INSTITUTE OF COMMERCE AND MANAGEMENT

UNIVERSITY OF SINDH JAMSHORO, SINDH

Logical and Critical Thinking

Course No: COM 562
BS Commerce Part III Evening

Unit 03

The Structure of an Argument and

Critical Thinking in Decision Making

Learning Outcomes:

 Introduction

 The Structure of an Argument

 Components of an argument: premises and conclusion

 Concept of valid and sound arguments

 Relationship between critical thinking and effective decision making

 Cognitive biases and how they can affect decision making

 Summary

Course Title: COM 562 Logical and Critical Thinking Course Instructor: Ahmed Jamali
 INSTITUTE OF COMMERCE AND MANAGEMENT
UNIVERSITY OF SINDH JAMSHORO, SINDH

1. Introduction

In the complex landscape of human communication and decision-making, the ability to construct
and analyze arguments while employing critical thinking skills is paramount. Whether you are
engaging in a debate, composing an essay, evaluating competing ideas, or making significant life
choices, a foundational understanding of the structure of an argument and the principles of critical
thinking can serve as invaluable tools.

The structure of an argument serves as the scaffolding upon which compelling ideas are built.
Arguments are not merely clashes of opinions, but rather structured expressions of reasoned
thought. A well-structured argument encompasses a set of premises that provide the foundation
and support for a central conclusion. These premises are interconnected through a process of
inference or reasoning, where the logical flow from evidence to conclusion is carefully established.
The clarity, precision, and coherence of this structure are fundamental to the effectiveness of any
argument.

Critical thinking, on the other hand, is the engine that drives the construction and assessment of
arguments. It is the process by which individuals evaluate information, consider multiple
perspectives, and make informed decisions. Critical thinking entails the ability to identify and
challenge assumptions, recognize biases, and apply various reasoning methods, such as deductive
and inductive reasoning, to assess the strength of arguments. It is a skill that empowers individuals
to navigate the complexities of the world with discernment, fostering better decision-making in
both personal and professional spheres.

Ultimately, mastering the art of constructing sound arguments and honing critical thinking skills
equips individuals with the tools needed to engage in meaningful dialogue, evaluate the validity
of claims, and make informed decisions that can profoundly impact their lives and the world
around them.

Course Title: COM 562 Logical and Critical Thinking Course Instructor: Ahmed Jamali
 INSTITUTE OF COMMERCE AND MANAGEMENT
UNIVERSITY OF SINDH JAMSHORO, SINDH

2. The Structure of an Argument

The structure of an argument is the framework that helps convey a logical and persuasive line of
reasoning. Arguments are used in various contexts, from everyday conversations to academic
essays and formal debates. A well-structured argument typically consists of several key
components:

1. Premises: Premises are statements or propositions that provide the evidence or reasons for
accepting a particular conclusion. They form the foundation of the argument and are meant
to support the conclusion. Premises can be factual claims, general principles, or
assumptions.

2. Conclusion: The conclusion is the central point or claim that the argument seeks to
establish or persuade others to accept. It is the outcome or result of the premises' support.

3. Inference or Reasoning: Inference or reasoning connects the premises to the conclusion.

It explains how the evidence or reasons provided in the premises lead to the conclusion.
There are various types of reasoning, including deductive and inductive.

 Deductive Reasoning: In deductive reasoning, the conclusion necessarily follows

from the premises. If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. It's airtight
reasoning. An example is a syllogism: "All humans are mortal (premise 1), Socrates
is a human (premise 2), therefore Socrates is mortal (conclusion)."

 Inductive Reasoning: Inductive reasoning involves making a generalization based

on observed evidence. It is probabilistic, and the conclusion is not guaranteed to be
true. An example is "The sun has risen every day in the past (premise), so it will
likely rise tomorrow (conclusion)."

4. Support: The premises are intended to provide support for the conclusion. The strength
and relevance of this support are critical in assessing the quality of an argument. Strong
support makes the argument more persuasive.

Course Title: COM 562 Logical and Critical Thinking Course Instructor: Ahmed Jamali
 INSTITUTE OF COMMERCE AND MANAGEMENT
UNIVERSITY OF SINDH JAMSHORO, SINDH

5. Counterarguments: A well-structured argument may acknowledge counterarguments or

opposing viewpoints. Addressing counterarguments can strengthen the argument by
demonstrating that the author has considered alternative perspectives and has reasons for
rejecting them.

6. Transitions: Transitions are words or phrases that help guide the reader or listener through
the argument's structure. They indicate relationships between premises and conclusions.
Common transitions include "therefore," "because," "since," "however," and "on the other
hand."

7. Clarity and Precision: A well-structured argument is clear and precise in its presentation.
Each premise and the conclusion should be clearly stated, with no ambiguity. The language
used should be unambiguous and free from fallacies.

