Jiver Dhaiynz Aubrelle B. Aquino | Xyra D.

Badangayon
BSABE 4
Aquaculture Engineering

MILKFISH

Chanos chanos from French

Polynesia

\
Milkfish (locally bangus)
in a Philippine fish market

Scientific Classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Gonornchiformes
Family: Chanidae
Genus: Chanos
(Lacepede, 1803)
Species: C. chanos

Binomial name
Chanos chanos (Forsskal, 1775)
 Contents

1 Introduction
2 Basic Biological Characteristics and Requirements of Milkfish
3 Selection Criteria and Characteristics of Bangus
3.1 Sites for Milkfish Farming
3.2 Characteristics of Bangus
4 Production Cycle of Bangus
4.1 Milkfish Seed Production
4.2 Grow-out in Ponds
4.3 Grow-out in Pens and Cages
5 Environmental and Water Quality Requirements
6 Culture practices and Other Considerations
6.1 Culture Practices
6.2 Culture Techniques
6.3 Basic Pond Preparation Procedure

INTRODUCTION
 Milkfish

Milkfish (Chanos chanos, Forskal) is one of the most important food fish species in the world.
It is the only member of the family Chanidae in the order of Gonorynchiform, which is nearly
related to tuna and salmon because of its fusiform shape and migratory nature. It is widely
distributed in the Indo-pacific region and abundantly collected in the South and Southeast Asian,
and West Pacific Regions. In Indonesia, Taiwan, and the Philippines, more than a quarter of a
million tons of milkfish are harvested annually in brackish ponds, contributing roughly 60 % of
the total fish production from aquaculture in Southeast Asia. Milkfish is commonly known as
“BANGUS” in and is entitled the National Fish of the Philippines. It is popularly cultured in the
country because of its better food-converting capacity.
Milkfish is first described as a type of mullet and was named as Mugil chanos by Petrus
Forsskal, a Danish biologist in 1775. Lacepede used the name Chanos arabicus in 1803,
elevating the specific name to generic level. However, it is Kluzinger, a taxonomist, who first
use the scientific name chanos chanos in 1871. It is a heterosexual fish; hermaphrodism has not
been reported. In natural spawning stocks, the sex ratio is almost equal, with a slightly higher
number of females. The determination of sex is very difficult, because there are no easily
identifiable morphological differences between males and females; however, the pheromone
PGF2a (prostaglandin) has been found to be an effective way to identify mature male milkfish.
Milkfish is cultured in brackish water ponds, pens, and cages. In terms of fry supply, fish farmers
are entirely dependent on fry collected along the coastlines during breeding season. Its
production has considerably increased over the years. The milkfish industry however, is still
confronted with problems such as inadequate fry supply, high cost of farm inputs, lack of
technology for value-added, lack of manpower to effectively transfer technology, and multi-
layered marketing system.
Sleek and silvery, its mildness, sweet flesh, and melt-on-the-mouth belly fat are the reasons why
bangus is a favorite Filipino fish. This national fish is rated first-class in Metro Manila. Its
popularity is gleamed in such recipes as bangus en tocho, bulanglang na bangus, rellenong
bangus, and bangus lumpia.
BASIC BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND REQUIREMENTS OF MILKFISH
Milkfish eggs float and are pelagic since spawning of wild adults is thought to occur in the open
sea. Observations of milkfish eggs collected from the Java Sea have been recently confirmed
when eggs were obtained at SEAFDEC following spawning induction of wild adult milkfish.
Milkfish eggs are spherical. Oil globules are lacking and the chorion appears granular with a fine
segmentation pattern. The yolk has a light-yellow tinge and a very narrow perivitelline space is
present.
Milkfish eggs (1.1−1.2 mm in diameter) and larvae (3.5 mm at hatching) are pelagic and stay in
the plankton for up to 2−3 weeks. Egg division begins an hour after and hatching
occurs 35−36 hours after spawning. In the wild, eggs are probably released in deeper oceanic
waters and in the outer reef region. Older larvae migrate onshore and settle in coastal wetlands
(mangroves, estuaries) during the juvenile stage, or occasionally enter freshwater lakes. The
larvae eat zooplankton and can thrive and grow in water as warm as 32 °C. They then migrate
onshore, where they can be caught by fine-mesh nets operated along sandy beaches and
mangrove areas. These 'fry' is 10-17 mm long and are used as seedstock in grow-out ponds, pens
and cages. In the wild, juveniles are found in mangrove areas and coastal lagoons, and even
travel upriver into lakes; they go back to sea when they get too large for the nursery habitat, or
when they are about to mature sexually.

Table 1. Biological Characteristic of Milkfish

Part Characteristic
body fusiform elongated, moderately compressed, smooth and streamlined
body color silvery on belly and sides grading is olive-green or blue on back
fins (general) dorsal, anal, and caudal pale or yellowish with dark margins
single dorsal fin with 2 spines and 13-17 soft rays
short anal fin with 2 spines and 8-10 soft rays, close to caudal fin
caudal fin large and deeply forked with large scale flaps at base in adults
pectoral fins low on body with axillary (inner basal) scales
pelvic fins abdominal with axillary scales and 11 or 12 rays
scales cycloid, small and smooth, 75-91 on lateral line
scute no scute (modified pointed scales) along belly
adipose transparent 'adipose' tissue covers eye
mouth small and terminal without teeth
lower jaw with small tubercle at tip, fitting into notch in upper jaw; no
bony gular plate between arms
branchiostegal rays four supporting underside of gill covers
gill rakers fine and numerous
length typical length of 1 m but may reach maximum length of 1.8 m
(male)

