explained in terms
of an apparent movement of the object,
such as a rotation or translation. These
apparent movements are called symmetry
operation. The locations where the
symmetry operations occur such as a
rotation axis, a mirror plane, an inversion
center, or a translation vector are
described as symmetry elements.
Two Distinct Methods of Describing
Rotational Symmetry Operation
 CARL HERMANN-MAUGUIN
NOMENCLATURE – Is typically
used to describe crystals and
crystallographic symmetry.
 ARTHRU SCHONFLIES
NOMENCLATURE – Is primarily
used to describe symmetry in
discrete molecules, in optical
spectroscopy, and in quantum
mechanics.
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE -- Crystal
Structure is obtained by attaching atoms,
groups of atoms or Crystal Structure is
defined as solids that have an atomic
structure with long-range, 3-dimensional
order. This structure develops as a result
of the constituent particles' tendency to
arrange themselves in symmetrical
patterns. Nicholas Steno made this
observation for the first time in 1669, and
it later came to be known as the law of
constancy of interfacial angles. No matter
how big or small, where they are found, or
whether they are man-made or natural,
any two crystals are subject to the law.
The smallest group of particles in the
material that constitutes this repeating
pattern is the unit cell of the structure.
UNIT CELLS
- All crystalline
minerals fit into one of the thirty-two
crystal classes that are spread throughout
seven different crystal systems. A crystal
can be represented diagrammatically by
an orderly stacking of unit cells, the
smallest component of a crystal lattice. A
unit cell is the building block of the crystal
structure and it explains in detail the
entire crystal structure along with its
principal axes. Lattice constants or lattice
parameters are the length, edges of major
axes, and angle between unit cells.
 SIMPLE CUBIC
 BODY-CENTERED CUBIC
 FACE-CENTERED CUBIC
CRYSTAL SYSTEMS - Crystal
systems describes the classes of crystals,
space group and lattices. Crystals and
space groups are grouped into seven
crystal systems based on their point
groups. The Seven Crystal Systems is a
method for classifying crystals based on
their atomic structure and lattice. The
atomic lattice is a series of atoms that are
organized in a symmetrical pattern. With
the help of the lattice, the appearance and
physical properties of a stone will be
determined leading to identifying on
THE SEVEN CRYSTAL
SYSTEM
which crystal system they belong to.
 TRICLINIC SYSTEM - It is the
most unsymmetrical crystal
system. In the triclinic system, all
the axes are different lengths.
None of them meet at 90º. Based
on the three inclined angles the
various forms of crystals are in the
paired faces. Labradorite,
Amazonite, Kyanite, Rhodonite,
Aventurine Feldspar, and
Turquoise are a few examples of
common triclinic systems.
 MONOCLINIC SYSTEM
Monoclinic System has three axes,
two of which are at right angles to
one another and one of which is
inclined. All these three axes vary
in sizes. Minerals that form in the
monoclinic system include azurite,
brazilianite, crocoite, datolite,
diopside, jadeite, lazulite,
malachite, orthoclase feldspars,
staurolite, sphene, and
spodumene.
 ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM - In
this system there are three axes, all
of which meet at 90º to each other
but it has different lengths. Based
on their Rhombic structure the
orthorhombic system includes
various crystal shapes namely
pyramids, double pyramids,
rhombic pyramids, and pinacoids.
Some common orthorhombic
crystals include Topaz, Tanzanite,
Iolite, Zoisite, Danburite and more.
 HEXAGONAL SYSTEM - In
hexagonal systems, crystals have
six sides. The three angles 1, 2, and
3 are all contained in single plane
called basal plane and are at 120
degrees. These three are equal in
length and meet at 60º to each
other. Crystal shapes of hexagonal
systems include Double Pyramids,
Double-Sided Pyramids, and Four-
Sided Pyramids. Examples include
sugilite, apatite, beryl, and
cancrinite.’
 TRIGONAL SYSTEM
Mineralogists sometimes divide
the hexagonal system into two
crystal systems, the hexagonal and
the trigonal, based on their
- external appearance. At the base of
a hexagonal system (rosssection of
a prism), there will be six sides. In
the trigonal system (base
crosssection) there will be three
sides. Crystal shapes in a trigonal
system include threesided
pyramids, Scalenohedral and
Rhombohedra. Some typical
examples include Ruby, Quartz,
Calcite, Agate, Jasper, Tiger’s Eyes
and more.
 TETRAGONAL SYSTEM - The
tetragonal system also has three
axes that all meet at 90º. The
length of the primary axis might be
either short or long. The two axes
are parallel and have the same
length. Tetragonal crystals can be
found in trapezohedra, pyrite,
double and eight-sided pyramids,
four-sided prisms, and other
geometries based on their
rectangular core structure.
 CUBIC SYSTEM - The isometric
or cubic system of crystals is the
first and most basic. The lengths of
all three angles are equal and they
connect at right angles. Because of
the equality of the axes, minerals
in the cubic system are singly
refractive or isotropic. All garnets,
diamond, fluorite, gold, lapis lazuli,
pyrite, silver, sodalite, sphalerite,
and spinel are examples of
minerals that develop in an
isometric system.
-
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
MINERALS
Minerals generally named on basis of
Physical property (magnetic =magnetite),
predominant element (Cr =Chromite, Ba
=Barite), Locality (Franklin, New Jersey
=Franklinite) and, Colour (Albus
(L.white)=Albite)
 In most circumstances,
distinguishing physical
characteristics of minerals can be
used to determine the its identity.
Most minerals have distinct
physical characteristics that can be
used to identify and categorize
them, including hardness, luster,
color, streak, specific gravity,
cleavage, fracture, and tenacity.
Physical Properties of Minerals as
Identifying Tools
ISOTROPISM - Minerals are categorized
based on their physical characteristics,
which might vary depending on the
direction.
ANISOTROPIC - The mechanical and
physical characteristics of a single crystal
can vary with orientation. Our models of
the crystalline structure show that atoms
should be able to slide over one another
or distort in respect to one another more
easily in some directions than others. An
anisotropic material is one whose
characteristics change depending on the
crystallographic orientation.