8. Validity and Soundness (for deductive arguments): In deductive arguments, validity and
soundness are crucial criteria. Validity means that the conclusion follows logically from
the premises, while soundness additionally requires that the premises are true. A valid
argument with true premises is considered sound.

9. Credibility and Evidence (for inductive arguments): In inductive arguments, the

credibility of the evidence and the strength of the reasoning play a significant role. The
more reliable the evidence and the stronger the reasoning, the more persuasive the
argument.

10. Audience Awareness: Consideration of the audience is important. Tailoring the argument
to the intended audience's knowledge, beliefs, and values can enhance its persuasiveness.

Remember that the quality of an argument depends on the logical coherence of its structure and
the strength of its premises and reasoning.

A well-structured argument should be able to withstand scrutiny and engage with opposing
viewpoints effectively.

Course Title: COM 562 Logical and Critical Thinking Course Instructor: Ahmed Jamali
 INSTITUTE OF COMMERCE AND MANAGEMENT
UNIVERSITY OF SINDH JAMSHORO, SINDH

3. Components of an argument: premises and conclusion

The structure of an argument consists of two main components: premises and a conclusion.
Understanding these components is essential for evaluating the quality and validity of an argument.

Premises:

 Premises are statements or propositions that provide the evidence or reasons for
believing a certain conclusion. They are the building blocks of an argument and are
meant to support the conclusion.

 Premises can be either explicit or implicit. Explicit premises are stated directly,
while implicit premises are assumed but not explicitly mentioned.

 Example: In the argument, "All humans are mortal (premise 1), Socrates is a human
(premise 2), therefore Socrates is mortal (conclusion)," the premises are "All
humans are mortal" and "Socrates is a human."

2. Conclusion:

 The conclusion is the statement that the argument is attempting to prove or persuade
the audience to accept. It is the inference or outcome drawn from the premises.

 In a valid argument, if the premises are true, the conclusion must also be true.

 Example: In the argument mentioned earlier, the conclusion is "Socrates is mortal."

Course Title: COM 562 Logical and Critical Thinking Course Instructor: Ahmed Jamali
 INSTITUTE OF COMMERCE AND MANAGEMENT
UNIVERSITY OF SINDH JAMSHORO, SINDH

4. Concept of valid and sound arguments

Valid Argument:

 An argument is valid if its premises logically entail its conclusion. In other words, if we
assume that all the premises are true, then the conclusion must also be true.

 Validity is concerned with the logical structure of the argument, not the truth of the
premises.

 Even if the premises of a valid argument are false, the argument is still considered valid if
the conclusion logically follows from those premises.

 Example:

 Argument 1: All humans are immortal. Socrates is a human. Therefore, Socrates is

immortal.

 While the premises are false, this argument is valid because the conclusion follows
logically from the premises.

Sound Argument:

 An argument is sound if it is both valid and all of its premises are true. A sound argument
is not only logically valid but also based on accurate information or true statements.

 Sound arguments are considered strong and reliable because they have a solid logical
foundation and rely on true premises.

 Example:

 Argument 2: All humans are mortal. Socrates is a human. Therefore, Socrates is

mortal.

 This argument is both valid (the conclusion logically follows from the premises)
and sound (the premises are true).

Course Title: COM 562 Logical and Critical Thinking Course Instructor: Ahmed Jamali
 INSTITUTE OF COMMERCE AND MANAGEMENT
UNIVERSITY OF SINDH JAMSHORO, SINDH

5. Relationship between critical thinking and effective decision making

Critical thinking and effective decision making are closely interconnected processes. Critical
thinking is the ability to analyze, evaluate, and synthesize information to form well-reasoned
judgments and conclusions. It provides the intellectual foundation for making sound decisions.
Here's how they are related:

1. Information Assessment: Critical thinking involves assessing information for accuracy,

relevance, and credibility. When making decisions, you need to rely on accurate and
relevant data to ensure the choices you make are well-informed.

2. Problem Identification: Critical thinking helps identify the core issues or problems that
need to be addressed before making a decision. It ensures you don't jump to conclusions or
make decisions based on superficial analysis.

3. Evidence Evaluation: Critical thinking involves evaluating the evidence and arguments
supporting different options. Effective decision making requires considering the strengths
and weaknesses of each choice and weighing the evidence.

4. Rational Analysis: Critical thinking promotes logical and rational analysis. Decisions that
are based on reason and evidence are more likely to lead to desirable outcomes.

5. Anticipating Consequences: Critical thinkers are skilled at considering the potential

consequences of their decisions. They can anticipate both immediate and long-term effects,
which is crucial for making choices that align with desired goals.

6. Minimizing Bias: Critical thinking helps individuals recognize and mitigate cognitive
biases that can cloud judgment. By being aware of these biases, decision makers can strive
for more impartial and objective choices.