Milkfish was described under 10 different names, while 15 other authors described it under 18
other synonyms. In part, these different synonyms may have been due to apparent geographic
variation. The Order Gonorynchiform is characterized as follows:
 o epibranchial organ present, consisting of lateral pouches on the posterior part of the
branchial chamber;
o mouth small;
o jaws toothless (except in phractolaemids);
o first 3 vertebrae specialized and associated with 1 or more cephalic ribs;
o 5-7 hypural plates; and
o intermuscular bones present
There are 4 families, 7 genera, and 27 species in the Gonorynchiform: Chanidae (1 species,
marine to freshwater, Indo-Pacific), Gonorynchidae (1 species, marine, Indo-Pacific),
Phractolaemidae (1 species, freshwater, tropical Africa), and Kneriidae (24 species, freshwater,
tropical Africa and Nile).
A simple and clear description of milkfish:
o Body elongate, moderately compressed, without scales along belly.
o Adipose tissue covering eye.
o Four branchiostegal rays.
o Maxilla short, not reaching back beyond eye center; lower jaw with symphysial tubercle.
o Supramaxillae is not present.
o Not gular plate.
o Dorsal and anal fins with basal sheath of scales; large axillary scale at base of pectoral
and pelvic fins; caudal fin deeply forked.
o Small scales, cycloid (smooth); lateral line present.
o Color: back olive green, side silvery.
o Dorsal and caudal fins with black margin.
o Inside of pectoral and pelvic fins is dark.
However, there are two morphological characteristics which previous authors have overlooked in
past descriptions of milkfish: the presence of small, thin flaps at the central portion of each side
of the caudal fin and the line of small, thin scale-like flaps on the dorsal aspect of the caudal
peduncle. The functions of these structures, however, are not presently known.

SELECTION CRITERIA AND CHARACTERISTICS OF BANGUS

Sites for Milkfish Farming
The site of the aquaculture project is perhaps the most significant factor that determines the
culture method and level of viability of an aquaculture operation.
Major Site Selection Characteristics
a) adequate source of water year-round that is free of pollution from sea, river or creek
b) near source of seed stock and market for the produce.
c) other factors: farm-to-market roads, power supply, telephone, available labor, construction
materials and other necessary inputs, and the peace and order condition in the area.
Site Selection for Milkfish Hatchery
a) site should be situated in areas with favorable climatic condition that would permit
year-round and efficient operation
b) elevation of the site should be given particular attention to prevent flooding of the
hatchery and for proper water drainage
c) site should be far from population centers and free from possible impact of inland
water discharges, especially agricultural pesticides and domestic or industrial waste
d) seawater source from a bay or open sea rather than from a river or creek is preferred.
e) sites which are to be avoided are swamps, river mouths, tidal flats, and muddy shores
f) adequate freshwater supply for cleaning tanks and equipment, salinity adjustment for
larval rearing and culture of food organisms, and domestic consumption
g) reliable electric supply to provide the necessary power to run the life support system
and equipment 24 hours a day
h) site should be near available source of milkfish broodstocks, eggs, or newly hatched
larvae
i) accessibility
j) peace and order situation in the locality

Characteristics of Bangus
 It can reach a maximum size of 180 cm SL (male/unsexed) and 124 cm SL (female).
 The maximum recorded weight and age is 14.0 kg and 15 years respectively.
 Resilience is low, with a minimum population doubling time of 4.5−14 years .
 Its fisheries importance is highly commercial, especially in aquaculture, and it is also
used in game fish as bait.
 It is especially valued as a food fish in Southeast Asia.
 It is larger than 20 mm, acquiring the characteristic shape and morphology of the adult of
the species, and are considered juveniles.
 Juveniles less than 10 cm long are usually called fingerlings. They bear complete fin-ray
complements, forked caudal fin, scales, and silvery coloration. Juvenile milkfish have
been found in such diverse habitats as coral lagoons, mangrove lagoons, estuaries, marsh
 flats, tidal creeks, and tide pools that share the common characteristics of rich food
deposits and protected, relatively shallow waters.
 Fry from shore waters (2−3 weeks old ) have well differentiated esophagus and a straight
stomach-intestine. 28 days after capture, the pyloric caeca appear and the stomach
differentiates into the cardiac and pyloric regions.
 A rudimentary epibranchial organ and 14 gill rakers are present in 14 mm shore-caught
fry; the former becomes fully elaborated and the latter come to number
177∈19 mm juveniles .
 The intestine-to-body length ratio increases with growth.
 It grows very well in ponds, compared to many other fish and crustacean species, which
is why it has been so successfully cultured for centuries.
 Growth rates of juvenile milkfish vary considerably depending on generic factors, which
have not been studied; environmental factors such as food, competitors, pests, predators,
dissolved oxygen, temperature, salinity, pH, and toxicants; and stock manipulation
techniques such as initial stock size, stocking density, feeding, duration of culture, mono-
or polyculture with other species.
 Growth and survival parameters are among the tools used to evaluate culture techniques
and innovations, so data for juvenile milkfish abound