ISOTROPIC - Alternately, a material is
said to be isotropic if its qualities are the
same in all directions. Before any
processing (deformation) of the material
is done, the grain orientations of many
polycrystalline materials are random. As a
result, even if the individual grains are
anisotropic, the material as a whole is
isotropic because the disparities in
properties tend to average out. An
anisotropic material is one that has grains
that are typically deformed and stretched
in one or more directions throughout the
formation process. We'll talk about
material formation later, but for now, let's
continue our discussion of crystalline
structure at the atomic level.
POLYMORPHISM - The atomic
structure, bonding forces, and chemical
makeup of minerals all have a direct
bearing on their physical characteristics.
The type of elements and the spacing
between them in a crystalline structure
affect bonding forces, which are electrical
forces that exist between atoms and ions.
This means that multiple crystal
structures can be seen in minerals with
the same chemical composition (as a
function of changes in P & T or both).
Polymorphism is the term for the
phenomenon of materials having diverse
physical properties due to their
crystallization in various symmetry
systems. It is claimed that certain
minerals are polymorphous. Depending
on how many mineral species are present
in a group, they may be dimorphic,
trimorphic, or polymorphic.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF luster are described by the labels
metallic and nonmetallic.
MINERALS  Metallic luster – Strictly
pertains to opaque
HARDNESS minerals, where the surface
totally reflects light. The
 One of the most helpful majority of ore minerals
characteristics for classifying with a high metal
minerals is their hardness, or concentration have a
capacity to withstand being metallic sheen. Gal, Mat,
scratched. The ability of one Pyt, etc. Sub-metallic,
mineral to scratch another mineral imperfect metallic shine.
determines its hardness.  Non-metallic luster – is the
collective name for various
FEDERICK MOHS – A German
additional luster kinds. It
mineralogist used a group of ten common
may be dazzling or dim
minerals to create a hardness scale. The
where there is poor
minerals are arranged on the scale in
reflection, which is brought
ascending order of hardness. Any mineral
on by light scattering from
with a lower number will scratch any
the mineral surface.
higher-numbered mineral.
1 – Talc
COLOR
2 – Gypsum
3 – Calcite  The color of a mineral is among its
most glaring characteristics. When
4 – Fluorite recognizing a mineral, color should
be taken into account, but it should
5 – Apatite
never serve as the primary
6 – Orthoclase identifying feature.
 The properties of color are used to
7 – Quartz
classify minerals into three
8 – Topaz primary categories: idiochromatic,
allochromatic, and
9 – Corundum
pseudochromatic.
10 - Diamond  IDIOCHROMATIC – are
“self-colored” as a result of
their composition. The
LUSTER mineral’s hue is a
consistent and predictable
 A mineral reflects light by having feature. Examples include
luster. The two main categories of the stones green Malachite,
 red Cinnabar, and blue
Azurite.
 ALLOCHROMATIC – are
“other-colored” due to trace
impurities in their
composition or defects in
their composition or defects
in their structure. In this
case, the color is variable
and unpredictable property
of the mineral. Example are
the blue in Amazonite
(orthoclase), yellow in
Heliodor (spodumene) and
the rose in rose quartz.
 PSEUDOCHROMATIC –
are “false-colored” due t
tricks in light diffraction. In
these cases, color is
variable but a unique
property of the mineral.
Examples are the colors
produced by precious opal
and the shiller reflections of
labradorite.
STREAK
 The color of the powdered mineral
is known as the streak, and this
color is typically more helpful for
identification than the color of the
entire mineral sample. A streak
will appear if you rub the mineral
across a streak plate. The unglazed
back of a white porcelain
bathroom or kitchen tile can be
used to create a streak plate.
Because they are harder than the
streak plate, some minerals won't
streak.
 Example is distinguishing Gold
(yellow streak), and Chalcopyrite
(black streak).
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
 Specific gravity is the ratio
between the mass (weight) of a
mineral and the mass (weight) of
an equal volume of water. A
mineral's specific gravity (SG) can
be determined by dividing its
weight in air by the weight of an
equal volume of water. For
instance, quartz with a density of
2.65 is 2.65 times as heavy as the
same volume of water.
 SG= mineral mass/water mass
 Water has a specific gravity of 1.0.
If a mineral has a specific gravity of
2.7, it is 2.7 times heavier than
water. Minerals with a specific
gravity under 2 are considered
light, between 2 and 4.5 average,
and greater than 4.5 heavy. Most
minerals with a metallic luster are
heavy. The specific gravity may
slightly vary within a mineral
because of impurities present in
the minerals structure.
CLEAVAGE
 The way in which a mineral breaks
along smooth flat planes is called
cleavage. These breaks occur along
planes of weakness in the
mineral's structure. However, if a
mineral breaks along an irregular
surface, it does not have cleavage.
 Quality of Cleavage: PERFECT,
GOOD, POOR, INDESCERNIBLE
 Tenacity describes the reaction of
(INDISTINCT), NONE
a mineral to stress such as
 Minerals with perfect cleavage will
crushing, bending, breaking, or
cleave without leaving any rough
tearing. Certain minerals react
surfaces: a full, smooth plane is
differently to each type of stress.
formed where the crystal broke.
Since tenacity is composed of
Minerals with good cleavage also
several reactions to various
leave smooth surfaces, but often
stresses, it is possible for a mineral
leave over minor residual rough
to have more than one type of
surfaces. On minerals with poor
tenacity.
cleavage, the smooth crystal edge
 The different forms of tenacity are:
is not very visible, since the rough
 Brittle – mineral crushes to
surface is dominant. If a mineral
angular fragments (quartz)
exhibits cleavage, but it so poor
 Sectile – mineral can be cut
that it is hardly noticeable, it has
with a knife into thin
“indiscernible” cleavage. Minerals
shavings (Talc)
with no cleavage never exhibit any
 Malleable – mineral can be
cleavage, thus broken surfaces are
modified in shape without
fractured and rough.
breaking and can be
flattened to a thin sheet
(copper, gold)
FRACTURE
 Flexible – mineral bend but
 If the mineral contains no planes of doesn’t regain its shape
weakness, it will break along once released (selenite,
random directions called fracture. gypsum)
 Conchoidal: smooth  Elastic – mineral bends and
fracture (Qua, glass) regains its original shape
 Uneven or irregular: rough when released (muscovite
and irregular surfaces and biotite mica)
 Fibrous and splintery:
sharp pointed fibers
(Asbestos, Serpentine) Other Diagnostic Characteristics
 Even: more or less smooth
surfaces, may resemble TRANSPARENCY – Objects are visible
cleavage when viewed through a mineral.
