1.

1 Structure of earth and formation of rocks:

Earth is made up of 4 layers:

1. Crust (made up of cold or solid rocks).

2. Mantle (made up pf molten rocks called magma, when erupted called lava).

3. Outer core (made up of Iron and Nickle at liquid state).

4. Inner core (made up of Iron and Nickle at solid state due to the high pressure).

Formation of rocks

Rocks are made up of minerals (mineral=inorganic substances with specific chemical

composition)

Types of rocks

1. Igneous rocks:

They are formed when the magma cools down and solidified.
Igneous rocks consist of crystals.
Ex: Granite and Basalt
2. Sedimentary rocks:

They are formed of layers (sediments) fragments of rock, particles of sand , clay, and
remains of dead plants and animals. These layers accumulated and compressed over
time to form sedimentary rocks.

sedimentary rocks do not consist of crystals.

Ex : Limestone , sandstone, shale.

3. Metamorphic rocks:

Originally they are either igneous or sedimentary rock have changed by heat and
pressure to give metamorphic rock.

Metamorphic rock can also change into a new metamorphic rock by action of heat and
pressure. Metamorphic rocks consist of crystals.
Ex : Marble and slate .

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The below summaries the characteristics of the three types of rocks:

Igneous rock Sedimentary Metamorphic

Made from liquid magma. Made from other rock
fragments.
Magma cools down to Rock fragments buried
form solid rock. and increased pressure
forms rock.
Mineral crystals are Mineral crystals are
present absent
Made from existing rock.
The original rock is
changed by heat and
pressure.
Mineral crystals are
present

No fossils present fossils may be present No fossils present

The rock cycle:

A diagram represents the three types of rocks and the processes involved in changes between
them.

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1.2 Extraction of rocks and minerals from the earth:

Mineral: is any substance obtained by mining.

Ore: a rock contains a valuable metal (mineral).

Minerals can be metallic and non- metallic:

Metallic such like:

Gold and silver used in jewelries.

Cupper is used in electrical wires.

Iron is used in buildings and industries.

Potassium is used as fertilizer.

Non-metallic such like:

Oil and coal used as fuel.

Dimond is used for drilling and digging machines.

Limestone is used in buildings, cement manufacturing, and fertilizer to neutralizes the

effect of the acid rain.

Mineral exploration:

Exploration = searching or looking for minerals.

There are many methods\ techniques are used for mineral exploration:

1. Prospecting: looking for mineral at surface of rocks.

2. Remote sensing and satellite: this technique provides images and aerial pictures,
which then analyzed by using computers to give indicators of mineral deposits.

3. Geochemistry (Geochemical analysis): identification of chemical properties of the

rocks could give clues for mineral presences.

4. Geophysics: this technique depends on sending waves or vibrations (seismic waves)

through the earth surface, reflected waves with different patterns depend on what minerals are
present detected by sensors on the earth surface and then analyzed using computers to give
information about minerals in this area. This method is close to echo- location system in the
bats.

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 Methods of mining:

1. Surface mining: this method is used when the mineral deposit located close to earth
surface

It includes:

A. Open-pit (open-cast or open-cut) mining.

Open-pit mines are dug in sections called benches designed in a proper way to avoid
collapsing and sliding.

In some cases open pits stop working either because depletion of mineral deposit or removing
of overburden has increased to extent that mining is not profitable.

B. Strip mining: this method is used when a mineral founded as seam \band (ex: coal).

Generally surface mining includes the following steps:

1. Removing of topsoil and overburden layer( layer that does not contain the mineral or
worthless materials).

2. Using explosives to loosen or break down the ore.

3. Using diggers to remove loosen rocks.

4. Load ores in trucks in order to extract the minerals.

2. Sub-surface mining: this method is used when mineral deposits located at deep soil or
away from earth surfaces.

Shaft mining and deep mining are examples of Sub-surface mining.

Generally sub- surface mining includes the following steps:

1. Removing of topsoil and overburden layer.

2. Sink vertical shafts to reach the mineral deposit.

3. Build horizontal tunnels through mineral layer.

4. Use machines to cut or break down the minerals.

5. Lifting minerals to the surface.(using elevators).

Factors affecting decision of mining \ the viability of extraction of minerals:

1. The cost of mining: generally sub-surface mining is more expensive than surface mining.

2. Geology: presence of mineral in different geological structure may affect decision of

mining.