Basic Parts of a Milkfish

PRODUCTION CYCLE OF BANGUS

Bangus farming has been regarded as the “backbone of Philippine aquaculture” by most fishery
experts. Dating back more than a century ago, the significant growth of the commercial
production of bangus was realized. On 2010, the country is one of the top bangus producers in
the world, contributing around 55 % share of the world bangus production.
Also known as milkfish, bangus is most closely related to carps and catfishes. As a warm water
species, it prefers water temperatures between 20−33℃ . In the Philippines, bangus can be
raised everywhere. The top bangus producing provinces are Bulacan, Pangasinan, Capiz, Iloilo,
and Negros Occidental. According to the Bureau of Agricultural Statistics (BAS), the combined
production of these five provinces alone accounts for more than 50 % of the country’s total
production.
Raising bangus can be done employing different production systems in freshwater and in
brackish water. Depending on the available resources and level of management, the culture
methods can vary from the traditional of extensive system, modular or semi-intensive to the
intensive system.
To make fishponds and fish cages productive throughout the year adequate supply of bangus
fingerlings is necessary. Historically, milkfish fry abounds in the country during the fry season in
the months of April to October. The number collected, however, has diminished during recent
years. Among the causes cited for this include the destruction of natural habits brought about by
the excessive conversion of mangrove areas to fishponds, destructive fishing methods, and
environmental degradation, among others. With the decrease in seed supply, the cost of fry and
fingerlings has increased significantly. Some have resorted to importing fingerlings from Taiwan
and Indonesia to save the bangus industry from downfall.
The price per piece of wild bangus was P 1.00 years ago. With the introduction to the market of
hatchery produced fry, the price now ranges from P 0.30to P 0.50 per piece only. This doesn’t
only give huge savings to fishpond operators, but it also provides them good quality and steady
supply throughout the year.
Along with the increase of bangus production, hatcheries are made in different parts of the
country. Here, breeders are maintained and managed to produce bangus eggs on a daily basis
throughout the year. The eggs are collected, cleaned, and hatched. The hatchlings are grown to
marketable sizes in 18−21 days in larval ponds. During this growing period, they are fed
planktons and commercial feeds.
It takes 5 years for a bangus to mature sexually. Breeders are then selected for commercial
production only when they are 8 years old. The female breeder, called sabalo, can produce
7 kgs / year (1 kg=750,000 eggs).
 Production cycle of Chanos chanos

Bangus spawns in ponds in frenzy at night. The sabalo release the eggs while the males
discharge the milt. Fertilization happens externally in the pond water, which is why there is no
need for hormone induction for mature breeders. The eggs are collected in nets in the early
morning, and then cleaned and placed in the larval ponds immediately. The bangus eggs hatch in
the ponds within 24 hrs . The hatchlings feed on the yolk sac for about 2−3 days. They undergo
morphological transformations. As first seeds, the larva are supplied natural food in a mixture of
zoo- and phyto-planktons. Commercial feeds are provided in the last quarter of the production.
Bangus is grown in a number of stages and in varying degrees of culture intensity depending on
the grower’s production design and the nature of the growing environment. The simplest bangus
value chain is the three-stage system of a nursery stage, a transition stage, and a grow-out stage.
 fry fingerling juvenile
(kawag-
kawag) (haitirin) (garungan)

In the nursery, bangus is a grown from fry (kawag-kawag) to fingerling (hatirin). In the
transition stage, the fingerlings are grown to juvenile (garungan). In the grow-out stage, the
juveniles are grown to marketable sizes.

Milkfish Seed Production

Seed supply
Milkfish fry can either be obtained through collection from coastal areas, littoral waters,
or can be produced in captivity. The supply of wild fry is often unpredictable. Moreover,
catches in recent years have diminished and cannot satisfy the demand from on-growing
farms.
Fry from captive broodstock and spawners
To develop broodstock under captive conditions, large juvenile milkfish may be stocked,
fed, and maintained in floating sea cages in protected coves or in large, deep, fully saline
ponds, or in large deep concrete tanks on land until they reach sexual maturity with an
average body weight of at least 1.5 kg . Land-based broodstock facilities are entirely
dependent on fresh pumped seawater supplies and are often integrated with a hatchery.
Broodstocks reach maturity in five years in large floating cages, but may take 8-10 years
in ponds and concrete tanks. On average, first-spawning broodstocks tend to be smaller
than adults caught from the wild. As a result, first-time spawners produce fewer eggs than
wild adults, but larger and older broodstocks produce as many eggs as wild adults of
similar size. Broodstocks of about 8 years old and averaging 6 kg produce
3−4 million eggs.
Breeding milkfish in captive conditions and the mass production of fry, as practiced in
Taiwan Province of China, Indonesia and the Philippines, is mostly dependent on natural
spawning, which assures high survival rates. Artificial induction is not normally used. On
days when natural spawning occurs, the fish may feed less than usual but show increased
swimming activity and exhibit chasing, occasional leaping, and water-slapping activities
from late noon to early evening. Spawning usually takes place around midnight but
daytime spawning sometimes occurs.
Wild-caught fry
Wild-caught fry are collected with fine-mesh seines and bag nets of various indigenous
designs in the Philippines, Taiwan Province of China and Indonesia. The most commonly
used gear is push net 'sweepers' and dragged seines.
Broodstock Development and Maintenance
Milkfish is grown in brackish water ponds or in marine cages for five years to reach
sexual maturity. When grown in brackish water ponds, these are transferred to marine
waters either in floating sea cages or land-based tanks and fed high protein diet for them
to develop their gonads. In land-based tanks, a flow-through water system at an exchange
rate of 200% per day is maintained. The fish are allowed to spawn naturally, although
they may also be induced by hormone injection. Milkfish eggs are collected by using fine
mesh nets.
Larval Rearing and Fry Production
Milkfish larvae can be reared in indoor or outdoor tanks made of concrete or fiberglass at
full seawater salinity (above 30 ppt ). The rotifer (Brachionus plicatilis) is reared in
advance using the nannoflagellate Nannochloropsis sp. as feed so that it is available once
the larvae start feeding. The eggs are allowed to hatch in hatching tanks and the day-old
larvae transferred to larval rearing tanks at 30 larvae/liter . Feeding starts once the yolk
reserves are consumed (36 hrs ). Additional live feed in the form of Artemia nauplii and
artificial larval diet are added on the 12th day. Larval rearing water is changed at a
differed rate from 2nd day to the day of harvest. The fry is marketable at 21 days.
Hatchery Production
Milkfish hatcheries consist of larval rearing tanks, culture tanks for rotifers (Brachionus)
and green algae (e.g. Chlorella) and hatching tanks for brine shrimp (Artemia). Larval
rearing may be either operated in outdoor or indoor systems, depending on the specific
conditions in the countries where fry is being produced.
Hatchery operations utilize either intensive (high stocking density, high volume tanks,
daily feeding and water exchange) or semi-intensive (low stocking density, high volume
tanks, minimal water exchange, feeding with mixed diet) systems, with an average
survival rate of 30 % (from stocked newly-hatched larvae). After hatching, the larvae are
ideally kept at 50/litre in hatchery tanks (either concrete, fibreglass, canvas or
polypropylene-covered earthen tanks) maintained with Chlorella and fed with rotifers
during the early stages and later with copepods or brine shrimp for a total of 3−4 weeks.
Following this, their size ranges between 2−3 cm and they are ready for transport to
nurseries.
 The sales of hatchery-bred fingerlings are increasing. Before, fish operators and growers
were skeptical about this new source. Their perceptions, however, have changed and they
now prefer it more than those caught from the wild because of its uniformity and faster
growth. Those from the wild usually have a survival rate of 50 %−60 % , while those
from the hatchery usually have 82 %−85 % survival rate.
Nursery
Nursery operations in milkfish producing countries vary according to established cultural
practices.
In the Philippines, milkfish nurseries are integrated with grow-out facilities, where wild-
caught or hatchery-reared fry are first acclimated into nursery compartments, which
comprise one third to one quarter of the total area of the Brackish water pond. Fry are
stocked at a density of up to 1,000/litre and are fed with a naturally-grown micro-benthic
food known as ' lab−lab ' which grows on the fertilized pond bottom. Nursery rearing
has also been carried out in hapa type suspended nylon nets installed in Brackish water
ponds or lagoons and in freshwater lakes within the grow-out compartments, a
traditionally practice in the Philippines. When natural food is becoming depleted,
artificial feeds such as rice bran, corn bran, and stale bread or formulated feeds are
provided. In about 4−6 weeks, the fry grows to 5−8 cm juveniles, which is the ideal size
for releasing into grow-out ponds or pens. Depending on the desired grow-out period,
juveniles or fingerling size milkfish are kept in nurseries or transition holding tanks up to
the required stocking size of 30−40 g. Nursery rearing from fry to fingerling size
normally achieves 70 percent survival.