 Hackly: jagged fractures OPAQUENESS - No light is transmitted,
with very sharp edges even on the thinnest edges.
(Mat)
TRANSLUENCY - Light, but not an
image, is transmitted through a mineral.

TENACITY
TASTE - Taste can be used to help
identify some minerals, such as halite
(salt).
ACID REACTION - Object reacts to
hydrochloric acid. The most
distinguishing characteristic of calcite is
that it effervesces when hydrochloric acid
is applied. Dolomite shows a reaction on a
freshly broken or powdered surface.
Testing for calcite, limestone, or dolomite
calls for 10% hydrochloric acid, but
strong white vinegar can be substituted
for the acid.
- Example: Acid test is used to test gold
with acid concentrates. Gold is a noble
metal and is resistant to change by acid,
corrosion, or oxidation. The acid test is
applied to rub any colored gold item on a
black stone which will leave a visible
mark. By applying aqua fortis, this mark is
tested known as nitric acid which, except
gold, dissolves the mark of all colored
gold items. Otherwise, it dissolves if the
remaining marks are tested by applying
aqua regia (nitric acid and hydrochloric
acid).
MAGNESTISM - Magnetism is a
distinguishing characteristic of magnetite.
CRYSTAL SHAPE - Cubic,
rhombohedral (tilted cube), hexagonal
(six-sided), etc.
STUDY OF ROCK-FORMING
MINERALS
ROCK - The solid mineral material
forming part of the surface of the earth
and other similar planets, exposed on the
surface or underlying the soil or oceans.
How rocks are formed?
 Through the process of erosion,
these fragments are removed from
their source and transported by
wind, water, ice, or biological
activity to a new location. Once the
sediment settles somewhere, and
enough of it collects, the lowest
layers become compacted so
tightly that they form solid rock.
Rocks are composed of minerals. A
mineral is a naturally occurring substance
which is usually solid, crystalline, stable
at room temperature and inorganic. There
are almost 5000 known mineral species,
yet the vast majority of rocks are formed
from combinations of a few common
minerals, referred to as “rock-forming
minerals”. The rock-forming minerals are:
feldspars, quartz, amphiboles, micas,
olivine, garnet, calcite, pyroxenes.
EXAMPLES OF ROCK
FORMING MINERALS
FELDSPARS
 Feldspar is the name applied to a
group of minerals that is the
second most common of all the
minerals. All feldspars are
composed of aluminum, silicon,
and oxygen combined with varying
amounts of one or more metals,
particularly potassium, sodium,
and calcium. Feldspars have a
hardness of 6, have a smooth,
glassy or pearly luster, and show
good cleavages along two planes at
nearly right angles to each other.
 Specific gravity is about 2.6. The
streak is white, but the color of the
mineral is highly variable.
 Feldspars transform though
hydrolysis —to form clay minerals
plus some ions in solution. In other
cases, the minerals dissolve
completely, and their components
go into solution. For example,
calcite (CaCO3) is soluble in acidic
solutions.
General Information of Feldspar:
Type: Mineral
Mineral Classification: Silicate Chemical
Formula: KAlSi3O8 – NaAlSi3O8 –
CaAl2Si2O8
Streak: White
Mohs Hardness: 6-6.5
Crystal System: triclinic, monoclinic
Color: pink, white, gray, brown
Luster: Vitreous
Fracture: conchoidal, uneven
The top feldspars producing countries are
Turkey, India and Italy
QUARTZ
 is one of the most famous
minerals on the earth. It occurs in
essentially all mineral
environments, and is the crucial
constituent of many rocks. It is
likewise the maximum varied of all
minerals, taking place in all
distinct habits, and colorings.
There are more range names given
to Quartz than any other mineral.
It is the maximum abundant and
widely allotted mineral
determined at Earth’s surface. It is
abundant all over the arena. In any
temperatures. It is abundant in
igneous, metamorphic, and
sedimentary rocks. It is highly
resistant to both mechanical and
chemical weathering.
 With the temperatures above 867
°C (1,593 °F), betaquartz changes
into tridymite, but the
transformation is very slow
because bond breaking takes place
to form a more open structure. At
very high pressures alpha-quartz
transforms into coesite and, at still
higher pressures, stishovite. Such
phases have been observed in
impact craters.
General Information of Quartz:
Type: Mineral
Mineral Classification: Silicate Chemical
Formula: SiO2
Streak: White Mohs
Hardness: 7
Crystal System: trigonal
Color: Pure quartz is clear.
Color variance due to impurities: purple
(amethyst), white (milky quartz), black
(smoky quartz), pink (rose quartz) and
yellow or orange (citrine).
Luster: vitreous, waxy, dull
Fracture: conchoidal
The top quartz producing countries are Luster: Vitreous, resinous
China, Japan and Russia
Fracture: Conchoidal, uneven
GARNITE
The countries that produces the most
 These minerals are found garnet are Canada, Brazil and Mali
throughout the world in
metamorphic, igneous, and
sedimentary rocks. Most garnet AUGITE
found near Earth's surface forms
 Augite is a rock-forming minerals
when a sedimentary rock with a
that commonly occurs in mafic and
high aluminum content, such as
intermediate igneous rocks such as
shale, is subjected to heat and
basalt, gabbro, andesite, and
pressure intense enough to
diorite. It is found in these rocks
produce schistor gneiss. Garnet is
throughout the world, wherever
also found in the rocks of contact
they occur. Augite is also found in
metamorphism, subsurface magma
ultramafic rocks and in some
chambers, lava flows, deep-source
metamorphic rock that form under
volcanic eruptions, and the soils
high temperatures. Augite has a
and sediments formed when
chemical composition of (Ca,Na)
garnet-bearing rocks are
(Mg,Fe,Al)(Si,Al)2O6 with many
weathered and eroded.
paths of solid solution.