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3. Climate: if a mine is located in places with extreme weather conditions (very hot or very
cold) may results in cancelling mining.

4. Accessibility and transportation: is it easy to get to the mine and easy to transport
minerals to the market.

5. The environmental impact: mining companies are asked to write a report ( Environmental
Impact assessment) about the environmental damage as result of mining in order to get the
license for mining.

6. Supply and demand (price) : if there is high supply (less demand) prices will fall, mining
companies will stop mining, and vice versa.

7. The deposit size (depletion rate): big deposit size are more favorable than small ones.

8. The quality\ grade (purity) of minerals: high grade ores are more likely to mined.

1.3 Impacts of rock and minerals extraction:

A. Environmental impacts:

Generally mining affects the environment negatively in different forms:

1. Ecological impacts:

Removing of top soil and overburden layer results in soil erosion , and habitat loss , which in
turn results in die of living things(extinction) and as a consequence biodiversity will be
affected (less biodiversity).

2. Pollution:

Mining results in different types of pollution:

Noise pollution:

Using of machines, truck and explosives causing noise to local people.

Land pollution:

Land could polluted by the wastes of mining, in some cases land may not support plant
growth.

Air Pollution:

-Emissions from trucks, machines and chimneys of factories contribute to air pollution.

-Dust from releasing topsoil and overburden layer which settle on plants may affect plant
growth , leaves will be able to absorb light, then the rate of photosynthesis decreased.

Visual pollution:

Mining left with piles of wastes and scares on landform which look unsightly and damage and
spoil the scenic beauty of the area.

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Water pollution:

This type of pollution occurs when wastes of mining drain or discharge into water bodies or
streams. The water may become acidic and then dissolve toxic metal ions. This leads to
higher concentration of ions-higher than the normal- in living organisms
(Bioaccumulation),then the concentration increased further throw higher organism in the food
chain or food web (Biomagnifications).

B. Economic impacts:

Economically, mining has positive impacts for government and local people:

Government: mining considers as source of income in form of taxation , license, and

exporting of mineral provides more income of foreign currency , which improve national
economic and that reflects in developing of infrastructure ( schools , hospitals , roads ,and
power plants.) therefore benefit the whole population of the country.

Local people: mining provides employment and job opportunities, and if the minerals are
processed in the same country that would provide more jobs.

- Deep mining is more dangerous because:

1. High risk of roof collapsing.

2. less chance of surviving in case of flooding and fire.

3. Miners work at extreme condition (high temperature, less supply of oxygen).

4. Some mines ignore safety measurements.

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1.4. Managing the impacts of rocks and minerals exploration:

A. safe disposal of wastes:

Wastes should be disposed in a safe way to prevent the possibility of land and water pollution.

B. Land restoration and bioremediation:

Mining left with big holes and pits on landscape, land should be restored (return to first
shape), sometimes the wastes and overburden layer are used to reshape the landform (bury the
big pits and holes) , then it covers with a layer of soil and fertilizer , then the area can used for
planting trees and then enrich the ecosystem..

Some wastes don’t allow plants to grow instead; either they are treated at the mine (in situ)
by using microorganisms and this referred to Bioremediation, or could be transported to
another facility for treatment (ex situ).

Large holes and pits could be used as a reservoir to harvest rainwater and might used for
irrigation and drinking, or in some cases they are used as landfill side for dumping household
waste in a proper way to prevent waste and toxic materials from leaking and results in land
pollution.

1.5 Sustainable use of rocks and minerals:

minerals are found in a finite amounts ( non-renewable), so they should be used in a

sustainable manner.

Sustainability: the use that meet the needs of the present without affecting the ability of future
generations to meet their needs.

How we could make exploration of rocks and minerals more sustainable:

A. Efficiency of extraction:

This approach could be achieved by:

Processing of the mine wastes again to increased amount of minerals extracted and reduce
the pollution, this include chemical and biological treatment.

Improve the performance of machines used; develop new technologies and using of
computers.

B. Efficiency of use and recycling:

This strategy focusing on using less amount of minerals in industries , using of alternatives
for ex using of fiber optics (silica) rather copper wires , and recycling by using metals and
minerals again and again to prolong life expectancy of minerals and saving more energy.

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