Grow-out in Ponds

Shallow water culture is practiced mainly in Indonesia and the Philippines. Milkfish are
traditionally cultured in shallow Brackish water ponds in which the growth of benthic
algae is encouraged through inorganic or organic fertilization. Milkfish will survive on
benthic algae alone only if the productivity of the algae exceeds the grazing rate of the
fish; otherwise, supplemental commercial feeds are applied. The 'lab-lab' culture system
in the Philippines is equivalent to shallow water culture in Taiwan Province of China.
'Lab-lab' is the term used in this country for the algal mat (and all micro-organisms
associated with it) in the ongrowing ponds.

Brackish water ponds in the Philippines were mostly excavated from 'nipa' and mangrove
areas. Shallow water pond design generally consists of several nursery and production
ponds with a typical area of 2000 m ² for nursery ponds and 4 ha for production
(ongrowing) ponds. Typically, ponds have a depth of 30−40 cm and are provided with
independent water supplies.

The average yield of a typical integrated nursery, transition, and shallow grow-out system
that produces 3 crops a year is 800 kg /ha. Modified modular pond designs consisting of a
series of grow-out compartments with a maximum of eight crops a year have been shown
to increase yield to a high as 2000 kg /ha.

Deep water culture was developed in the mid-1970s in response to the decline of
profitability of shallow water culture, and of the limited and increasing value of land and
manpower resources. Deep-water ponds provide a more stable environment and extend
the grow-out period into the winter season. Most deep-water milkfish ponds have been
created by converting either shallow water ponds or freshwater ponds, with a depth of
2−3 m . Production from these systems has sharply increased in Taiwan Province of
China, having expanded from 23 % of the total production in 1981 to 75 % in 1990.

Most milkfish ponds in the Philippines and Indonesia are of the extensive and semi-
intensive type, with large shallow pond units, tidal water exchange, natural food, minimal
use of fertilizer alternating with commercial feeds and other inputs, and low to medium
stocking rates (50,000−100,000/ha). The Taiwanese method of production, on the other
hand, employs intensive stocking densities (150,000−200,000/ha). Few diseases or
infestations have been recorded so far in milkfish grow-out farming in these Asian
countries.