 It is usually composed primarily of
 An increase in magma water vapor
the minerals quartz, feldspar, and
and a decrease in temperature
mica. When granite is subjected to
transforms augite into hornblende.
intense heat and pressure, it
changes into a metamorphic rock General Information of Augite:
called gneiss.
Type: Mineral
General Information of Garnite:
Mineral Classification: Pyroxene
Type: Mineral
Chemical Formula: 8[(Ca,Na)
Mineral Classification: Silicate Chemical (Mg,Fe,Al,Ti)(Si,Al)2O6]
Formula: X3Y2(SiO4)3 (Where X is often Streak: Light green to colorless
Ca or Mg, and Y is often Al or Fe)
Mohs Hardness: 5-6
Streak: White Mohs Hardness: 6.5-7.5
Crystal System: Monoclinic
Crystal System: Isometric (meaning
equality in dimension. For example, a Color: Black, brown, greenish, violet-
cube, octahedron, or dodecahedron) brown; in thin section, colorless to gray

Color: Generally brown, virtually all Luster: Vitreous and dull

colors, blue very rare
Fracture: Ranges from splintery
uneven
You can find augite anywhere in the
world.
HORNBLENDE
 Hornblende is a field and
classroom name used for a group
of dark-colored amphibole
minerals found in many types of
igneous and metamorphic rocks.
These minerals vary in chemical
composition but are all double-
chain inosilicates with very similar
physical properties. A generalized
composition for the hornblende
group is: (Ca,Na)2-
3(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Si,Al)8O22(OH,F)2
 At constant pressure of about 2kb,
temperature decrease to near
950°C will cause crystallization of
hornblende to begin. If this is the
first mineral to crystallize, this
curve also defines the maximum
liquidus temperature for the
system.
General Information of Hornblende:
Type: Mineral
Mineral Classification: Silicate Chemical
Formula: Double chain SiO4 with other
elements Color: Generally dark black,
sometimes brown The countries with the
most deposits of Hornblende are Norway,
Sweden and Italy
BIOTITE
to  Biotite - is a name used for a large
group of black mica minerals that
are commonly found inigneous
and metamorphic rocks. These
include annite, phologopite,
siderophyllite, fluorophlogopite,
fluorannite, eastonite, and many
others. These micas vary in
chemical composition but are all
sheet silicate minerals with very
similar physical properties. A
generalized chemical composition
for the biotite group is:
K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(F,OH)2
 Biotite is black magnesium/iron-
based mica of low commercial
value. It appears in the form of thin
sheets which generally range from
0.003 mm to 0.1 mm in thickness.
Biotite first alters to interstratified
biotiteto vermiculite in which the
vermiculite is hydroxy-Al
interlayered. The kaolinization of
biotite extends throughout the
grain, the pseudomorphs retaining
the morphology of the biotite
precursor but having the optical
and structural properties of
kaolinite.
General Information of Biotite:
Type: Mineral
Mineral Classification: Mica
Chemical Formula: K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)
(F,OH)2
Streak: White
Mohs Hardness: 2.5-3
Crystal System: Monoclinic
Color: Black
Luster: Vitreous, may be pearly
Fracture: Micaceous
You can find biotite in the United States of
America, Canada and Norway.
MUSCOVITE
 Muscovite - is the most common
mineral of the mica family. It is an
important rock forming mineral
present in igneous, metamorphic,
and sedimentary rocks. Like other
micas it readily cleaves into thin
transparent sheets. Muscovite
sheets have a pearly to vitreous
luster on their surface. If they are
held up to the light, they are
transparent and nearly colorless,
but most have a slight brown,
yellow, green, or rose color tint.
 Muscovite transforms into
kaolinite through the intergrowths
of two phases, mica and kaolinite.
A degradation series, muscovite →
mica/montmorillonite → and atmosphere, as part of climate
montmorillonite → kaolinite also is
observed
General Information of Muscovite:
Type: Mineral
Mineral Classification: Silicate
Chemical Formula: Lepidolite
K(Li,Al)3(AlSi3O10) (O,OH, F)2, ; biotite
K(Mg, Fe)3(AlSi3O10) (OH)2; phlogopite
KMg3(AlSi3O10) (OH)2; muscovite
KAl2(AlSi3O10) (OH)2
Mohs Hardness: 2.5-4 (lepidolite); 2.5-3
biotite; 2.5-3 phlogopite; 2-2.5 muscovite
Crystal System: Monoclinic
Color: purple, rosy, silver, gray
(lepidolite); dark green, brown, black
(biotite); yellowish-brown, green white
(phlogopite); colorless, transparent
(muscovite)
Luster: pearly to vitreous
The countries with the most Muscovite
deposits are India, Pakistan and Brazil
OLIVINE
 Olivine- The mineral olivine is a
magnesium iron silicate with the
chemical formula (Mg,Fe)2SiO4. It
is a type of nesosilicate or
orthosilicate. The primary
component of the Earth's upper
mantle, [9] it is a common mineral
in Earth's subsurface, but weathers
quickly on the surface. For this
reason, olivine has been proposed
as a good candidate for accelerated
weathering to sequester carbon
dioxide from the Earth's oceans
change mitigation.
 With increasing depth, olivine (α-
phase) transforms to wadsleyite
(β-phase), then to the spinel
structure (γ-phase) and then to
perovskite + magnesio-wüstite.
These transformations occur at P
and T conditions that match the
410 km, 520 km and 660 km
discontinuities and are viewed as
the cause of the seismic jumps.