Course Title: COM 562 Logical and Critical Thinking Course Instructor: Ahmed Jamali
 INSTITUTE OF COMMERCE AND MANAGEMENT
UNIVERSITY OF SINDH JAMSHORO, SINDH

6. Cognitive biases and how they can affect decision making

Cognitive biases are systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment, often
leading to perceptual distortion, inaccurate judgment, illogical interpretation, or what is broadly
called irrationality.

They can significantly affect decision making by introducing errors and irrationality into the
process. Some common cognitive biases include:

1. Confirmation Bias: The tendency to favor information that confirms one's preexisting
beliefs or values while ignoring or dismissing conflicting information. This bias can lead
to decisions based on incomplete or biased evidence.

2. Availability Heuristic: Relying on readily available information or recent examples when

making decisions, rather than considering a broader range of data. This can result in
overlooking less obvious but important factors.

3. Anchoring Bias: The tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information
encountered when making decisions. This can anchor your judgment in a particular
direction, even if that information is irrelevant or misleading.

4. Hindsight Bias: The inclination to see events as having been predictable after they have
already occurred. This can lead to overconfidence in one's ability to predict outcomes.

5. Overconfidence Bias: Overestimating one's own abilities, knowledge, or predictions,

leading to risky or ill-considered decisions.

Course Title: COM 562 Logical and Critical Thinking Course Instructor: Ahmed Jamali
 INSTITUTE OF COMMERCE AND MANAGEMENT
UNIVERSITY OF SINDH JAMSHORO, SINDH

7. Summary

The Structure of an Argument and Critical Thinking in Decision Making explores the fundamental
concepts and skills necessary for effective argumentation and decision-making. It delves into the
interconnected topics of argument construction, logical reasoning, and critical thinking to
empower individuals in various aspects of their lives.

In understanding the structure of an argument, the text emphasizes that arguments are more than
mere clashes of opinions. They consist of a central conclusion supported by premises, with
inference or reasoning linking them. Key elements such as clarity, precision, coherence, and
support are vital for constructing compelling arguments. Differentiating between deductive and
inductive reasoning is highlighted, with deductive reasoning offering logically airtight conclusions
based on true premises, while inductive reasoning involves probabilistic generalizations drawn
from evidence.

Critical thinking emerges as a crucial tool for evaluating arguments and making informed
decisions. This skill involves recognizing and challenging assumptions, addressing biases, and
applying reasoned judgment. It empowers individuals to navigate a world awash with information,
fostering discernment and facilitating better decision-making.

By honing the ability to construct and analyze arguments and by sharpening critical thinking skills,
individuals can engage in more meaningful discourse, assess the validity of claims, and make
informed choices. The journey through this exploration equips readers with transformative tools
to enhance their personal and professional lives.

The End.
Course Title: COM 562 Logical and Critical Thinking Course Instructor: Ahmed Jamali
 INSTITUTE OF COMMERCE AND MANAGEMENT
UNIVERSITY OF SINDH JAMSHORO, SINDH

Assignment
Components of an Argument: Premises and Conclusion: Choose a recent news article or
opinion piece. Identify the premises and conclusion in the article's argument. Evaluate whether the
premises adequately support the conclusion. Discuss any potential fallacies in the argument.

Concept of Valid and Sound Arguments: Provide two different arguments. One should be valid
but unsound, and the other should be both valid and sound. Explain why one argument is valid but
unsound and why the other is both valid and sound. Use real-life examples or hypothetical
scenarios to illustrate your points.

Relationship between Critical Thinking and Effective Decision Making: Describe a personal
or professional decision you've had to make recently. Analyze the role critical thinking played in
your decision-making process. Explain how critical thinking helped you make an effective
decision or how a lack of critical thinking may have led to a suboptimal decision.

Cognitive Biases and How They Can Affect Decision Making: Choose a cognitive bias (e.g.,
confirmation bias, availability heuristic, or anchoring bias) and research it. Provide examples of
how this bias can affect decision making in everyday life or in specific fields such as marketing,
finance, or healthcare. Discuss strategies to mitigate the impact of the chosen bias.

“The journey of a student is like embarking on a grand adventure. Just as a traveler explores new
lands, you explore the vast realms of knowledge. Remember, it's not about reaching the
destination quickly, but about savoring each step along the way. Challenges and setbacks are the
road signs that guide you, not obstacles that stop you. Embrace them as opportunities to learn
and grow. With each day of dedication and each night of hard work, you're forging your path
towards a brighter future.”

So, keep your eyes on the horizon, your heart full of determination, and let the journey
itself become your greatest teacher.

Course Title: COM 562 Logical and Critical Thinking Course Instructor: Ahmed Jamali