Straight-run Pond culture is a traditional milkfish pond designed to have a small nursery
pond for growing the milkfish fry and a large rearing pond which could range from one
hectare to 50 or even 100 ha. Typically, the fry is reared for one to two months in the
nursery pond and the fingerlings transferred to the rearing pond for rearing up to harvest.
Pond preparation consists of drying, pest eradication, liming, and fertilization. The use of
a transition/stunting pond after the nursery stage can increase production by making
large-sized fingerlings readily available when needed. Stocking density ranges from
1,000 ¿ 3,000 fingerlings /ha depending upon availability of natural food and target
harvest size. Harvest likewise ranges from 300−900 kg /crop or 600−1,800 kg/ year .
Modular or Progression Method is a continuous program of pond preparation, stocking,
transfer, and harvest characterize this method using three progressively larger ponds at a
ratio of 1 :2: 4 or 1 :3: 9 and takes about 30 to 45 days for each stage. The fish are moved
from a smaller to a larger compartment as they grow. This method allows
4 ¿ 8 crops per year with an annual yield ranging from 2,000 ¿ 4,000 kg /ha. Basic pond
preparation in terms of pest control, liming, and fertilization recommended for straight
run applies as well to this system of culture.
Deep-water Plankton Method is a method that utilizes deeper ponds of at least 1 m in
depth in rearing milkfish at higher density using primarily plankton instead of benthic
algae as food. Deeper pond water increases water volume per unit area and therefore
more space is available to the fish and natural food production. This method was
developed when it was observed that milkfish can utilize phytoplankton and zooplankton
in the water column as food source. This method is less prone to snail infestation.
Stocking rate is from 4,000 ¿ 6,000 fingerlings /hectare depending on the availability of
 natural food in the pond and the desired size of fish at harvest. About 3 ¿ 4 crops can be
attained in a year producing an average of 3.5 tons of milkfish/hectare / year .
Semi-Intensive Culture is a method that is characterized by smaller pond size of 1−5 ha ,
at least 1 m depth of water, and an increased stocking rate of
8,000 ¿ 12,000 fingerling /hectare in the rearing pond. Water exchange is enhanced by
widening the gate, provision of separate drain gate, and using water pump. Oxygen
supply is improved by providing paddlewheel aerators and maintaining good
phytoplankton growth later in the growing period. Natural food, mainly lab−lab , is
grown and used as food in the first 45 ¿ 60 days of culture in the grow-out ponds and
commercial formulated diet with at least 27 % protein is supplied thereafter. This method
allows 2 ¿ 3 crops and yields of up to 7.5 tons/ha/ year .
Stock Manipulation Method is a system that aims to maintain a balance between the fish
population and natural food supply by periodic stocking of multi-size fish and partial
harvesting. Under this technique of periodic stocking and partial harvesting, fish biomass
in the pond fluctuates between 250 kg /ha to a maximum of 750 kg /ha until each harvest.
The carrying capacity of brackishwater ponds is from 700 ¿ 800 kg /ha. Annual fish yield
using this method is 2,000 ¿ 3,000 kg /ha. This method was developed and popularly
practiced in Taiwan.
In Polyculture, milkfish is reared with shrimps, mud crab, rabbitfish, seabass, tilapia,
seaweeds, mollusks, and many other fish species either as primary or secondary crop. The
polyculture of milkfish with shrimps or with crabs however, are the most popular and
profitable. They complement each other in terms of habitat and food requirements.
Annual yield of milkfish as the primary stock when grown together with shrimp ranges
from 1,200 ¿ 1,800 kg /ha while annual shrimps’ production is from 100 ¿ 200 kg /ha. On
the other hand, about 550 kg /ha of milkfish and 1,500 kg /ha of crabs per crop can be
attained using the polyculture method. Generally, a minimum of 2 crops/ year can be
undertaken when milkfish is polycultured with either shrimps or crabs.
Intensive Culture requires smaller (0.1−1hectare ) but deeper (1−2 m) grow-out pond,
enormous capital investments, large working capital, and technical proficiency. This type
of culture allows 2 ¿ 3 crops a year and produces a high yield of up to 12 tons/ha/ yr but is
considered a high-risk venture. Mass mortality is a constant threat due to accumulations
of toxic metabolites, such as ammonia and sulfides, oxygen depletion, and diseases.
Procedures in pond preparation, maintaining good water quality, feeding, and care of
stocks are very similar with semi-intensive method but with more material and technical
inputs.

Grow-out in Pens and Cages

Pen culture
This system was introduced in the Philippines in 1979 in the Laguna Lake. At that time,
the lake had a very high primary productivity, which met the nutritional needs of
milkfish. Because of the low rate of input and the high rate of return, the pen culture area
increased sharply from 1973 to 1983, and exceeded more than 50 %of the total lake
surface, which is 90,000 ha . As the primary production of the lake could not meet this
sudden expansion of aquaculture, and feeding became necessary to meet the nutritional
requirements of the cultured fish, the pen culture practices developed in lakes were later
introduced into inter-tidal areas in the Philippines along coves and river estuaries as well.
Pen operators stock fingerlings at 30,000−35,000/ha and provide supplemental
commercial diets. However, disease spreads among culture pens and causes mass
mortality. Government regulations are now being considered to maintain sustainable
yields from this type of farming.
Cage culture
Fish cages are smaller and more restricted enclosures that can be staked in shallow waters
or set-up in deep water with appropriate floats and anchors. Cage farming of milkfish is
commonly carried out in marine waters along coastal bays. In the Philippines, stocking
rates are quite high, from 5 up to 30/m ³ .
ENVIRONMENTAL AND WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS

Environmental Considerations

Much concern has been raised over the potential adverse impacts of aquaculture on the
environment, especially as a result of intensive culture. The widespread destruction of mangrove
forests to give way to fish ponds has also disturbed the ecological equilibrium in a number of
coastal zones, reducing aquatic productivity and eliminating breeding and nursing grounds of
important species of fish and other aquatic life, among others.

In Negros Province in the Philippines, a continuing debate between two main industries –
aquaculture and sugar – over industry standards, remains unresolved as wastes discharged by
sugar refineries into the river used by aquaculture farms as a water source, have reportedly
caused increased temperature and acidity levels that have disastrous effects on the aquaculture
farms.