General Information of Olivine:
Category: Nesosilicate, Olivine group,
Olivine series
Formula : (repeating unit),(Mg,Fe)2SiO4
IMA symbol: Ol[1]
Strunz classification: 9.AC.05
Crystal system: Orthorhombic
Space group: Pbnm (no. 62)
Color: Yellow to yellow-green
Crystal habit: Massive to granular
Cleavage: Poor
Fracture: Conchoidal
Tenacity: brittle
Mohs scale hardness: 6.5–7
Luster: Vitreous
Streak: colorless or white Diaphaneity:
Transparent to translucent Specific
gravity: 3.2–4.5[2][3][4][5] Optical
properties: Biaxial (+) Refractive index
nα = 1.630–1.650 nβ = 1.650–1.670 nγ =
1.670–1.690 Birefringence δ = 0.040
Diaphaneity: Transparent to translucent
Specific gravity: 3.2–4.5[2][3][4][5]
Optical properties: Biaxial (+)
Refractive index nα = 1.630–1.650 nβ =
1.650–1.670 nγ = 1.670–1.690
Birefringence δ = 0.040
CALCITE
 the most common form of natural
calcium carbonate (CaCO3), a
widely distributed mineral known
for the beautiful development and
great variety of its crystals. The
primary producers of calcite are
Canada, the United States, Britain,
China, Namibia, Pakistan, Belgium,
Russia, Czech Republic, Slovakia,
Peru, Brazil, Iceland, and Romania.
Many of the finest colored
specimens come from Mexico.
 When calcite or aragonite
precipitate out of water containing
dissolved calcium, which can take
place through both biological and
nonbiological processes. The
solubility of calcium carbonate
(CaCO 3) is controlled largely by
the amount of dissolved carbon
dioxide (CO 2) in the water. It will
form a Limestone.
General Information of Calcite:
Chemical Classification: Carbonate
Color: Usually white but also colorless,
gray, red, green, blue, yellow, brown,
orange
Streak: White
Luster: Vitreous
Diaphaneity: Transparent to translucent
Cleavage: Perfect, rhombohedral, three
directions
Mohs Hardness: 3
Specific Gravity: 2.7
Diagnostic Properties: Rhombohedral
cleavage, powdered form effervesces
weakly in dilute HCl, curved crystal faces
and frequent twinning
Chemical Composition: CaCO3
Crystal System: Trigonal
Uses: Acid neutralization, a low-hardness
abrasive, soil conditioner, heated for the
production of lime
PYROXENE
 Pyroxenes are the most significant
and abundant group of rock-
forming ferromagnesian silicates.
They are found in almost every
variety of igneous rock and also
occur in rocks of widely different
compositions formed under
conditions of regional and contact
metamorphism. One country
where you can find pyroxene is
Finland.
 A speculative model is also
presented whereby the occurrence
of the garnet pyroxene
transformation in blocks of
eclogite which are sinking through
the mantle provides a mechanism
for deep-focus earthquakes
General Information of Pyroxene:
Chemical Classification: A single chain
inosilicate
Color: Dark green, black, brown
Streak: White to gray to very pale green.
Augite is often brittle, breaking into
splintery fragments on the streak plate.
These can be observed with a hand lens.
Rubbing the debris with a finger produces
a gritty feel with a fine white powder
beneath.
Luster: Vitreous on cleavage and crystal
faces. Dull on other surfaces.
Diaphaneity: Usually translucent to
opaque. Rarely transparent.
Cleavage: Prismatic in two directions that
intersect at slightly less than 90 degrees.
Mohs Hardness: 5.5 to 6
Specific Gravity: 3.2 to 3.6
Diagnostic Properties: Two cleavage
directions intersecting at slightly less
than 90 degrees. Green to black color.
Chemical Composition: A complex silicate.
(Ca,Na) (Mg,Fe,Al)(Si,Al)2O6
Crystal System: Monoclinic
Uses: No significant commercial use.
CHLORITE
 Chlorite - chlorite, widespread
group of layer silicate minerals
occurring in both macroscopic and
clay-grade sizes; they are hydrous
aluminum silicates, usually of
magnesium and iron. The name,
from the Greek for “green, ” refers
to chlorite's typical color. You can
find chlorite in Poland.
 Formation of the iron-rich chlorite
in the lignite overburden shales
probably resulted from
interactions between aluminous
smectite and solutions rich in
ferrous Fe. Exposure of the
overburden shales to oxidizing
conditions may result in the
transformation of chlorite to
smectite with precipitation of
released Fe
General Information of Chlorite:
Chemical Classification: Silicate
Color: Various shades of green. Rarely located in Balkan Peninsula,
yellow, white, pink, black Turkey, the island of Cyprus, the
Alps, Cuba, and New Caledonia.
Streak: Greenish to greenish gray
 Serpentinization is a geological
Luster: Vitreous, pearly, dull low-temperature metamorphic
process involves chemical
Diaphaneity: Transparent, translucent,
reactions which convert
opaque
anhydrous ferromagnesian silicate
Cleavage: Perfect in one direction minerals (pyroxene, olivine) into
hydrous silicate minerals
Mohs Hardness: 2 to 3 (serpentine) plus some other
Specific Gravity: 2.6 to 3.3 possibilities like brucite and
magnetite.
Diagnostic Properties: Color, hardness,
foliated appearance, feels slightly greasy General Information of Serpentine:

Chemical Composition: A generalized Chemical Classification: Silicate

formula: (X,Y)4-6(Si,Al)4O10(OH,O)8 The Color: Usually various shades of green,
"X" and "Y" in the formula represent ions, but can be yellow, black, white, and other
which might include: Fe+2, Fe+3, Mg+2, colors.
Mn+2, Ni+2, Zn+2, Al+3, Li+1, or Ti+4.
The composition and physical properties Streak: White
of chlorites vary as these ions substitute
Luster: Greasy or waxy
for one another in solid solution.
Diaphaneity: Translucent to opaque,
Crystal System: Monoclinic
rarely transparent
Uses: Very few industrial uses. Used as a
Cleavage: Poor to perfect
filler and as a constituent of clay.
Mohs Hardness: Variable between 3 and 6
Specific Gravity: 2.5 to 2.6
SERPENTINE
Diagnostic Properties: Color, luster,
 Serpentinite is a rock composed
fibrous habit, hardness, slippery feel
predominantly of one or more
serpentine group minerals, the Chemical Composition:
name originating from the (Mg,Fe,Ni,Al,Zn,Mn)2-
similarity of the texture of the rock 3(Si,Al,Fe)2O5(OH)4
to that of the skin of a snake.
Crystal System: Most serpentine minerals
Serpentinite has been called
are monoclinic.
serpentine or serpentine rock,
particularly in older geological Uses: A source of asbestos, architectural
texts and in wider cultural settings. stone, ornamental stone, gem material.
The most famous deposits are
STAUROLITE
 Staurolite - a mineral, basic iron
aluminum silicate,
Fe2Al2O7(SiO4)4(OH), occurring
in brown to black prismatic
crystals, which are often twinned
in the form of a cross. You can find
staurolite in Canada; North
Carolina, Virginia, and Georgia,
U.S.; Brazil; Brittany, France; and
Switzerland, especially along the
Saint Gotthard Pass
 Staurolite can alter to chlorite or
sericite and to a mixture of clay
minerals and iron oxides during
retrograde metamorphism and
weathering. Staurolite and kyanite
can be found associated as
epitaxial intergrowths, thanks to
their closely related crystal
structure.
General Information of Staurolite:
Chemical Classification: Silicate
Color: Usually brown, reddish brown,
yellowish brown, brownish black, black,
dark gray
Streak: Colorless (harder than the streak
plate)
Luster: Vitreous, sometimes resinous
Diaphaneity: Translucent to opaque,
rarely transparent
Cleavage: Poor
Mohs Hardness: 7 to 7.5
Specific Gravity: 3.7 to 3.8
Diagnostic Properties: Color, six-sided
crystals that are frequently twinned,
usually found in schist and gneiss with
muscovite mica and almandine garnet
Chemical Composition:
(Fe,Mg)2Al9Si4O23(OH)
Crystal System: Monoclinic Uses: Little
industrial use
EPIDOTE
 Epidote - a lustrous yellow-green
crystalline mineral, common in
metamorphic rocks. It consists of a
hydroxyl silicate of calcium,
aluminum, and iron. You can find
epidote in Austria.
 Epidote is a very common
hydrothermal alteration mineral.
This alteration process, if it
happens with feldspars, is known
as epidotization.
General Information of Epidote:
Chemical Classification: Silicate
Color: Usually yellowish green to
pistachio green, sometimes brownish
green to black
Streak: Colorless
Luster: Vitreous to resinous
Diaphaneity: Transparent to translucent
to nearly opaque
Cleavage: Perfect in one direction,
imperfect
Mohs Hardness: 6 to 7
Specific Gravity: 3.3 to 3.5
Diagnostic Properties: Color, cleavage,
specific gravity
Chemical Composition: Ca2(Al2,Fe)(SiO4)
(Si2O7)O(OH)
Crystal System: Monoclinic Uses:
Semiprecious gem.
ZEOLITE
 Zeolites are microporous,
crystalline aluminosilicate
materials commonly used as
commercial adsorbents and
catalysts. They mainly consist of
silicon, aluminum, oxygen. These
positive ions can be exchanged for
others in the current contacting
electrolyte solution. H+ exchanged
zeolites are particularly useful as
solid acid catalysts. China is the
biggest producer of zeolite.
 The heat around 700 °C was
sufficient to transform the natural
zeolite to amorphous metazeolite.
Indeed, heating the zeolite
material at 800 °C was suggested
to decrease performance. It is
apparent that the activation of
natural zeolite by thermal
treatment results in a wide range
of outcomes.
General Information of Zeolite:
Composition: Na2O.Al2O3.xSiO2.xH2O
Mohs Hardness: 4.0 -5.0
Density: 2.0-2.1 g/ml
Refractive Index: 1.470-1.494
Color: white to reddish tabular
monoclinic tectosilicate crystals
Gravity: 2.1 to 2.2
Eight elements make up 98% of
the Earth’s crust these are oxygen,
silicon, aluminum, iron,
magnesium, calcium, sodium and
potassium. The composition of
minerals formed by igneous
processes is directly controlled by
the chemistry of the parent body.
For example, a magma rich in iron
and magnesium will form minerals
such as olivine and pyroxene (as
found in basalt). Magma richer in
silicon will form more silicarich
minerals such as feldspar and
quartz (as found in granite). It is
unlikely that a mineral will be
found in a rock with dissimilar
bulk chemistry unlike its own;
thus it is unlikely that andalusite
(Al2SiO5) would be found in an
aluminum-poor rock such as a
quartzite.
PROPERTIES, PROCESS
FORMATION OF ALL
MINERALS
o Physical and chemical condition s
include factors such as
temperature, pressure, presence of
water, pH, and amount of oxygen
available. Time is one of the most
important factors because it takes
time for atoms to become ordered.
If time is limited, the mineral
grains will remain very small. The
presence of water enhances the
 mobility of ions and can lead to the
formation of larger crystals over
shorter time periods.
o Most of the minerals that make up
the rocks around us formed
through the cooling of molten
rocks, known as magma. At the
high temperatures that exist deep
within earth, some geological
materials are liquid. As magma
rises up through the crust, either
volcanic eruption or by more
gradual process, it cools and
minerals crystallized. If the cooling
process is rapid (minutes, hours,
days, or years), the components of
the minerals will not have time to
become ordered and only small
crystals can form before the rock
becomes solid. The resulting rock
will be fine grained (crystals less
than 1mm). If the cooling is slow
(from decades to millions of
years), the degree of ordering will
be higher and relatively large
crystals will form. In some cases,
the cooling will be so fast
(seconds) that the texture will be
glassy, which means that no
crystals at all form.
o Minerals form in all geologic
environments and thus under a
wide range of chemical and
physical conditions, such as
varying temperature and pressure.
FOUR MAIN CATEGORIES OF
MINERAL FORMATION
 IGNEOUS OR MAGMATIC -
Igneous rocks and minerals
solidify from molten rock, called
magma below the Earth’s crust and
lava when flowing above ground.
These rocks and their mineral
components, presented below, are
the result of processes that formed
Earth and other rocky planets.
Igneous environments are integral
to the recycling of Earth’s crust;
they produce the granite roots of
the continental plates and basaltic
rocks beneath the oceans. For
those studying our dynamic planet,
igneous rocks and minerals are
windows into Earth’s deep
processes.
 Igneous rocks and minerals
solidify from molten rock, called
magma below the Earth’s crust and
lava when flowing above ground.
These rocks and their mineral
components, presented below, are
the result of processes that formed
Earth and other rocky planets.