Concern that coastal aquaculture can have adverse impacts on the coastal environment has also
prompted a number of authors to suggest practical guidelines for siting and operating aquaculture
installations in mangrove systems. These guidelines include:

i. Establishment of types of aquaculture which do not involve destruction of mangroves

and associated flora and fauna (e.g. fish cages and fish pens in open water areas)
ii. Integrated aquaculture and forestry (e.g. planting of mangroves along fish pond dikes
and other nearby suitable areas)
iii. Preservation of a functional ecosystem by means of:
 establishment of aquaculture in areas already reclaimed from mangroves rather
than on productive mangrove stands, where possible;
 utilization of the least productive parts of the mangrove forest or those with the
lowest value trees;
 locating aquaculture sites toward the landward side of the mangroves to preserve
the productivity of the most productive portions for capture fishery resources; and
 ensuring that the Area occupied by ponds and other elements of the farm should be
small in relation to the overall area of the mangrove system in which they are
installed.
iv. Paying ample attention to site selection, culture installation design, and the
management of culture operations

Environmental factors affecting growth and survival of milkfish in the pond and how to
minimize it:
o Dissolved oxygen
  optimum level is 3-10 ppm, below this level is harmful to the fish;
 during sudden rains, drain water from the surface or admit water to prevent sudden
drop in salinity and temperature;
 during summer, closely monitor the water level and admit water frequently; and
 when fish are observed gasping at the surface or swimming in circles, replenish with
new water and if not possible draw water from adjoining ponds; pumps can also be
used in such emergency

o Weather Conditions
 sudden change in weather condition causes oxygen depletion in ponds;
 during sudden rains, drain water from the surface or admit water to prevent sudden
drop in salinity and temperature;
 during summer, closely monitor the water level and admit water frequently; and
 when fish are observed gasping at the surface or swimming in circles, replenish the
water to agitate the pond water.

o Salinity
 milkfish growth is retarded at 45 ppt salinity; and
 frequent water exchange should be done during the summer months

o Water Temperature
 affects metabolism of fish and consequently growth rates;
 optimum temperature is 25-32°C; and
 growth is reduced at 23°C

o pH
 indicates the presence of metabolites, photosynthetic activity and fertility of pond
water;
 high pH value indicates that the pond water is too fertile, therefore, there is a
possibility of a plankton bloom;
 low pH means the water is infertile and plankton growth is slow; and
 optimum range is 6.5−8.5; above or below this range, the water should be changed
immediately.

o Hydrogen Sulfate
 the by-product of decomposition, produced by the chemical reduction of organic
residues which accumulate at the pond bottom;
 the bottom soil turns black and smells like a rotten egg, which in turn decreases
dissolved oxygen and pH of water and fish will die at 2 ppm concentration;
 and hydrogen sulfide concentration could be reduced by water exchange and draining
the pond.
Aquaculture can produce a number of negative impacts on the environment. It is therefore
important to take environmental considerations into account in selecting the culture system to
adopt, either by reducing the extent to which aquaculture practices interfere with the ecology of
the aquatic milieu or by making the milieu itself more amenable to the aquaculture pursuit.

CULTURE PRACTICES AND OTHER CONSIDERATIONS

Culture Practices

Why MILKFISH?

o Hatchery technology for large-scale seed production is already established

o Easy to culture and can be grown in a wide range of environment
o Innovations in culture practices based on research data and farmer’s experiences have
been adopted by industry practitioner
o An important food commodity in Southeast Asia

How to culture MILKFISH?

Milkfish breeder raised at SEAFDEC/AQD

Broodstock management
o Milkfish takes about 3−5 years to attain sexual maturity and spawns under marine
conditions.
o Milkfish can be grown to broodstock size (about 3−5 kg) in earthen ponds, in marine net
cages, or in tanks
o For a start, about 100 juveniles can be stocked in a 1000 m2 pond, or 10 m diameter cage, or
200−ton tank.
o Growing juvenile milkfish to broodstock size for 3−4 years in brackish water ponds
relying mostly on natural pond productivity and occasional supplemental feeding when
needed is more cost-effective than growing them in tanks or marine cages.
o Juveniles are given commercial feed twice a day at 2−3 % of fish body weight until they
reach broodstock size.
o After 3 years or when stocks begin to mature, potential breeders in ponds should be
transferred to either concrete tanks or marine net cages.

Milkfish fry in basins produced at SEAFDEC/AQD hatchery

ready for transport to nursery ponds

Larval rearing
o Clean the larval rearing tanks (LRT) with detergent and thoroughly rinse with fresh water.
o Fill tanks to half the volume of LRT with filtered seawater a day before stocking the
larvae to stabilize the condition of the rearing water.
o Increase seawater level of the LRT daily following the protocol for water management
(see Figure x below).
o Add Nannochloropsis sp. at 300,000–500,000 cells/ml daily.
o Feed larvae with enriched rotifers (Brachionus sp.). The feeding ration is adjusted
according to the age of milkfish larvae until day 15. Following the feeding scheme
in Figure 2 will minimize the volume of rotifer needed for feeding the larvae during the
early stage. Consumption of rotifer during the early larval stages is low and gradually
increases as the larvae grow. The ration is increased to 20∈¿ ml of rotifers starting day 16
until harvest. Adjust feeding rations when the survival of fry is high or when the rotifer
density in the afternoon decreases according to the suggested daily feeding ration.
o Count the rotifer density in the morning and in the afternoon. If rotifer density falls below
the desired ration add rotifer into the LRT.
o Introduce larval diet starting day 8 at 1 g /ton /day and increase ration to 2−3 g /ton /day as
the larvae grow.
o Feeding should be done before 9 :00 am to prevent starvation of the larvae/fry.
 o Siphon the water out of the tanks starting on day 6 to remove excess food and debris.
Practice early feeding of larvae before siphoning is done. Siphon the water out of the tanks
every other day to minimize stress to the larvae.
o The rearing period of milkfish in the hatchery is 21−25 days. When the fry starts to swim
in a circular motion inside the tank, this is an indication that the fry is ready for harvest.
o Harvesting of fry is done early in the morning, 1−2 days before the scheduled transport to
have enough time for the milkfish fry to rest before transport.