Igneous environments are integral
to the recycling of Earth’s crust;
they produce the granite roots of
the continental plates and basaltic
rocks beneath the oceans. For
those studying our dynamic planet,
igneous rocks and minerals are
windows into Earth’s deep
processes.
 SEDIMENTARY - in which
minerals are the result of
sedimentation, a process whose
raw materials are particles from
 other rocks that have undergone
weathering or erosion.
 Earth is always changing. As rocks
and minerals become exposed at
its surface, the weathering process
changes them through exposure to
air, water, ice, and life. Weathering
is often accompanied by erosion,
or the transportation of weathered
materials by flowing water, wind,
ice, and gravity. Weathering
counteracts Earth’s dynamic
building processes and, over
millions of years, has produced the
clays, soils, and salts critical to the
survival of life on Earth—including
our own.
 Water on Earth, such as the water
in the oceans, contains chemical
elements mixed into a solution.
Various processes can cause these
elements to combine to form solid
mineral deposits.
 When water evaporates, it leaves
behind a solid precipitate of
minerals. When the water in glass
A evaporates, the dissolved
mineral particles are left behind
 Tufa towers form when calcium-
rich spring water at the bottom of
Mono Lake bubbles up into the
alkaline lake. The tufa towers
appear when lake level drops.
 METAMORPHIC – in which
new minerals form at the expense
of earlier ones owing to the effects
of changing, usually increasing of
temperature or pressure or both
on some existing rock type.
 The minerals in the original rock
were formed at one set of
conditions, but were then
subjected to different conditions of
heat, pressure, and H2O
abundance in Earth’s crust. They
responded to that change by
transforming to become minerals
stable under the new conditions.
Metamorphic rocks and minerals
record the history of the dynamic
Earth.
 When magma erupts onto Earth’s
surface, it is called lava. Lava cools
much more rapidly than magma
when it is below the surface. In a
cooling lava, mineral crystals do
not have time to form and are very
small. The chemical composition
will be the same as if the magma
cooled slowly. Existing rocks may
be heated enough so that the
molecules are released from their
structure and can move around.
The molecules may match up with
different molecules to form new
minerals as the rock cools. This
occurs during metamorphism.
 HYDROTHERMAL - in which
minerals are chemically
precipitated from hot solutions
within Earth.
 Hydrothermal processes require
hot water, which dissolves
minerals and transports their
components where the water goes,
along fractures and through
porous rocks. As the water travels,
it cools—or other conditions
change—and the dissolved
 materials can be deposited in
spaces in the surrounding rocks,
forming veins or pockets of
minerals.
 Magma heats nearby underground
water, which reacts with the rocks
around it to pick up dissolved
particles. As the water flows
through open spaces in the rock
and cools, it deposits solid
minerals. The mineral deposits
that form when a mineral fills
cracks in rocks are called veins.
 When minerals are deposited in
open spaces, large crystals form.
(Amethyst formed when large
crystals grew in open spaces inside
the rock. These special rocks are
called geodes)
 The first three processes generally
lead to varieties of rocks in which
different mineral grains are closely
intergrown in an interlocking
fabric. Hydrothermal solutions,
and even solutions at very low
temperatures (e.g., groundwater),
tend to follow fracture zones in
rocks that may provide open
spaces for the chemical
precipitation of minerals from
solution. It is from such open
spaces, partially filled by minerals
deposited from solutions, that
most of the spectacular mineral
specimens have been collected. If a
mineral that is in the process of
growth (as a result of
precipitation) is allowed to
develop in a free space, it will
generally exhibit a welldeveloped
crystal form, which adds to a
specimen’s aesthetic beauty.
Similarly, geodes, which are
rounded, hollow, or partially
hollow bodies commonly found in
limestones, may contain well-
formed crystals lining the central
cavity. Geodes form as a result of
mineral deposition from solutions
such as groundwater.
COAL AND PETROLEUM
- Coal and petroleum are both products
of the decomposition of prehistoric plant
life that existed millions of years ago. This
decomposing vegetation began to
accumulate, resulting in the formation of
peat. Geological processes generated heat
and pressure over time to convert these
minerals into coal. These are also called
COAL
as fossil fuels.
o Coal formation occurred millions
of years ago, where plants
completed their life cycle and
wilted. New plants replaced them,
they went through a life cycle, and
the entire process repeated itself
over the years, resulting in the
accumulation of dead plants on the
earth's surface.
o This resulted in the formation of a
very thick layer of dead
decomposed materials that
compressed plant matter and
washed away all decayed
materials. Over time, physical and
chemical changes occurred as a
result of heat and temperature
removing all oxygen from plant
 layers, leaving only carbon-rich
material, culminating in the
creation of coal.
TYPES OF COAL
- Coal is a readily combustible rock
containing more than 50% by weight of
carbon. Coal formed can be of three types
depending on the amount of oxygen,
carbon and hydrogen they contain.
 PEAT – (decay of vegetative
material) - First stage of
transformation and it contains less
than 40 to 55 percent carbon. It
burns like wood, gives less heat,
emits more smoke and leaves a lot
of ash.
 LIGNITE – (compressed peat) -
aka brown coal, is the lowest grade
coal with the least concentration of
carbon. Lignite has a low heating
value and a high moisture content
and is mainly used in electricity
generation. It contains 40-55
percent of carbon.
 BITUMINOUS – (compressed
lignite) - Bituminous coal is a
middle rank coal between
subbituminous and anthracite.
Bituminous coal usually has a high
heating value and is used in
electricity generation and steel
making. It contains 40-80 percent
of carbon. It is dense, compact, and
is usually of black color. Its
moisture and volatile content is 15
to 40 percent. Its calorific value is
very high due to high proportion of
carbon and low moisture.
 SUBBITUMINOUS - coal has a
lower heating value than
bituminous coal. It is a category of
coal which appears as grey-black
or dark brown. It ranges from hard
to soft as it represents an
intermediate stage between low
quality lignite and higher quality
bituminous coal. The carbon
content of subbituminous coal
varies from 70-76%.
 ANTHRACITE – (considered by
some to be a type of metamorphic
rock) - The highest rank of coal. It
is a hard, brittle, and black lustrous
coal, often referred to as hard coal,
containing a high percentage of
fixed carbon and a low percentage
of volatile matter. It contains 80-
95 percent of carbon. It ignites
slowly and burns with a short blue
flame.
The Philippines has 19 coal districts. The
largest total coal resource is estimated at
570 Mmt of subbituminous coal is located
in the Semirara coal district located on
Semirara Island. The smallest coal
resource at 0.7 Mmt is the lignite-
subbituminous coal in the Quirino coal
district. The combines lignite and
subbituminous coal resources, using the
classification by GCRDD and including
Semirara and Surigao coal districts, are
about 1,899.2 MMT, Which make up about
84 percent of the total coal resources of
the Philippines. The remaining resources
are composed of bituminous and semi-
PETROLEUM
anthracite coal.
o Petroleum, also called crude oil, is o Petroleum reservoirs can be found
a fossil fuel. Like coal and natural beneath land or the ocean floor.
gas, petroleum was formed from Their crude oil is extracted with
the remains of ancient marine giant drilling machines. Crude oil
organisms, such as plants, algae, can appear very fluid, volatile
and bacteria. Over millions of liquids and also viscous, semisolid
years of intense heat and pressure, materials. It is usually black or
black with a greenish tinge in
PETROLEUM color. Sometimes it can be reddish,
greenish-yellow, light yellow, or
these organic remains (fossils) transparent. Natural gas is a
transformed into carbon-rich colorless and odorless gas.
substances we rely on as raw
materials for fuel and a wide
variety of products. PRODUCTS OF PETROLEUM
o The geological conditions that
AND THEIR USES
would eventually create petroleum
formed millions of years ago, when - petroleum products are obtained as a result
plants, algae, and plankton drifted of refining crude oil in oil refineries
in oceans and shallow seas. These
 GASES - Gaseous products
organisms sank to the seafloor at
obtained from the refinery are
the end of their life cycle. Over
hydrogen, fuel gas, ethane,
time, they were buried and
propane, and butane. Propane and
crushed under millions of tons of
butane are collectively known as
sediment and even more layers of
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG),
plant debris.
which is a portable and suitable
o Eventually, ancient seas dried up
fuel for light industrial use and
and dry basins remained, called
domestic heating (cooking).
sedimentary basins. Deep under
 GASOLINE - Gasoline uses include
the basin floor, the organic
application in internal combustion
material was compressed between
engines, commonly used in private
Earth’s mantle, with very high
and commercial vehicles.
temperatures, and millions of tons
 DIESEL - It is commonly used in
of rock and sediment above.
trucks, buses and public transport,
Oxygen was almost completely
locomotives, farm and heavy
absent in these conditions, and the
equipment. Diesel has greater
organic matter began to transform
energy and power density than
into a waxy substance called
gasoline.
kerogen. With more heat, time, and
 KEROSENE - It is used extensively
pressure, the kerogen underwent a
globally in cooking and space
process called catagenesis, and
heating. It is also the basic fuel for
transformed into hydrocarbons.
modern jet engines.
 FUEL OIL - It can be used as a
power source of lamps, heaters,
stoves, engines and lanterns
typically at home in furnaces and
boilers. The machinery of farming,
mining or quarrying machinery or
even bunkering ships uses fuel oil.
THE ORIGIN AND
OCCURRENCE OF COAL
AND PETROLEUM
COAL
 is a nonrenewable fossil fuel that is
combusted and used to generate
electricity. Mining techniques and
combustion are both dangerous to
miners and hazardous to the
environment; however, coal
accounts for about half of the
electricity generation in the United
States.
PETROLEUM
 also called crude oil, is a fossil fuel.
Like coal and natural gas,
petroleum was formed from the
remains of ancient marine
organisms, such as plants, algae,
and bacteria. Over millions of
years of intense heat and pressure,
these organic remains (fossils)
transformed into carbon-rich
substances we rely on as raw
materials for fuel and a wide
variety of products.
 Coal and petroleum are formed as
a result of degradation of ancient
plant life which lived millions of
years ago. These dead plant matter
started to pile up, eventually
forming a substance called peat.
Over time, heat and pressure from
geological processes transformed
these materials into coal.
 The petroleum industry is first
encountered in the archaeological
record near Hit in what is now
Iraq. Hit is on the banks of the
Euphrates river and is the site of
an oil seep known locally as The
Fountains of Pitch. There asphalt
was quarried for use as mortar
between building stones as early
as 6000 years ago.
 Oil and gas had already been used
in some capacity, such as in lamps
or as a material for construction,
for thousands of years before the
modern era, with the earliest
known oil wells being drilled in
China in 347 AD.
 They are obtained in igneous and
metamorphic rocks at the cracks,
crevices, faults, or joints. In
sedimentary rocks, several
minerals like Coal, petroleum, and
some forms of iron ore have been
concentrated as a result of
deposition, accumulation, and
concentration for long periods
under great heat and pressure.
CHEMICAL STRUCTURE and 45.80 million tons with a strip
ratio of 8.4 m³/ton, respectively.
o Venezuela is the leading country in
COAL terms of oil reserves, with over
304 billion barrels of oil beneath
 As for its chemical composition, its surface. Saudi Arabia is a close
coal is a mixture of high-molecular second with 298 billion, and
weight polycyclic aromatic Canada is third with 170 billion
compounds, such as benzene barrels of oil reserves.
C6H6, toluene C6H5CH3, xylene
C6H4(CH3)2, naphthalene C10H8,
anthracene C14H10, pyrene
C16H10 and their derivatives with
high mass fraction of carbon, as
well as of water and volatile
substances.

PETROLEUM
 Chemically, petroleum consists
principally of hydrogen and
carbon, but also contains small
percentages of oxygen, nitrogen,
sulfur, and traces of metals, such
as vanadium, cobalt, and nickel.
The common organic compounds
include alkanes (paraffins),
naphthenes, aromatics, and
heterocompounds.

DEPOSITS OF COAL AND

PETROLEUM

o Three mineable coal areas: Unong,

Himalian and Panian, are located
in Semirara island, with the
mineable reserves given as 16.70
million tons each, with a strip ratio
of 7.5 m³/ton, 37.50 million tons
with a strip ratio of 11.3 m³/ton