Figure 1. Water and algae management of the culture water

Figure 2. Feeding management for milkfish larval rearing

Table 2. Minimum and maximum levels of different water parameters that should be observed
during larval rearing

Water parameters Minimum Maximum

Temperature (°C) 28 32
Salinity (ppt) 28 33
Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) 4 Saturation
pH 6 8
Ammonia (mg/L) <0.02
 Nitrite (mg/L) <0.01
Chlorine (mg/L) <0.02

Hand-feeding of milkfish in a grow-out cage

Cage culture operations
o Cages must be set up in calm waters to protect them from strong winds and waves. Ideal
areas are coves, sheltered lagoons, inlet bay, or behind an island with adequate water flow.
The site must also be free from harmful pollutants.
o Water depth should be at least 10 meters at the lowest low tide (ideally, 15−30 m) with
good water exchange or flushing. The substrate of the site should be coarse or sandy and
away from seagrass beds and coral reefs.
o Stock 12,000 pieces fingerlings in a 10 m x 10 m x 4 m cage.
o Hand-feed fingerlings at 8 :00 am , 12 :00 noon, and, 4 :00 pm at the center of the cage (see
table below for the feeding rates).
o Change the nets once a month or as the need arises to allow efficient water exchange.
o A partial harvest can be done when the fish reached the size of 400−500 g.

Table 3. Feeding rates

Fish weight Rate (% of fish body weight)

(g)
5-50 10
51-125 8
125-199 6
200-250 5.5
251-300 5
300-400 4
 400-500 3.5−3
>500 2.5

Table 4. Suitable water quality for cage culture of milkfish

Parameters Range
pH 7.5−8.3
Dissolved oxygen 4−8 mg/l( ppm)
Water salinity 20−32 ppt
Water temperature 26−32° C
Ammonia nitrogen less than 0.02 mg/l
Water current 0.1 m/second

Culture Techniques
Pond Engineering
The design and construction of brackish water milkfish ponds have evolved through years
of commercial practice by the private sector. Engineering principles and technologies
have recently been applied to these practices. Current pond engineering technology has
established the following:
a) criteria concerning site selection;
b) relationship between the size of gate, pond water level, and design tide curve;
c) design elevation for foundation;
d) relationship among the sizes of pond compartments according to their functions;
e) different types of layout schemes;
f) size and proportioning of dikes;
g) control of internal erosion and seepage;
h) methodology of pond construction and repair, including related facilities; and
i) construction tools and machinery.
Fertilization and growing of natural food.
Research on optimizing fertilizer use has taken into consideration the types and amounts
of elements needed, the nutrient ratios, sources of nutrients, and the frequency, time, and
methods of fertilizer application. A series of studies was conducted among traditionally
used fertilizers, and mono- and diammonium phosphate proved to be superior.
The use of artificial substrates is also promising in increasing production in brackish
water ponds. Nylon nets are set in the pond bottom to which lablab can attach and grow.
At 60% of pond area added artificial substrates, it is estimated that a 15-20% increase in
fish production is possible compared to the conventional lablab method.
Acid sulfate soil
A technology has been generated to reclaim acid sulfate soils common in new brackish
water ponds. This type of soil was found to respond poorly to phosphorus fertilization
and to release nearly lethal concentrations of aluminum and iron, leading to low
productivity. The reclamation technology involves a repeated sequence of intensive
draining, drying, and flooding before the residual acid is neutralized by liming.
Nutrition and feed development.
Nutrition studies have indicated that 40−50 % protein is required in the diet by milkfish
fry for maximum growth, efficient feed conversion, and high survival rate. High density
rearing of fry to fingerlings in an indoor system seemed feasible using a purified diet with
prophylactic treatment.
No clear-cut technology on milkfish feed formulation seems to be available. Present
practices utilize single-ingredient materials like rice bran, bread crumbs, and corn bran.
Other forms of feed ingredients used are copra meal, hog mash, dried rice straw, broken
bones, fish meal, egg yolk in small quantities, ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala) leaves,
and kangkong (Ipomoea reptans) leaves. For natural food, dried grass, filamentous green
algae, particularly phytoflagellates, and gulaman (Gracilaria sp.) are being used. Feeding
techniques, however, need to be standardized.
Freshwater production.
Milkfish pen culture has been a profitable enterprise in Laguna de Bay since the
technology was successfully demonstrated by the Laguna Lake Development Authority
in the early 1970s, with an average production of 5 t/ha per year. The industry is beset by
serious problems, such as the occurrence of destructive typhoons and high fingerling
mortality rates, seasonal off-flavor taste, and occasional fish kills. In studies conducted to
improve fish pen design and construction, criteria for site selection and several fish pen
models were recommended.
Parasites and diseases.
Environmental factors that may cause widespread infestation of fish in the pond are not
known. Knowledge of the life cycle of fish parasites is needed to devise successful
prophylactic measures. At present, the extent and kinds of diseases and parasitism in
milkfish have not been established. Various parasites and diseases affecting milkfish in
different parts of the country have been described, and it was reported that the known
diseases of economically important fish species in the Philippines includes those of
milkfish. Bacterial (Vibrio sp.) and fungal diseases and parasites (isopods and copepods)
of milkfish were described. Prophylactic treatments are known but are only effective and
adaptable in small confined areas.
 Diseases and control measures
Table 5. Major disease problems affecting milkfish
DISEASE AGENT TYPE SYNDROME MEASURES
Nematode Capillaria sp. Parasitic Emaciated, although shows Administer
infestation nematode good appetite in early stage, trichlorfon (with
then weakens, becomes caution for small
listless, loses appetite & fish);
colour pattern darkens; fin & niclosamide,
tail rot and skin patches/sores; levamisole or
faeces white & stringy/slimy; mebendazole
scrapes belly against bottom mixed in feed
or may start to tremble; larval
stage of parasite located in
muscle tissue & can be seen
through skin, appearing either
coiled up or rod-like
Anchor worm Lernaea Parasitic Parasite visible on skin, head KMnO4 bath or
disease cyprinacea copepod embedded deep in the tissues 0.8-1.1% NaCl
of the host; haemorrhages and (KMnO4 may be
open wounds at site of lethal to small
infection; weight loss; fish at dosages
respiratory difficulties; required to
sluggishness; red areas; kill Lernaea)
ulcers; scale loss; fin damage;
scraping and sometimes
hanging vertically or belly up;
parasite length 5 to 22 mm
Trichodinosis Trichodina sp Protozoan Slime covers skin like fog, 250 ml/litre
. parasite fins clamped and denuded of formalin bath for
tissue 15 min
Scolex Scolex Helminth Infestation occurs commonly None stated
infestation pleuronectis parasite in the intestine
Cryptobia Cryptobia sp. Protozoan Dark coloration; increased Treat with
Infestation parasite mucus build-up; occasional formaldehyde
appearance of skin lesions (250 ml/litre) or
followed by scale loss; 10mg/litre
difficult or rapid breathing; malachite green;
reduced appetite and weight place infected
loss; secondary bacterial fish in freshwater
infections in advanced stage bath or treat with
leading to pale and/or red skin effective
patches and skin & fin rot antibacterial
agents
 Caligus Caligus Parasitic Loss of appetite; lethargic Dip infected fish
infestation longipedis copepod swimming; excess mucus in freshwater
production; lumpy body (makes
surface transparent
parasite visible);
bathe in 150 ppm
H2 02 for 30
minutes
Production Costs
Milkfish farming is a centuries-old industry in Indonesia, Taiwan, and the Philippines. It
has been slow to modernize and now faces challenges from competing aquaculture
species and current economic realities. The domestic market is large and the export
market has globally expanded. Milkfish price and personal income affect the amount of
milkfish consumed in the countries of origin. Studies conducted in Taiwan Province of
China and the Philippines concluded that price and income had a negative and positive
elasticity coefficient, respectively.
The following are the major determining factors affecting the cost of production in
milkfish:

 type of culture system

 increasing production
 cost of feed
 low farm-gate prices
 lack of post-harvest facilities for value-adding and processing

Basic Pond Preparation Procedure

The ponds should be prepared 1 ¿ 1½ months ahead in order to obtain luxuriant growth of natural
food prior to stocking of milkfish fry or fingerlings. The procedures are as follows:
a) Check and repair sluice gates and dikes for leaks and seepage.
b) Eradicate competitors and predators
c) Drain the pond, level the pond bottom and dry for 1−2 weeks until the soil cracks.
Prolong drying is not advisable as it makes the soil hard, powdery and acidic.
d) Apply 1 ton/ha / yr (or higher depending on soil pH) agricultural lime and overturn soil
by plowing.
e) Provide screen made of fine-meshed nylon netting to sluice gates to prevent the entrance
of unwanted organisms.
f) Admit water to moisten the pond bottom. Apply chicken manure at 1 ¿ 2tons per hectare
depending on soil quality and leave for 2 ¿ 3 days.
g) Introduce new tidal water to a depth barely covering the pond bottom;
h) Apply 15 kg /ha Urea (45-0-0) by broadcasting after 2 days to accelerate decomposition of
chicken manure.
i) After 3 days, increase water depth by 3 ¿ 5 cm and apply inorganic fertilizer (16-20-0) at
50 kg /ha or 18-46-0 at 20 kg /ha).
j) Subsequent applications of inorganic fertilizers (16-20-0 at 30 kg /ha or 18- 46-0 at
10 kg /ha ¿ at 1−2 weeks interval should be undertaken depending on lab-lab growth.
k) Apply inorganic fertilizers only after addition or replacement with new tidal water.
l) Avoid application of fertilizers during rainy days.
m) Increase water depth of the pond gradually by adding 3 ¿ 5 cm at a time until it reaches
25 ¿ 30 cm
n) Install artificial net substrate to increase food production and provides additional feeding
area for the fish
o) When lab-lab covers 75 % of the pond bottom, carefully flush the pond 2 ¿ 3׿ to get rid
of highly saline water and/or toxic substances and maintain water level at 30 cm
REFERENCES
Bagarinao, T.U. 1991. Biology of milkfish (Chanos chanos Forsskal). Iloilo, Philippines:
Aquaculture Department, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center.
https://core.ac.uk/reader/10863360
DA. 2008. Fisheries Commodity Road Map: Milkfish. Department of Agriculture (DA) Fisheries
Policy and Economics Division. Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources.
https://www.bfar.da.gov.ph/files/img/photos/roadmapmilkfish-2008.pdf
FAO. 2009. Chanos chanos (Forsskal, 1775) [Chanidae]. Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO) of the United Nations. Text by Nelson, A.L. & Marygrace C.Q. Edited and
compiled
by Crespi, V. and New, M.
https://www.fao.org/fishery/docs/CDrom/aquaculture/I1129m/file/en/en_milkfish.htm
FAO. n.d. General Considerations in the Choice of Culture System/Approach. Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations.
https://www.fao.org/3/t8598e/t8598e04.htm
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Tacio, H.D. 2010. Bangus or Milkfish Cultivation Sytems in the Philippines. Gaia Discovery.
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Philippines: Published by Island Pub. House in association with the Aquaculture
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Yap, W.G., Villaluz, A.C., Soriano, M.G.G., & Santos, M.N. 2007. Milkfish Production and
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